The Riemann zeta function or Euler–Riemann zeta function, denoted by the Greek letter (zeta), is a mathematical function of a complex variable defined as for and its analytic continuation elsewhere.
The Riemann zeta function plays a pivotal role in analytic number theory, and has applications in physics, probability theory, and applied statistics.
Leonhard Euler first introduced and studied the function over the reals in the first half of the eighteenth century. Bernhard Riemann's 1859 article "On the Number of Primes Less Than a Given Magnitude" extended the Euler definition to a complex variable, proved its meromorphic continuation and functional equation, and established a relation between its zeros and the distribution of prime numbers. This paper also contained the Riemann hypothesis, a conjecture about the distribution of complex zeros of the Riemann zeta function that many mathematicians consider the most important unsolved problem in pure mathematics.[1]
The values of the Riemann zeta function at even positive integers were computed by Euler. The first of them,, provides a solution to the Basel problem. In 1979 Roger Apéry proved the irrationality of . The values at negative integer points, also found by Euler, are rational numbers and play an important role in the theory of modular forms. Many generalizations of the Riemann zeta function, such as Dirichlet series, Dirichlet -functions and -functions, are known.
The Riemann zeta function is a function of a complex variable, where and are real numbers. (The notation,, and is used traditionally in the study of the zeta function, following Riemann.) When, the function can be written as a converging summation or as an integral:
\zeta(s)
| ||||
=\sum | ||||
n=1 |
=
1 | |
\Gamma(s) |
infty | |
\int | |
0 |
xs-1 | |
ex-1 |
dx,
\Gamma(s)=
infty | |
\int | |
0 |
xs-1e-xdx
Leonhard Euler considered the above series in 1740 for positive integer values of, and later Chebyshev extended the definition to
\operatorname{Re}(s)>1.
The above series is a prototypical Dirichlet series that converges absolutely to an analytic function for such that and diverges for all other values of . Riemann showed that the function defined by the series on the half-plane of convergence can be continued analytically to all complex values . For, the series is the harmonic series which diverges to, and Thus the Riemann zeta function is a meromorphic function on the whole complex plane, which is holomorphic everywhere except for a simple pole at with residue .
In 1737, the connection between the zeta function and prime numbers was discovered by Euler, who proved the identity
| ||||
\sum | ||||
n=1 |
=\prodp
1 | |
1-p-s |
,
where, by definition, the left hand side is and the infinite product on the right hand side extends over all prime numbers (such expressions are called Euler products):
\prodp
1 | |
1-p-s |
=
1 | ⋅ | |
1-2-s |
1 | ⋅ | |
1-3-s |
1 | ⋅ | |
1-5-s |
1 | ⋅ | |
1-7-s |
1 | |
1-11-s |
…
1 | |
1-p-s |
…
Both sides of the Euler product formula converge for . The proof of Euler's identity uses only the formula for the geometric series and the fundamental theorem of arithmetic. Since the harmonic series, obtained when, diverges, Euler's formula (which becomes) implies that there are infinitely many primes.[3] Since the logarithm of is approximately, the formula can also be used to prove the stronger result that the sum of the reciprocals of the primes is infinite. On the other hand, combining that with the sieve of Eratosthenes shows that the density of the set of primes within the set of positive integers is zero.
The Euler product formula can be used to calculate the asymptotic probability that randomly selected integers are set-wise coprime. Intuitively, the probability that any single number is divisible by a prime (or any integer) is . Hence the probability that numbers are all divisible by this prime is, and the probability that at least one of them is not is . Now, for distinct primes, these divisibility events are mutually independent because the candidate divisors are coprime (a number is divisible by coprime divisors and if and only if it is divisible by , an event which occurs with probability ). Thus the asymptotic probability that numbers are coprime is given by a product over all primes,
\prodp\left(1-
1 | |
ps |
\right)=\left(\prodp
1 | |
1-p-s |
\right)-1=
1 | |
\zeta(s) |
.
This zeta function satisfies the functional equationwhere is the gamma function. This is an equality of meromorphic functions valid on the whole complex plane. The equation relates values of the Riemann zeta function at the points and, in particular relating even positive integers with odd negative integers. Owing to the zeros of the sine function, the functional equation implies that has a simple zero at each even negative integer, known as the trivial zeros of . When is an even positive integer, the product on the right is non-zero because has a simple pole, which cancels the simple zero of the sine factor.
The functional equation was established by Riemann in his 1859 paper "On the Number of Primes Less Than a Given Magnitude" and used to construct the analytic continuation in the first place.
An equivalent relationship had been conjectured by Euler over a hundred years earlier, in 1749, for the Dirichlet eta function (the alternating zeta function):
Incidentally, this relation gives an equation for calculating in the region 0 < < 1, i.e.where the η-series is convergent (albeit non-absolutely) in the larger half-plane (for a more detailed survey on the history of the functional equation, see e.g. Blagouchine[4] [5]).
Riemann also found a symmetric version of the functional equation applying to the xi-function:which satisfies:
(Riemann's original was slightly different.)
The
\pi-s/2\Gamma(s/2)
See main article: Riemann hypothesis. The functional equation shows that the Riemann zeta function has zeros at . These are called the trivial zeros. They are trivial in the sense that their existence is relatively easy to prove, for example, from being 0 in the functional equation. The non-trivial zeros have captured far more attention because their distribution not only is far less understood but, more importantly, their study yields important results concerning prime numbers and related objects in number theory. It is known that any non-trivial zero lies in the open strip
\{s\inC:0<\operatorname{Re}(s)<1\}
\{s\inC:\operatorname{Re}(s)=1/2\}
For the Riemann zeta function on the critical line, see -function.
Zero | |
---|---|
1/2 ± 14.134725 i | |
1/2 ± 21.022040 i | |
1/2 ± 25.010858 i | |
1/2 ± 30.424876 i | |
1/2 ± 32.935062 i | |
1/2 ± 37.586178 i | |
1/2 ± 40.918719 i |
Let
N(T)
\zeta(s)
0<\operatorname{Re}(s)<1
0<\operatorname{Im}(s)<T
T>e
\left|N(T)-
T | log{ | |
2\pi |
T | |
2\pie |
In 1914, Godfrey Harold Hardy proved that has infinitely many real zeros.[10]
Hardy and John Edensor Littlewood formulated two conjectures on the density and distance between the zeros of on intervals of large positive real numbers. In the following, is the total number of real zeros and the total number of zeros of odd order of the function lying in the interval .These two conjectures opened up new directions in the investigation of the Riemann zeta function.
The location of the Riemann zeta function's zeros is of great importance in number theory. The prime number theorem is equivalent to the fact that there are no zeros of the zeta function on the line.[11] A better result[12] that follows from an effective form of Vinogradov's mean-value theorem is that whenever
\sigma\ge1-
1 | |
57.54(log{|t| |
| |||||||||||
) |
In 2015, Mossinghoff and Trudgian proved[13] that zeta has no zeros in the region
\sigma\ge1-
1 | |
5.573412log|t| |
3.06 ⋅ 1010<|t|<\exp(10151.5) ≈ 5.5 ⋅ 104408
The strongest result of this kind one can hope for is the truth of the Riemann hypothesis, which would have many profound consequences in the theory of numbers.
It is known that there are infinitely many zeros on the critical line. Littlewood showed that if the sequence contains the imaginary parts of all zeros in the upper half-plane in ascending order, then
\limn → infty\left(\gamman+1-\gamman\right)=0.
The critical line theorem asserts that a positive proportion of the nontrivial zeros lies on the critical line. (The Riemann hypothesis would imply that this proportion is 1.)
In the critical strip, the zero with smallest non-negative imaginary part is . The fact that
\zeta(s)=\overline{\zeta(\overline{s})}
It is also known that no zeros lie on the line with real part 1.
See main article: Particular values of the Riemann zeta function. For any positive even integer,
(2\pi)^ |
For nonpositive integers, one hasfor (using the convention that).In particular, vanishes at the negative even integers because for all odd other than 1. These are the so-called "trivial zeros" of the zeta function.
Via analytic continuation, one can show thatThis gives a pretext for assigning a finite value to the divergent series 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + ⋯, which has been used in certain contexts (Ramanujan summation) such as string theory.[14] Analogously, the particular valuecan be viewed as assigning a finite result to the divergent series 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + ⋯.
The value is employed in calculating kinetic boundary layer problems of linear kinetic equations.[15] [16]
Althoughdiverges, its Cauchy principal valueexists and is equal to the Euler–Mascheroni constant .[17]
The demonstration of the particular valueis known as the Basel problem. The reciprocal of this sum answers the question: What is the probability that two numbers selected at random are relatively prime?[18] The value is Apéry's constant.
Taking the limit
s → +infty
\zeta(+infty)=1
For sums involving the zeta function at integer and half-integer values, see rational zeta series.
The reciprocal of the zeta function may be expressed as a Dirichlet series over the Möbius function :
1 | |
\zeta(s) |
=
infty | |
\sum | |
n=1 |
\mu(n) | |
ns |
The Riemann hypothesis is equivalent to the claim that this expression is valid when the real part of is greater than .
The critical strip of the Riemann zeta function has the remarkable property of universality. This zeta function universality states that there exists some location on the critical strip that approximates any holomorphic function arbitrarily well. Since holomorphic functions are very general, this property is quite remarkable. The first proof of universality was provided by Sergei Mikhailovitch Voronin in 1975.[20] More recent work has included effective versions of Voronin's theorem[21] and extending it to Dirichlet L-functions.[22] [23]
Let the functions and be defined by the equalities
F(T;H)=max|t-T|\le\left|\zeta\left(\tfrac{1}{2}+it\right)\right|, G(s0;\Delta)=
max | |
|s-s0|\le\Delta |
|\zeta(s)|.
Here is a sufficiently large positive number,,,, . Estimating the values and from below shows, how large (in modulus) values can take on short intervals of the critical line or in small neighborhoods of points lying in the critical strip .
The case was studied by Kanakanahalli Ramachandra; the case, where is a sufficiently large constant, is trivial.
Anatolii Karatsuba proved,[24] [25] in particular, that if the values and exceed certain sufficiently small constants, then the estimates
F(T;H)\ge
-c1 | |
T |
, G(s0;\Delta)\ge
-c2 | |
T |
,
hold, where and are certain absolute constants.
The function
S(t)=
1 | |
\pi |
\arg{\zeta\left(\tfrac12+it\right)}
There are some theorems on properties of the function . Among those results[26] [27] are the mean value theorems for and its first integral
S1(t)=
t | |
\int | |
0 |
S(u)du
H\ge
| |||||
T |
H\sqrt[3]{lnT}e-c\sqrt{lnln
H\ge
| ||||
T |
.
An extension of the area of convergence can be obtained by rearranging the original series. The series
\zeta(s)= | 1 |
s-1 |
infty | ||
\sum | \left( | |
n=1 |
n | - | |
(n+1)s |
n-s | |
ns |
\right)
\zeta(s)=
1 | |
s-1 |
| |||||
\sum | \left( | ||||
n=1 |
2n+3+s | - | |
(n+1)s+2 |
2n-1-s | |
ns+2 |
\right)
The recurrence connection is clearly visible from the expression valid for enabling further expansion by integration by parts.
\begin{aligned} \zeta(s)=&1+
1 | - | |
s-1 |
s | |
2! |
[\zeta(s+1)-1]\\ -&
s(s+1) | |
3! |
[\zeta(s+2)-1]\\ &-
s(s+1)(s+2) | |
3! |
infty | |
\sum | |
n=1 |
1 | |
\int | |
0 |
t3dt | |
(n+t)s+3 |
\end{aligned}
The Mellin transform of a function is defined as[29]
infty | |
\int | |
0 |
f(x)xs
dx | |
x |
in the region where the integral is defined. There are various expressions for the zeta function as Mellin transform-like integrals. If the real part of is greater than one, we have
\Gamma(s)\zeta(s)
| ||||
=\int | ||||
0 |
dx
\Gamma(s)\zeta(s)=
1{2s}\int | |
0 |
| ||||
dx
where denotes the gamma function. By modifying the contour, Riemann showed that
2\sin(\pis)\Gamma(s)\zeta(s)=i\ointH
(-x)s-1 | |
ex-1 |
dx
for all (where denotes the Hankel contour).
We can also find expressions which relate to prime numbers and the prime number theorem. If is the prime-counting function, then
ln\zeta(s)=s
infty | |
\int | |
0 |
\pi(x) | |
x(xs-1) |
dx,
for values with .
A similar Mellin transform involves the Riemann function, which counts prime powers with a weight of, so that
J(x)=\sum
| ||||||||||
n |
.
Now
ln\zeta(s)=
infty | |
s\int | |
0 |
J(x)x-s-1dx.
These expressions can be used to prove the prime number theorem by means of the inverse Mellin transform. Riemann's prime-counting function is easier to work with, and can be recovered from it by Möbius inversion.
The Riemann zeta function can be given by a Mellin transform[30]
| |||||
2\pi | \Gamma\left( |
s | |
2 |
\right)\zeta(s)=
infty | |
\int | |
0 |
| |||||
l(\theta(it)-1r)t |
dt,
in terms of Jacobi's theta function
\theta(\tau)=
infty | |
\sum | |
n=-infty |
\piin2\tau | |
e |
.
However, this integral only converges if the real part of is greater than 1, but it can be regularized. This gives the following expression for the zeta function, which is well defined for all except 0 and 1:
| |||||
\pi | \Gamma\left( |
s | |
2 |
\right)\zeta(s)=
1 | - | |
s-1 |
1 | + | |
s |
1 | |
2 |
1 | |
\int | |
0 |
| ||||
\left(\theta(it)-t |
| |||||
\right)t |
dt+
1 | |
2 |
infty | |
\int | |
1 |
| |||||
l(\theta(it)-1r)t |
dt.
The Riemann zeta function is meromorphic with a single pole of order one at . It can therefore be expanded as a Laurent series about ; the series development is then[31]
\zeta(s)= | 1 |
s-1 |
infty | |
+\sum | |
n=0 |
\gamman | |
n! |
(1-s)n.
The constants here are called the Stieltjes constants and can be defined by the limit
\gamman=\limm
m | |
{\left(\left(\sum | |
k=1 |
(lnk)n | |
k |
\right)-
(lnm)n+1 | |
n+1 |
\right)}.
The constant term is the Euler–Mascheroni constant.
For all,, the integral relation (cf. Abel–Plana formula)
\zeta(s)=
1 | |
s-1 |
+
1 | |
2 |
+
infty | |
2\int | |
0 |
\sin(s\arctant) | |
\left(1+t2\right)s/2\left(e2\pi-1\right) |
dt
Another series development using the rising factorial valid for the entire complex plane is [28]
\zeta(s)=
s | |
s-1 |
-
infty | ||
\sum | l(\zeta(s+n)-1r) | |
n=1 |
s(s+1) … (s+n-1) | |
(n+1)! |
.
This can be used recursively to extend the Dirichlet series definition to all complex numbers.
The Riemann zeta function also appears in a form similar to the Mellin transform in an integral over the Gauss–Kuzmin–Wirsing operator acting on ; that context gives rise to a series expansion in terms of the falling factorial.[32]
On the basis of Weierstrass's factorization theorem, Hadamard gave the infinite product expansion
\zeta(s)=
| |||||||||
|
\prod\rho\left(1-
s | |
\rho |
\right)
| ||||
e |
,
where the product is over the non-trivial zeros of and the letter again denotes the Euler–Mascheroni constant. A simpler infinite product expansion is
\zeta(s)=
| ||||
\pi |
| ||||||||||
|
.
This form clearly displays the simple pole at, the trivial zeros at −2, −4, ... due to the gamma function term in the denominator, and the non-trivial zeros at . (To ensure convergence in the latter formula, the product should be taken over "matching pairs" of zeros, i.e. the factors for a pair of zeros of the form and should be combined.)
A globally convergent series for the zeta function, valid for all complex numbers except for some integer, was conjectured by Konrad Knopp in 1926 and proven by Helmut Hasse in 1930 (cf. Euler summation):
\zeta(s)= | 1 |
1-21-s |
infty | |
\sum | |
n=0 |
1 | |
2n+1 |
n | |
\sum | |
k=0 |
\binom{n}{k}
(-1)k | |
(k+1)s |
.
The series appeared in an appendix to Hasse's paper, and was published for the second time by Jonathan Sondow in 1994.[33]
Hasse also proved the globally converging series
\zeta(s)= | 1{s-1}\sum |
n=0 |
infty
1{n+1}\sum | |
k=0 |
n\binom{n}{k}
(-1)k | |
(k+1)s-1 |
In 1997 K. Maślanka gave another globally convergent (except) series for the Riemann zeta function:
\zeta(s)=
1 | |
s-1 |
infty | |
\sum | |
k=0 |
k | ||
l(\prod | (i- | |
i=1 |
s | |
2 |
)l)
Ak | = | |
k! |
1 | |
s-1 |
infty | ||
\sum | l(1- | |
k=0 |
s | |
2 |
l)k
Ak | |
k! |
where real coefficients
Ak
Ak=\sum
k | |
j=0 |
(-1)j
k | ||
\binom{k}{j}(2j+1)\zeta (2j+2)=\sum | \binom{k}{j} | |
j=0 |
B2j+2\pi2j+2 | |||||
|
Here
Bn
(x)k
Note that this representation of the zeta function is essentially an interpolation with nodes, where the nodes are points
s=2,4,6,\ldots
The asymptotic behavior of the coefficients
Ak
k
k-2/3
Ak\sim
4\pi3/2 | |
\sqrt{3\kappa |
where
\kappa
\kappa:=\sqrt[3]{\pi2k}
(see [40] for details).
On the basis of this representation, in 2003 Luis Báez-Duarte provided a new criterion for the Riemann hypothesis.[41] [42] [43] Namely, if we define the coefficients
ck
ck
k | |
:=\sum | |
j=0 |
(-1)j\binom{k}{j}
1 | |
\zeta(2j+2) |
then the Riemann hypothesis is equivalent to
ck=l{O}l(k-3/4+\varepsilonl) (\forall\varepsilon>0)
Peter Borwein developed an algorithm that applies Chebyshev polynomials to the Dirichlet eta function to produce a very rapidly convergent series suitable for high precision numerical calculations.[44]
\zeta(k)= | 2k |
2k-1 |
| ||||
+\sum | ||||
r=2 |
k=2,3,\ldots.
The function can be represented, for, by the infinite series
infty | |
\zeta(s)=\sum | |
n=0 |
(s) | |
B | |
n,\ge2 |
| |||||||
n! |
,
. Harold Edwards (mathematician) . 1974 . Riemann's Zeta Function . Academic Press . New York . 0-12-232750-0 . 0315.10035.