Dermanyssus gallinae explained

Dermanyssus gallinae
Synonyms:Red mite, bird mite, poultry mite, red poultry mite, roost mite, chicken mite, pigeon mite
Field:Veterinary medicine, infectious disease

Dermanyssus gallinae (also known as the red mite) is a haematophagous ectoparasite of poultry. It has been implicated as a vector of several major pathogenic diseases.[1] [2] Despite its common names, it has a wide range of hosts including several species of wild birds and mammals, including humans, where the condition it causes is called gamasoidosis.[3] In both size and appearance, it resembles the northern fowl mite, Ornithonyssus sylviarum.[4]

Description

Dermanyssus gallinae is an obligate blood feeder that will normally attack its host at night,[5] but will occasionally feed during the day.[6] Adults are long, with long legs and usually a grayish-white body, which becomes reddish-brown when engorged.[7] After feeding, they hide in cracks and crevices away from light sources, where they mate and lay eggs. Mites progress through five life stages: egg, larva, protonymph, deutonymph and adult.[8] Under favourable conditions this life cycle can be completed within seven days, so populations can grow rapidly, causing anaemia in badly affected flocks of poultry. Young birds are most susceptible. The mites can also affect the health of the birds indirectly, as they may serve as vectors for diseases such as Salmonellosis, avian spirochaetosis and Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae.[9] D. gallinae can survive for up to 10 months in an empty hen house. Temperatures greater than and less than, have been found to be lethal.[10]

Infestation in hens

Signs and symptoms

The mites normally feed around the breast and legs of hens, causing pain, irritation, and a decrease in egg production. Pustules, scabs, hyperpigmentation and feather loss may develop.

If they are present in large numbers, D. gallinae can cause anemia in hens[11] which presents as pallor of the comb and wattle.

Diagnosis

A presumptive diagnosis can be made in flocks of laying hens, usually based on a history of decreasing egg production, anaemia and mortalities in young or ill birds. Blood spots on eggs indicate infestation within the cloaca of an affected hen. Definitive diagnosis is only achieved following identification of eggs, feces or the mites themselves.

Prevention

There are several methods for preventing infestation in hen houses including:

Treatment

Ectoparasiticides can be used to treat affected poultry, these chemical controls, if used, should be used in rotation to avoid the buildup of resistance.[13] Organophosphates,[14] carbamates, and pyrethroids are widely used. The first case of pyrethroid resistance was reported by Beugnet et al 1997 and new cases continue to be reported by Katsavou et al 2020. The insecticide spinosad is effective against mites resistant to the veteran acaricides and can even be used on premises in the presence of the laying hens.[15] A novel product, Exzolt was introduced in the EU in 2017,[16] it contains fluralaner, an isoxazoline, and is highly effective against D. gallinae, included those resistant to old acaricides. It is approved for oral administration mixed with the drinking water and has a systemic mode of action, i.e. it acts through the blood of the treated birds.[16] The macrocyclic lactones eprinomectin, moxidectin or ivermectin have been shown to impact mite reproduction and blood-meal digestion in one study,[17] though other studies found ivermectin to be ineffective except at doses "unfavourably close to those causing toxicity".[18]

Predatory mites such as Androlaelaps casalis and Hypoaspis miles can be used to control D. gallinae populations.[19]

Exposing mites to carbon dioxide using dry ice and direct-spraying has been proposed as a novel treatment.[20]

Vaccines are currently under active development for the treatment of poultry, which seek to "stimulate a protective response" in the birds and increase D. gallinae mortality.[21]

Some plant essential oil products can act as repellents. Birkett et al 2011 and George et al 2009 identify particular plants whose EOs successfully repel D. gallinae.

Infestation in humans

See also: Gamasoidosis. In humans, D. gallinae infestations are known as gamasoidosis or dermanyssosis.[22] The mites are capable of digesting[23] and reproducing entirely on human blood, so infestations can be persistent. Due to the nocturnal feeding habits of D. gallinae, infested people may experience itching and notice bites when they wake up in the morning.[24] The severity of symptoms vary, with dermatitis,[25] pruritus and papular urticaria being common.

Prevention of infestation in human habitation consists of eliminating potential vectors such as destroying pigeon and sparrow nests[26] and treating infested backyard poultry.[27]

Elimination of an infestation in a human habitation is best achieved through a combination of eliminating potential vectors (nesting pigeons, backyard poultry, etc.); reducing potential hiding places (rugs, clutter); judicious use of pesticides; consistent use of dehumidifiers to maintain a low humidity environment; maintaining a low temperature in the environment; frequent thorough cleaning; minimizing the amount of time spent in the home; and maintaining excellent hygiene.[28] [29]

Infestation in other animals

Dermanyssus gallinae will also feed on mammals, including cats, dogs, rodents, rabbits, horses.[30] Infestation by D. gallinae is rare in cats and dogs; usually the extremities and the back are bitten, causing itching.[31]

See also

External links

Notes and References

  1. 10.1051/vetres:2006031 . 16820136 . Comparison of four methods of extracting DNA from D. gallinae (Acari: Dermanyssidae) . Veterinary Research . 37 . 5 . 725–732 . 2006 . Desloire . Sophie . Valiente Moro . Claire . Chauve . Claude . Zenner . Lionel . free .
  2. Schiavone. Antonella. Pugliese. Nicola. Otranto. Domenico. Samarelli. Rossella. Circella. Elena. De Virgilio. Caterina. Camarda. Antonio. 2022-01-20. Dermanyssus gallinae: the long journey of the poultry red mite to become a vector. Parasites & Vectors. 15. 1. 29. 10.1186/s13071-021-05142-1. 35057849 . 1756-3305. 8772161 . free .
  3. 10.1146/annurev-ento-011613-162101 . 24397522 . Significance and Control of the Poultry Red Mite, Dermanyssus gallinae . Annual Review of Entomology . 59 . 447–466 . 2014 . Sparagano . O.A.E. . George . D.R. . Harrington . D.W.J. . Giangaspero . A. .
  4. 10.2307/1587499 . 1587499 . The Differentiation of Dermanyssus gallinae from Ornithonyssus sylviarum . Avian Diseases . 4 . 2 . 133–137 . Weisbroth . Steven H. . 1960 .
  5. Sokół. Rajmund. Koziatek-Sadłowska. Sylwia. Michalczyk. Maria. 2019-02-01. The influence of Dermanyssus gallinae and different lighting regimens on selected blood proteins, corticosterone levels and egg production in layer hens. Veterinary Research Communications . 43. 1. 31–36. 10.1007/s11259-018-9743-z. 30612297. 1573-7446. free.
  6. Haag-Wackernagel. D.. 2005. Parasites from feral pigeons as a health hazard for humans. Annals of Applied Biology. en. 147. 2. 203–210. 10.1111/j.1744-7348.2005.00029.x. 1744-7348.
  7. Book: Sparagano. O.A.E.. Improving the Safety and Quality of Eggs and Egg Products. Giangaspero. A.. 2011. 9781845697549. 394–414. Parasitism in egg production systems: The role of the red mite (Dermanyssus gallinae). 10.1533/9780857093912.3.394.
  8. Bruneau. A.. Dernburg. A.. Chauve. C.. Zenner. L.. June 2001. First in vitro cycle of the chicken mite, Dermanyssus gallinae (DeGeer 1778), utilizing an artificial feeding device. Parasitology. en. 123. 6. 583–589. 10.1017/S0031182001008836. 11814045. 22213397 . 1469-8161.
  9. Chirico. J.. Eriksson. H.. Fossum. O.. Jansson. D.. 2003. The poultry red mite, Dermanyssus gallinae, a potential vector of Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae causing erysipelas in hens. Medical and Veterinary Entomology. 17. 2. 232–234. 10.1046/j.1365-2915.2003.00428.x. 12823843. 24997699 .
  10. Nordenfors. Helena. Höglund. Johan. Uggla. Arvid. 1999. Effects of Temperature and Humidity on Oviposition, Molting, and Longevity of Dermanyssus gallinae (Acari: Dermanyssidae). Journal of Medical Entomology. 36. 1. 68–72. 10.1093/jmedent/36.1.68. 10071495.
  11. Kilpinen. O.. Roepstorff. A.. Permin. A.. Nørgaard-Nielsen. G.. Lawson. L. G.. Simonsen. H. B.. 2005-02-01. Influence of Dermanyssus gallinae and Ascaridia galli infections on behaviour and health of laying hens (Gallus gallus domesticus). British Poultry Science. 46. 1. 26–34. 10.1080/00071660400023839. 0007-1668. 15835249. 12646759.
  12. 10.1007/s10493-009-9250-6 . 19221882 . Preventing introduction and spread of Dermanyssus gallinae in poultry facilities using the HACCP method . Experimental and Applied Acarology . 48 . 1–2 . 167–181 . 2009 . Mul . Monique F. . Koenraadt . Constantianus J. M. . 5309397 .
  13. 10.1016/S0304-4017(98)00167-8 . The poultry red mite Dermanyssus gallinae (De Geer, 1778): Current situation and future prospects for control . Veterinary Parasitology . 79 . 3 . 239–245 . 1998 . Chauve . Claude . 9823064 .
  14. Soulié . Anne-Sophie . Sleeckx . Nathalie . Roy . Lise . Repellent properties of natural substances against Dermanyssus gallinae: review of knowledge and prospects for Integrated Pest Management . . Les Amis d'Acarologia (INRA) . 61 . 1 . 2021-01-06 . 0044-586X . 10.24349/acarologia/20214412 . 3–19. 234349312 . free . HAL Id: 03099408.
  15. 10.1016/j.vetpar.2010.06.035 . 20655147 . In vitro and in vivo acaricidal activity and residual toxicity of spinosad to the poultry red mite, Dermanyssus gallinae . Veterinary Parasitology . 173 . 3–4 . 307–316 . 2010 . George . D.R. . Shiel . R.S. . Appleby . W.G.C. . Knox . A. . Guy . J.H. .
  16. 10.1186/s13071-017-2534-5 . 29197422 . 5712167 . The acaricidal speed of kill of orally administered fluralaner against poultry red mites (Dermanyssus gallinae) on laying hens and its impact on mite reproduction . Parasites & Vectors . 10 . 1 . 594 . 2017 . Brauneis . Maria D. . Zoller . Hartmut . Williams . Heike . Zschiesche . Eva . Heckeroth . Anja R. . free .
  17. Xu. Xiaolin. Wang. Chuanwen. Zhang. Shudong. Huang. Yu. Pan. Tingting. Wang. Bohan. Pan. Baoliang. 2019-07-12. Acaricidal efficacy of orally administered macrocyclic lactones against poultry red mites (Dermanyssus gallinae) on chicks and their impacts on mite reproduction and blood-meal digestion. Parasites & Vectors. 12. 1. 345. 10.1186/s13071-019-3599-0. 1756-3305. 6624947. 31300011 . free .
  18. 10.1016/0304-4017(87)90032-X . 3564341 . Systemic efficacy of ivermectin against Dermanyssus gallinae (De Geer, 1778) in fowls . Veterinary Parasitology . 23 . 1–2 . 141–146 . 1987 . Zeman . P. .
  19. Lesna. Izabela. Sabelis. Maurice W.. Van Niekerk. Thea G. C. M.. Komdeur. Jan. 2012. Laboratory tests for controlling poultry red mites (Dermanyssus gallinae) with predatory mites in small 'laying hen' cages. Experimental and Applied Acarology. 58. 4. 371–383. 10.1007/s10493-012-9596-z. 3487000. 22773110.
  20. Kang. JeongWoo. Hossain. Md Akil. Jeong. Jiyeon. Park. Haechul. Kim. Jin-Hyun. Kang. Min-Su. Kwon. Yong-Kuk. Kim. Yong-Sang. Park. Sung-Won. 2020-03-18. Application of carbon dioxide as a novel approach to eradicate poultry red mites. Journal of Veterinary Science. en. 21. 2. e37 . 10.4142/jvs.2020.21.e37. 1976-555X. 7113580. 32233140.
  21. Harrington. David. Canales. Mario. de la Fuente. José. De Luna. Carlos. Robinson. Karen. Guy. Jonathan. Sparagano. Olivier. 2009. Immunisation with recombinant proteins subolesin and Bm86 for the control of Dermanyssus gallinae in poultry. Vaccine. 27. 30. 4056–4063. 10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.04.014. 19501789.
  22. Book: James. WD. Andrews' Diseases of the Skin: Clinical Dermatology. Berger. T. Elston. D. 2015. Elsevier Health Sciences. 9780323319690. 12. 446. Parasitic infestations, stings and bites: Gamasoidosis. vanc.
  23. Williams. R. W.. 1958. An infestation of a human habitation by Dermanyssus gallinae (Degeer, 1778) (Acarina: Dermanyssidae) in New York City resulting in sanguisugent attacks upon the occupants. The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 7. 6. 627–629. 10.4269/ajtmh.1958.7.627. 0002-9637. 13595207.
  24. Book: Kos. L. Pediatric dermatology. Galbraith. S. 2011. Mosby/Elsevier. 9780723436652. Schachner. LA. 4th. St. Louis, Mo.. 1576–1578. Infections and infestations. vanc. Hansen. RC.
  25. Rosen. S.. Yeruham. I.. Braverman. Y.. 2002. Dermatitis in humans associated with the mites Pyemotes tritici, Dermanyssus gallinae, Ornithonyssus bacoti and Androlaelaps casalis in Israel. Medical and Veterinary Entomology. 16. 4. 442–444. 10.1046/j.1365-2915.2002.00386.x. 12510897. 21453929 .
  26. Bellanger. A. P.. Bories. C.. Foulet. F.. Bretagne. S.. Botterel. F.. 2008. Nosocomial Dermatitis Caused by Dermanyssus gallinae. Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology. 29. 3. 282–283. 10.1086/528815. 18205530. 205985989 .
  27. Whitehead. M. L.. Roberts. V.. 2014. Backyard poultry: Legislation, zoonoses and disease prevention. Journal of Small Animal Practice. 55. 10. 487–496. 10.1111/jsap.12254. 25109514.
  28. Web site: Bird mites - prevention and treatment. www.sahealth.sa.gov.au. 2020-02-24.
  29. Cafiero. Maria Assunta. Barlaam. Alessandra. Camarda. Antonio. Radeski. Miroslav. Mul. Monique. Sparagano. Olivier. Giangaspero. Annunziata. 2019-09-13. Dermanysuss gallinae attacks humans. Mind the gap!. Avian Pathology. 48. sup1. S22–S34. 10.1080/03079457.2019.1633010. 0307-9457. 31264450. free. 11586/240540. free.
  30. George DR, Finn RD, Graham KM, Mul MF, Maurer V, Moro CV, Sparagano OA . Should the poultry red mite Dermanyssus gallinae be of wider concern for veterinary and medical science? . Parasites & Vectors . 8 . 178 . March 2015 . 25884317 . 4377040 . 10.1186/s13071-015-0768-7 . free .
  31. Book: Paterson. Sue . vanc . Manual of skin diseases of the dog and cat. 2009. John Wiley & Sons. Chichester. 9781444309324. 118–119. 2nd. Dermanyssus gallinae.

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