History of tornado research explained

The history of tornado research spans back centuries, with the earliest documented tornado occurring in 200 and academic studies on them starting in the 18th century. This is a timeline of government or academic research into tornadoes.

Pre-18th century

The earliest-known tornado occurred in Sardegna, Sardinia and Corsica, Roman Empire (modern-day Italy) in 200.[1]

The earliest-known German tornado struck Freising (modern day Germany) in 788.[2] [3] The earliest-known Irish tornado appeared on April 30, 1054, in Rostella, near Kilbeggan. The earliest-known British tornado hit central London on October 23, 1091, and was especially destructive, with modern research classifying it as an F4 on the Fujita scale.[4]

After the discovery of the New World, tornadoes documentation expanded into the Americas. On August 21, 1521, an apparent tornado is recorded to have struck Tlatelolco (present day Mexico City), just two days before the Aztec capital's fall to Cortés. Many other tornadoes are documented historically within the Basin of Mexico.[5] The first confirmed tornado in the United States struck Rehoboth, Massachusetts, in August 1671.[6] [7] [8] The first confirmed tornadic death in the United States occurred on July 8, 1680, after a tornado struck Cambridge, Massachusetts.[9]

18th century

The first case study on a tornado took place following the violent 1764 Woldegk tornado, which struck around Woldegk, Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, Holy Roman Empire (modern-day Germany).[10] Between 1764 and 1765, German scientist Gottlob Burchard Genzmer published a detailed survey of the damage path from the tornado. It covers the entire, 33 km (18.6 mi) long track and also includes eyewitness reports as well as an analysis of the debris and hail fallout areas. Genzmer calls the event an "Orcan" and only compares it to waterspouts or dust devils.[11] [12] Based on the damage survey, modern day meteorologists from the ESSL were able to assign a rating of F5, on the Fujita scale, and T11 on the TORRO scale, making it the earliest known F5 tornado worldwide.[10] The T11 rating on the TORRO scale also places this event among the most violent tornadoes ever documented worldwide.[10]

19th century

In 1838, the earliest recorded Asian tornado struck near the city of Calcutta in present-day West Bengal, India. It was described as moving remarkably slow across its 16mile path southeast over the span of 2 to 3 hours. It was recorded to cause significant damage to the area, including 3.5lb hail being observed at the Dum Dum weather observatory.[13]

Between 1839 and 1841, a detailed survey of damage path of significant tornado that struck New Brunswick, New Jersey, on June 19, 1835, which was the deadliest tornado in New Jersey history, occurred. The path was surveyed by many scientists on account of its location between New York City and Philadelphia, including early tornado theorists James Pollard Espy and William Charles Redfield. Scientists disagreed whether there was whirling, convergent, or rotational motion. A conclusion that remains accurate today is that the most intense damage tends to be on right side of a tornado (with respect to direction of forward movement), which was found to be generally easterly).[14] [15]

In 1840, the earliest known intensive study of a tornadic event published in Europe, by French scientist Athanase Peltier.[16]

In 1865, the first in India and earliest known scientific survey of a tornado that analyzed structure and dynamics was published in 1865 by Indian scientist Chunder Sikur Chatterjee. The path damage survey of a tornado that occurred at Pundooah (now Pandua), Hugli district, West Bengal, India, was documented on maps and revealed multiple vortices, the tornadocyclone, and direction of rotation,[17] predating work by John Park Finley, Alfred Wegener, Johannes Letzmann, and Ted Fujita.

In 1886, Lieutenant Jno. J. P. Finley in the United States Army Signal Corps, under official orders from the United States military, wrote a case study on tornado outbreak which occurred between September 12–18, 1886. Finley studied 26 tornadoes which occurred during the outbreak.[18]

1895

In 1895, D. Fisher with the United States Weather Bureau (USWB) published a case study on a tornado which struck Augusta, Georgia, on March 20, 1895, along with a twin tornado and a satellite tornado, which also struck Augusta.[19] Two months later, the United States Weather Bureau conducted a short case study on the tornado outbreak of May 3, 1895, tracking each of the 18 tornadoes that occurred during the outbreak.[20] A month later, meteorologists at the United States Weather Bureau conducted a case study on a tornado which struck Cherry Hill, New Jersey, and a tornado which struck Woodhaven, Long Island, New York, on July 13, 1895. The case study included a damage survey and meteorological analysis of the storms.[21]

1896

In 1896, H. C. Frankenfield with the United States Weather Bureau's local forecast office in St. Louis, conducted a case study on the 1896 St. Louis–East St. Louis tornado, which included a damage survey and meteorological analysis of the tornado and associated storm.[22] Following the study by Frankenfield, a special case study was conducted by Julius Baier, a civil engineer in St. Louis to address an estimation made by Frankenfield. In his study, Baier stated that the tornado's center crossed directly over a barometer, which recorded a reading of 671mmHg. In the study, it was also documented that Baier, along with professor F. E. Nipher, tested the barometer and saw no apparent ways of an inaccurate reading.[23]

Also in 1896, Norman B. Conger, an inspector with the United States Weather Bureau, conducted and published a case study on the 1896 Thomas, Michigan tornado, based on "all reliable, available sources". Conger's report also contained a map created by E. F. Hulbert. Following the tornado, Michigan governor John Treadway Rich created a committee to assess the damage and collect further information about the tornado.[24]

1897

In June 1897, Cleveland Abbe, a PhD meteorologist and professor at Columbian University, published one of the first tornadic frequency tables for each state in the United States, which included the annual average per state as well as the average per 10000mi2. In the table, it was noted that Kansas was the leading state for tornadoes, with an annual average of 6.38 tornadoes, followed by Illinois with an annual average of 4.94 tornadoes. The only states documented with an annual average of 0 tornadoes was Alaska, Delaware, Idaho, Oregon, Rhode Island, Utah, and Washington.[25] In July 1897, M. C. Walsh with the La Salle Institute reported the beginning of the 1896 St. Louis–East St. Louis tornado's track, which included a description of "two long, heavy black masses of cloud, one moving from the southwest, the other curving from the northeast" with them meeting "at a height of about 1000feet".[26]

1898

In February 1898, J. J. O'Donnell, an observer for the United States Weather Bureau, published a detailed meteorological case study and damage analysis on a violent tornado which struck Fort Smith, Arkansas, on January 11-12, 1898. Prior to being struck by the tornado, O'Donnell observed a barometer which read a pressure of 28.846inHg. O'Donnell also recorded the order-of-sequence of what an approaching tornado sounds like: "a gurgling noise...like water rushing rushing out of a bottle, followed immediately by a rumbling, such as that made by a number of heavy carriages rolling rapidly over a cobblestone pavement, and finally like a railroad train." O'Donnell later stated these three sounds, in sequence is the "tornado roar".[27] This sequence of sounds documented by O'Donnell, particularly the sound of a train, is the described sound of a tornado by people, even in the 21st century.[28]

In May 1898, Willis L. Moore, the chief of the United States Weather Bureau, created a map, which was later published by an order from the United States Secretary of Agriculture, of meteorological observations across the United States as well as the tracks of tornadoes which occurred on May 17, 1898.[29] In July 1898, Arthur E. Sweetland wrote a case study, including a damage survey and analysis, for a tornado which struck Hampton Beach, New Hampshire, on July 4, 1898.[30] In December 1898, Dr. B. F. Duke, along with Dr. Cleveland Abbe, published a paper regarding a theory on how tornadoes form after Duke observed the formation of a tornado near Pascagoula, Mississippi, in April 1894.[31]

1899

In April 1899, Dr. Cleveland Abbe, along with Professor A. W. Baker and E. L. Dinniston, published an article regarding the characteristics of tornadoes. In the study and analysis, Abbe discovered that tornadoes in the United States rotate counterclockwise, just the same as a large low-pressure system. Abbe also stated that this rotation rule for tornadoes "is almost invariable".[32] Also in April, Abbe published an article along with the Iowa State Register and Iowa Weather and Crop Service, stated the number of tornadoes across the United States was not truly increasing and than any numeric increase in tornado count was strictly due to the increase of newspaper and telegraph coverage in the United States. It was also stated that tornadoes are now documented almost entirely within 24-hours, so no meteorological phenomenon is causing an increase in tornado counts. Abbe also stated anything to the contrary was a "popular mistake".[33]

In April 1899, the Chicago Tribune wrote to the United States Weather Bureau via a news article posing the question on why tornado warnings are not sent out via telegraphs or even the telephone to warn the local population in the path. Cleveland Abbe responded by saying "it is certain that if any such arrangement were possible, the Weather Bureau would have done this many years ago" along with "we must remember that the destructive areas of tornadoes, and even of thunderstorms, are so small that the chance of being injured is exceedingly slight" and that "we do not attempt to prevent that which is inevitable".[34]

In June 1899, U.S. Weather Bureau Oklahoma section director J. I. Widmeyer published that long-range forecasters in Oklahoma were sounding "unnecessary tornado alarms" due to "ignorant predictions" to residents in Oklahoma and that they were causing "frightened men, women, and children" to take shelter, despite no tornadoes occurring. Cleveland Abbe added on to the publication by Widmeyer saying, "It is unnecessary to resort to the caves and cellars, or to stop our ordinary avocations for fear of a tornado, until we see the cloud in the distance, or are positively certain that one is about to pass near us".[35]

In July 1899, O. G. Libby, a professor at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, conducted a case study on a violent tornado, which struck New Richmond, Wisconsin, on June 12, 1899. Abbe later added onto the work by Libby in the final publication as well.[36] [37]

20th century

See also: VORTEX projects.

1900s

1900

In November 1900, S. C. Emery with the United States Weather Bureau conducted a case study, including detailed damage surveys, for a small tornado outbreak in Tennessee, Mississippi and Arkansas on November 19, 1900. In the study, Emery surveyed and mapped that one of the tornadoes "divided" into two nearly parallel parts, or that it had a "zig zag" motion, as some buildings were not damaged and others destroyed. Emery also stated he was "inclined to believe the latter explanation as more reasonable". Emery also noted one of the tornadoes had an average forward speed of 60mph and that a separate tornado travelled 215miles.[38]

1901

In 1901 and later again in 1906, Frank H. Bigelow, chief of the United States Weather Bureau, calculated and published formulas to find the rotational speed of a tornado based on the height above sea level. In his study, Bigelow studied a waterspout off the coast of Cottage City, Massachusetts.[39] [40] Bigelow's formula went on to help Alfred Wegener, a leading geophysicist, atmospheric scientist, and an Arctic explorer, develop the hypothesis that tornadoes can form off of a gust front.[41]

Notes and References

  1. Web site: . European Severe Weather Database . ESWD . . . 2024.
  2. Dr. R. Hennig, Katalog bemerkenswerter Witterungsereignisse. Berlin 1904; Originalquellen: Aventinus (Turmair), Johannes (gest. 1534): Annales Boiorum. Mit Nachtrag. Leipzig 1710; Annales Fuldenses, Chronik des Klosters Fulda. Bei Marquard Freher: Germanicarum rerum scriptores ua Frankfurt aM 1600–1611)
  3. Web site: Tornadoliste Deutschland . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20181211010300/https://tornadoliste.de/788 . 2018-12-11.
  4. Web site: TORRO – British & European Tornado Extremes. www.torro.org.uk. 2024-05-12. 2015-08-02. https://web.archive.org/web/20150802020732/http://www.torro.org.uk/site/whirlwind_info.php. dead.
  5. Fuentes . Oscar Velasco . The Earliest Documented Tornado in the Americas: Tlatelolco, August 1521 . . 91 . 11 . 1515–23 . November 2010 . 10.1175/2010BAMS2874.1. 2010BAMS...91.1515F . free .
  6. Book: Grazulis, Thomas P. . Thomas P. Grazulis . Significant Tornadoes 1680–1991: A Chronology and Analysis of Events . July 1993 . The Tornado Project of Environmental Films . St. Johnsbury, VT . 1-879362-03-1 .
  7. Book: Grazulis, Thomas P. . Thomas P. Grazulis . The Tornado: Nature's Ultimate Windstorm . registration . . 2001 . Norman, OK . 0-8061-3258-2 .
  8. News: Erck. Amy. Answers archive: Tornado history, climatology. USA Today Weather. USA Today. 9 July 2012. December 26, 2005.
  9. Web site: Baker. Tim. Tornado History. tornadochaser.net. 9 July 2012.
  10. Bernold Feuerstein . Thilo Kühne . A violent tornado in mid-18th century Germany: the Genzmer Report . ECSS 2015 – European Conference on Severe Storms at: Wiener Neustadt, Austria . September 2015 . 8 . 10.13140/RG.2.1.3733.8085 . 28 January 2023 . European Severe Storms Laboratory.
  11. Web site: Beschreibung des Orcans, welcher den 29. Jun. 1764 einen Strich von etlichen Meilen im Stargardischen Kreise des Herzogthums Mecklenburg gewaltig verwüstet hat . https://web.archive.org/web/20051031062455/http://www.tordach.org/pdf/Genzmer1765.pdf . dead . October 31, 2005 . Gottlob Burchard Genzmer . June 9, 2005 . June 25, 2013 . de .
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  13. Web site: Cal1888.
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  20. . Chart VIII. The Tornadoes of May 3, 1895 . . 1 May 1895 . 23 . 5 . c8 . 10.1175/1520-0493(1895)235[c8:CVTTOM]2.0.CO;2 . . EN . 1520-0493. free .
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  119. Web site: As the 2024 #BEST field season ends, a glimpse into the data collection during the Greenfield, IA tornado. Peak wind speeds as high as 309-318 mph were calculated in a narrow region 100-160 feet ARL. These are among the highest wind speeds ever determined using DOW data. . . x.com . 22 June 2024 . 22 June 2024.
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  121. Web site: . Reflectivity loop from DOW8 (the slacker DOW for uploading data) from the Olustee/Duke, OK tornado on Thursday, May 23, 2024 as part of the ⁦⁦@NSF #BEST project. #okwx . (Formerly Twitter) . . 13 June 2024 . https://archive.today/20240613014628/https://x.com/DOWFacility/status/1794151591664124221 . 13 June 2024 . . 24 May 2024 . live.
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