Red Hill water crisis explained

Red Hill water crisis
Location:Joint Base Pearl Harbor–Hickam and urban Honolulu, Hawaiʻi, U.S.
Coordinates:21.3739°N -157.8939°W
Type:Groundwater contamination (various petroleum products)

The Red Hill water crisis is a public health crisis and environmental disaster caused by fuel leaking from the Red Hill Underground Fuel Storage Facility into the freshwater aquifer underneath the island of Oʻahu.[1] Residents in military housing in and around Joint Base Pearl Harbor–Hickam began reporting chemical contamination in their tap water near the end of November 2021, and the Hawaiʻi Department of Health advised residents to stop using their tap water on November 29, 2021.[2] [3] All residents of the area (not just military housing) were unable to use their tap water until the following March, after their water system was flushed of contaminants.[4] [5]

The fuel spill from the Red Hill facility also forced the shutdown of several water sources operated by the Honolulu Board of Water Supply that provided drinking water for urban Honolulu.[6] [7] Due to uncertainty about the spread of fuel contamination underground, these water sources will remain shut down indefinitely, which has caused a shortage of water for Honolulu residents.[8] [9] [10] Voluntary water usage reductions were announced on March 10, 2022, and compliance has avoided the imposition of mandatory water restrictions .[11] [12] [13]

Background

Red Hill Underground Fuel Storage Facility

See main article: Red Hill Underground Fuel Storage Facility. The Red Hill Underground Fuel Storage Facility (formally named the Red Hill Bulk Fuel Storage Facility) was originally completed by the U.S. Navy in 1943, to replace above-ground storage tanks that were vulnerable to air attack. The Red Hill facility includes twenty underground fuel storage tanks. Each tank is 100abbr=offNaNabbr=off in diameter and 250abbr=offNaNabbr=off in height, and can store 12.5e6gal of fuel, for a total storage capacity of approximately 250e6gal. The fuel stored at the Red Hill facility is used by ships and aircraft based at Joint Base Pearl Harbor–Hickam. The facility's location within the Red Hill ridge about NaNabbr=offNaNabbr=off from Pearl Harbor was selected to allow fuel to flow from the storage tanks to Pearl Harbor by gravity.[14] [15] [16] [17]

The placement of the Red Hill facility also meant that it was located directly above a freshwater aquifer that supplies the island of Oʻahu with the bulk of the island's drinking water.[18] A major leak of 27000abbr=offNaNabbr=off of fuel in January 2014 drew attention from both the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Hawaiʻi Department of Health (DOH), which led to the Navy entering into an agreement (formally titled the "Administrative Order on Consent," or AOC) to enhance monitoring for leaks and build structural improvements that would reduce the chance of a leak occurring.[19] The AOC also required the Navy to implement a secondary containment solution (such as building a tank-within-a-tank) or empty the Red Hill facility by 2042.[20] [21] Following the implementation of the AOC, Rear Admiral Robert Chadwick (the then-commander of Navy Region Hawaii) was quoted in 2019, "People can rest assured that what happened in 2014, that type of event could not happen again with the procedures we have in place now."

Water systems

The Navy operates a water system that serves approximately 93,000 people on Joint Base Pearl Harbor–Hickam and in military housing in nearby areas.[22] This system also serves Kapilina Beach Homes, a former military housing area in Iroquois Point that was converted into civilian rental housing.[23] This water system distributes water collected from three water sources, one of which is approximately 2600abbr=offNaNabbr=off from the storage tanks at the Red Hill facility.

The Honolulu Board of Water Supply (BWS) is the municipal water utility for the island of Oʻahu, and is an agency of the City and County of Honolulu.[24] BWS operates an islandwide water system that serves nearly all of Oʻahu's 1 million residents with water from 100 water sources that tap into groundwater located in aquifers underneath the island.[25] [26] The largest of these was the Hālawa Shaft, which provided approximately 10- of water per day, which is about 20% of the water used by urban Honolulu.[27] The Hālawa Shaft is located approximately 5000abbr=offNaNabbr=off from the storage tanks at the Red Hill facility.

Both water systems draw water from the same aquifer under Hālawa Valley and Red Hill, where the water table is located about 100abbr=offNaNabbr=off below the Red Hill storage tanks.

Water contamination

On May 6, 2021, approximately 20000abbr=offNaNabbr=off of fuel leaked from a storage tank at the Red Hill facility when an operator error caused a pressure surge within a pipeline in the facility, which in turn caused the pipeline to rupture and leak fuel.[28] [29] Most of the leaked fuel then flowed into a drain line that was part of the facility's fire suppression system.[30] [31] The fuel sat in the drain line for the next six months, until a cart crashed into the drain line on November 20, 2021, rupturing the drain line and releasing the fuel, where it then flowed into the ground surrounding the facility and into the aquifer. The November 20 leak occurred approximately 1300abbr=offNaNabbr=off from a well that provided water for the Navy water system.

An internal investigation by the Navy into the May 6 and November 20 leaks found that the initial error that caused the May 6 leak was compounded by a failure to properly investigate and account for where the leaked fuel went within the facility. In the aftermath of the May 6 leak, Red Hill facility staff erroneously believed that the leaked fuel remained in a pipeline in the facility's fuel distribution system, and were not aware that the fuel had entered the facility's fire suppression system.

Beginning in the late spring of 2021 (at around the same time as the May 6 leak), residents living in military housing in the vicinity of Joint Base Pearl Harbor–Hickam began suffering from unusual medical problems, including hair falling out, fatigue, and skin rashes.[32] [33] Within one week of the November 20 leak, residents saw that their water had an oily sheen and smelled like fuel. The DOH issued a notice on November 29 advising Navy water system users to stop drinking and using their tap water.[34] [35] [36] While the Navy initially declared the water safe,[37] the Navy acknowledged that their water system was seriously contaminated with petroleum products on December 2,[38] [39] and began evacuating residents from affected military housing areas the following day.[40] [41] About 4,000 families moved into nearby hotels since their tap water at home was unusable.[42] The Navy collected water samples from over 1,000 affected homes to gauge the scope of contamination, but only tested a subset of those water samples for total organic carbons, with the remaining samples never tested at all.

The Navy's water well nearest to the Red Hill facility was found to be heavily contaminated with 140,000 parts per billion (ppb) of total petroleum hydrocarbons associated with diesel (TPH-d) and 20,000 parts per billion of total petroleum hydrocarbons associated with gasoline (TPH-g).[43] [44] The safe limits for these chemicals in drinking water are 400 parts per billion for TPH-d and 300 parts per billion for TPH-g. Water in piping at a second Navy well was also found to be contaminated above the safe limit, with 920 parts per billion of TPH-d.[45] [46]

A survey jointly conducted by the DOH and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in January and February 2022 found that 87% of 2,289 individuals surveyed reported being sickened by fuel contamination in their water.[47] [48] 37% of those surveyed reported seeking medical care to address their symptoms, and seventeen individuals were hospitalized overnight.[49]

Cleanup efforts

Remediation of the Navy's water well nearest to the Red Hill facility began with Navy divers entering the well to skim fuel from the surface of the well water.[50] [51] In January 2022, this shifted to pumping water from the well through activated carbon filters and discharging the filtered water in Hālawa Stream.[52] [53] Pumping out contaminated groundwater is intended to prevent the spilled fuel from spreading further into the aquifer.[54] Pumping water into Hālawa Stream continues and is expected to continue for the foreseeable future, until the DOH determines that the underground fuel plume is not moving through the aquifer.[55]

Two of the three wells supplying the Navy water system were shut down due to contamination, but the third well was able to continue providing clean water and remained in operation;[56] however, fuel from the contaminated water had leached into the piping of the Navy water system and rendered it unable to deliver clean water.[57] [58] To remediate the Navy water system, clean water was systematically pumped through contaminated sections of the water system until testing determined that contamination was below safe levels.[59] [60] Decontamination of the Navy water system was declared complete on March 18, 2022, with regular testing expected to continue for at least six months afterward.[61]

Although the Navy water system has been officially considered safe to use since March 18, 2022, residents who use the Navy water system have continued to find water contamination and suffer from medical problems (such as unusual skin rashes) .[56] [62]

Effects on Oʻahu water supply

BWS stopped pumping water from the Hālawa Shaft on December 2, 2021, three days after the DOH issued their advisory notice to Navy water system users. While no contaminants were detected in water pumped from the Hālawa Shaft, BWS shut down the Hālawa Shaft due to the risk that continuing to pump water would draw contaminants through the aquifer under Hālawa Valley and eventually into the BWS water system. Two other BWS wells were also shut down on December 8 after contamination was found in a second Navy water well.[63]

Shutting down the three water sources did not result in immediate water shortages because the shutdowns occurred during the wet winter season, but as water usage rose during the following spring, BWS issued a request for Oʻahu water users to voluntarily reduce water consumption by 10% on March 10.[64] [65] [66] The water shortage was anticipated to have severe impacts on Honolulu over the summer, including curtailing planned construction projects and the imposition of mandatory water restrictions, but, BWS has stated that voluntary reductions in water use have been enough to avoid more drastic measures.[67]

BWS has stated that the Hālawa Shaft and the other two wells will remain shut down indefinitely due to uncertainty about the spread of the underground fuel plume. Constructing new water sources to replace the lost pumping capacity is expected to take five to seven years.[68] A monitoring well that is about 1500abbr=offNaNabbr=off southeast of the Red Hill facility was reported to have petroleum contamination in August 2022.[69]

Shutdown of Red Hill Underground Fuel Storage Facility

As the state agency responsible for regulating underground storage tanks, the DOH issued an emergency order on December 6, 2021 directing the Navy to shut down the Red Hill facility.[70] [71] [72] Under a provision of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, the DOH has the authority to regulate and oversee the Red Hill facility even though the facility is owned and operated by the federal government. The Navy sought a contested case hearing to challenge the DOH emergency order, and the order was upheld on December 27[73] [74] and went into effect on January 3, 2022.[75] [76]

At the direction of U.S. Secretary of Defense Lloyd Austin,[77] the Navy has agreed to comply with the DOH's emergency order, and will not contest the DOH's authority to issue the order or the validity of the order.[78] [79] [80] Under a revised emergency order issued by the DOH, the Navy has submitted a plan to defuel the Red Hill facility and is required to submit a plan to shut down the facility by November 1, 2022.[81] [82] [83] A consultant for the Navy determined that emptying the fuel from the Red Hill facility's tanks will require extensive repairs that must be completed to address numerous safety hazards (such as fire hazards and corroded piping) within the facility,[84] [85] [86] and under the Navy's defueling plan submitted to the DOH, the Red Hill facility will be emptied of fuel no earlier than December 31, 2024.[87]

Litigation

In several legal cases, 7,500 people sued the Navy over the water contamination and possible resulting health effects. The first trial began in April 2024.[88] [89] [90]

See also

External links

Notes and References

  1. News: Jedra. Christina. Navy Agrees To Comply With Hawaii's Order To Drain Red Hill Fuel Facility. January 11, 2022. Honolulu Civil Beat. January 20, 2022. January 20, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220120102821/https://www.civilbeat.org/2022/01/navy-agrees-to-comply-with-hawaiis-order-to-drain-red-hill-fuel-facility/. live.
  2. News: Jedra. Christina. State Tells Pearl Harbor Navy Families Not To Drink Or Use Tap Water. November 29, 2021. Honolulu Civil Beat. January 22, 2022. January 22, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220122131918/https://www.civilbeat.org/2021/11/navy-investigating-chemical-smell-in-military-housing-drinking-water/. live.
  3. News: Richardson. Mahealani. A military family invited us in to see (and smell) their water firsthand. Here's what we saw.. November 30, 2021. Hawaii News Now. January 22, 2022. January 22, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220122131918/https://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/2021/12/01/military-families-show-oily-smelly-sheen-water-hnn-sends-samples-independent-lab/. live.
  4. News: Olson. Wyatt. Safe water restored to all Hawaii homes contaminated by Navy jet fuel, health officials say. March 19, 2022. Stars and Stripes. April 12, 2022. April 12, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220412115622/https://www.stripes.com/theaters/asia_pacific/2022-03-18/hawaii-water-contamination-us-navy-jet-fuel-red-hill-5394546.html. live.
  5. News: Lau. Joel. Final Red Hill Families Are Cleared To Return Home. March 18, 2022. Honolulu Civil Beat. May 30, 2022. May 16, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220516112902/https://www.civilbeat.org/2022/03/final-red-hill-families-are-cleared-to-return-home/. live.
  6. News: . Well that delivers 20% of Honolulu's water supply shut down to protect against contamination. December 3, 2021. Hawaii News Now. February 9, 2022. February 1, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220201081339/https://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/2021/12/03/live-board-water-supply-discuss-navys-confirmation-petroleum-red-hill-well/. live.
  7. News: Jedra. Christina. Where Is The Red Hill Contamination Moving? Experts Are 'Working Blind'. April 4, 2022. Honolulu Civil Beat. April 12, 2022. April 11, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220411220910/https://www.civilbeat.org/2022/04/where-is-the-red-hill-contamination-moving-experts-are-working-blind/. live.
  8. News: Shinno. Stephanie. Morales. Manolo. BWS says test results for Halawa Shaft show no contamination but the threat remains. December 13, 2021. KHON2. February 14, 2022. February 15, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220215094816/https://www.khon2.com/local-news/bws-discusses-its-drinking-water-test-results-at-halawa-shaft/. live.
  9. News: Jedra. Christina. The Navy Water Crisis Could Halt New Construction On Oahu. March 21, 2022. Honolulu Civil Beat. April 12, 2022. April 11, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220411152802/https://www.civilbeat.org/2022/03/the-navy-water-crisis-could-halt-new-construction-on-oahu/. live.
  10. News: Hurley. Timothy. Hot, dry summer could bring mandatory water restrictions on Oahu. April 10, 2022. Honolulu Star-Advertiser. . June 2, 2022. subscription. April 12, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220412115626/https://www.staradvertiser.com/2022/04/10/hawaii-news/hot-dry-summer-could-bring-mandatory-water-restrictions-on-oahu/. live.
  11. News: Richardson. Mahealani. With water restrictions possible, BWS eyes worsening drought with concern. April 25, 2022. Hawaii News Now. May 16, 2022. May 16, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220516112852/https://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/2022/04/26/bws-drought-conditions-worsen-this-summer/. live.
  12. News: Blair. Allyson. BWS scrambles to get wells online in hopes of avoiding mandatory restrictions. May 12, 2022. Hawaii News Now. May 16, 2022. May 16, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220516112853/https://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/2022/05/13/bws-scrambles-get-wells-online-hopes-avoiding-mandatory-restrictions/. live.
  13. News: Richardson. Mahealani. BWS: Mandatory water restrictions this summer now appear avoidable. May 24, 2022. Hawaii News Now. May 26, 2022. May 26, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220526120053/https://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/2022/05/25/bws-ernie-lau-thinks-mandatory-restrictions-may-be-avoided-this-summer/. live.
  14. Web site: Environmental Protection Agency. What is the Red Hill Bulk Fuel Storage Facility?. February 11, 2016. May 18, 2022. May 18, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220518172547/https://www.epa.gov/red-hill/what-red-hill-bulk-fuel-storage-facility. live.
  15. News: Olson. Wyatt. Navy's underground fuel tanks in Hawaii are impenetrable to attack — and that's the problem. October 24, 2019. Stars and Stripes. May 18, 2022. May 18, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220518171042/https://www.stripes.com/theaters/asia_pacific/navy-s-underground-fuel-tanks-in-hawaii-are-impenetrable-to-attack-and-that-s-the-problem-1.604488. live.
  16. News: Cocke. Sophie. Red Hill: EPA May Force New Fuel Leak Detection System for Toxic Spills. January 30, 2014. Honolulu Civil Beat. February 22, 2022. February 22, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220222121259/https://www.civilbeat.org/2014/01/red-hill-epa-may-force-new-fuel-leak-detection-system-for-toxic-spills/. live.
  17. Book: Woodbury, David O.. Builders for Battle: How the Pacific Naval Air Bases Were Constructed. 1946. E.P. Dutton and Co.. New York. 178–204.
  18. News: Jedra. Christina. How The Red Hill Fuel System Has Threatened Oahu's Drinking Water For Decades. December 12, 2021. Honolulu Civil Beat. February 14, 2022. February 16, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220216115615/https://www.civilbeat.org/2021/12/how-the-red-hill-fuel-system-has-threatened-oahus-drinking-water-for-decades/. live.
  19. Web site: Environmental Protection Agency. Red Hill Administrative Order on Consent. February 2018 . May 18, 2022. May 18, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220518171043/https://www.epa.gov/red-hill/red-hill-administrative-order-consent. live.
  20. News: Jedra. Christina. Navy Resists Calls To Relocate Or Strengthen Red Hill Fuel Tanks. October 18, 2019. Honolulu Civil Beat. February 14, 2022. February 15, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220215100322/https://www.civilbeat.org/2019/10/navy-resists-calls-to-relocate-or-strengthen-red-hill-fuel-tanks/. live.
  21. News: Jedra. Christina. Navy On The Defensive As Criticism Of Red Hill Fuel Facility Intensifies. October 28, 2021. Honolulu Civil Beat. February 14, 2022. February 15, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220215094817/https://www.civilbeat.org/2021/10/navy-on-the-defensive-as-criticism-of-red-hill-fuel-facility-intensifies/. live.
  22. News: Knodell. Kevin. Red Hill's troubled past casts a shadow on Navy operations. December 12, 2021. Honolulu Star-Advertiser. February 13, 2022. subscription. . February 13, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220213115326/https://www.staradvertiser.com/2021/12/12/hawaii-news/red-hills-troubled-past-casts-a-shadow-on-navy-operations/. live.
  23. News: Richardson. Mahealani. Investigation into Navy's tainted water extends to civilian housing project in Ewa Beach. December 8, 2021. Hawaii News Now. May 19, 2022. May 19, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220519143154/https://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/2021/12/09/state-health-department-test-water-kapilina-beach-homes-after-complaints-illness/. live.
  24. Web site: Honolulu Board of Water Supply. About Us. May 19, 2022. May 9, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220509210719/https://www.boardofwatersupply.com/about. live.
  25. Web site: Honolulu Board of Water Supply. Hawaiʻi's Water Cycle. May 19, 2022. May 19, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220519143155/https://www.boardofwatersupply.com/water-resources/the-water-cycle. live.
  26. News: Hurley. Timothy. Worst-case scenario puts Oahu aquifer at risk. December 5, 2021. Honolulu Star-Advertiser. May 19, 2022. subscription. . December 8, 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20211208181014/https://www.staradvertiser.com/2021/12/05/hawaii-news/worst-case-scenario-puts-oahu-aquifer-at-risk/. live.
  27. Web site: Honolulu Board of Water Supply. Hālawa Shaft and Underground Pumping Station. November 19, 2021. May 19, 2022. May 19, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220519143154/https://www.boardofwatersupply.com/bws/media/kit/halawa/bws-halawa-shaft-brochure-2021-11-19.pdf. live.
  28. News: Jedra. Christina. Red Hill Investigations: The Navy Failed To Prevent And Respond To Fuel Contamination. June 30, 2022. Honolulu Civil Beat. July 11, 2022.
  29. News: Cocke. Sophie. Long list of failures caused Red Hill leak, Navy investigation finds. July 1, 2022. Honolulu Star-Advertiser. . subscription. July 11, 2022.
  30. News: Cocke. Sophie. Navy now says major release from Red Hill tank in May may be source of water contamination. December 22, 2021. Honolulu Star-Advertiser. May 21, 2022. subscription. . May 21, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220521145859/https://www.staradvertiser.com/2021/12/22/hawaii-news/navy-now-says-major-release-from-red-hill-tank-in-may-may-be-source-of-water-contamination/. live.
  31. News: Jedra. Christina. Red Hill's Firefighting System Was Damaged Long Before Contamination Crisis. February 14, 2022. Honolulu Civil Beat. May 21, 2022. May 21, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220521081235/https://www.civilbeat.org/2022/02/red-hills-firefighting-system-was-damaged-long-before-contamination-crisis/. live.
  32. News: Horton. Alex. Demirjian. Karoun. Military families say they were ill months before jet-fuel leak brought scrutiny to Pearl Harbor's tap water. December 21, 2021. Washington Post. May 21, 2022. June 10, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220610120908/https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2021/12/21/pearl-harbor-water-contamination/. live.
  33. News: Cocke. Sophie. Hundreds of Red Hill water samples never tested for fuel. September 6, 2022. Honolulu Star-Advertiser. . September 6, 2022. subscription.
  34. News: . DOH: Navy water system users should avoid consuming water after 'fuel-like' odor reported. November 29, 2021. Hawaii News Now. January 22, 2022. January 22, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220122131920/https://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/2021/11/29/navy-investigating-reports-chemical-smell-water-homes-joint-base-pearl-harbor-hickam-area/. live.
  35. News: Cocke. Sophie. Military families living near Red Hill blame sickness on tainted water. November 30, 2021. Honolulu Star-Advertiser. January 22, 2022. subscription. . January 22, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220122131919/https://www.staradvertiser.com/2021/11/30/hawaii-news/military-families-living-near-red-hill-blame-sickness-on-tainted-water/. live.
  36. Hawaiʻi Department of Health. Hawai'i Department of Health advises Navy water system consumers not to drink, consume tap water. November 30, 2021. January 22, 2022. January 22, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220122131920/https://health.hawaii.gov/news/newsroom/hawaii-department-of-health-advises-navy-water-system-consumers-not-to-drink-consume-tap-water/. live.
  37. News: Nostrant. Rachel. Despite reports of rashes, sickness after fuel leak, Hawaii base water is safe, Navy says. November 30, 2021. Military Times. February 13, 2022. February 13, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220213115324/https://www.militarytimes.com/news/2021/11/30/despite-reports-of-rashes-sickness-after-fuel-leak-hawaii-base-water-is-safe-navy-says/. live.
  38. News: . Navy tests confirm petroleum contamination in Red Hill drinking water well. December 2, 2021. Hawaii News Now. May 21, 2022. February 10, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220210094311/https://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/2021/12/03/navy-confirms-presence-petroleum-products-red-hill-drinking-water/. live.
  39. News: Jedra. Christina. Navy Confirms Petroleum Was Detected In The Red Hill Well. December 2, 2021. Honolulu Civil Beat. May 21, 2022. May 21, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220521145859/https://www.civilbeat.org/2021/12/navy-confirms-petroleum-was-detected-in-the-red-hill-well/. live.
  40. News: Jowers. Karen. Oil found in water for military families in Hawaii, Navy confirms; some residents moving to hotels. December 3, 2021. Military Times. February 13, 2021. December 3, 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20211203223234/https://www.militarytimes.com/pay-benefits/2021/12/03/oil-found-in-water-for-military-families-in-hawaii-navy-confirms-some-residents-moving-to-hotels/. live.
  41. News: Britzky. Haley. The Army showed the Navy how not to mismanage the contaminated water crisis in Hawaii. December 30, 2021. Task & Purpose. May 21, 2022. May 21, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220521131327/https://taskandpurpose.com/analysis/army-navy-response-hawaii-water-contamination/. live.
  42. News: Lau. Joel. These Displaced Red Hill Families Are Tired Of Staying In A Waikiki Hotel. February 24, 2022. Honolulu Civil Beat. May 21, 2022. May 21, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220521145901/https://www.civilbeat.org/2022/02/these-displaced-red-hill-families-are-tired-of-staying-in-a-waikiki-hotel/. live.
  43. News: Cocke. Sophie. Samples from Navy's Red Hill drinking water shaft contained diesel fuel 350 times above safe levels. December 11, 2021. Honolulu Star-Advertiser. February 9, 2022. subscription. . February 9, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220209125124/https://www.staradvertiser.com/2021/12/11/hawaii-news/samples-from-navys-red-hill-drinking-water-shaft-show-unsafe-levels/. live.
  44. News: Hofschneider. Anita. State Finds Red Hill Contamination Far Above Health Thresholds For Drinking Water. December 10, 2021. Honolulu Civil Beat. February 13, 2022. February 13, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220213115323/https://www.civilbeat.org/2021/12/state-finds-red-hill-contamination-far-above-state-standards-for-drinking-water/. live.
  45. News: Jedra. Christina. Navy Says Second Well Might Not Be Contaminated, Prompting Confusion. December 9, 2021. Honolulu Civil Beat. February 13, 2022. February 13, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220213115325/https://www.civilbeat.org/2021/12/navy-says-second-well-might-not-be-contaminated-prompting-confusion/. live.
  46. News: Olson. Wyatt. Fuel-tainted water raises questions about integrity of second Navy well in Hawaii. December 10, 2021. Stars and Stripes. February 9, 2022. February 9, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220209130629/https://www.stripes.com/theaters/asia_pacific/2021-12-09/fuel-tainted-tap-water-joint-base-pearl-harbor-hickam-hawaii-3917458.html. live.
  47. Hawaiʻi Department of Health. DOH, CDC/ATDSR Red Hill Survey Results Assess Health Effects of Contamination. May 26, 2022. June 2, 2022. May 28, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220528062701/https://health.hawaii.gov/news/newsroom/doh-cdc-atsdr-red-hill-survey-results-assess-health-effects-of-contamination/. live.
  48. News: Bodon. Sabrina. 87% of CDC survey participants reported health symptoms from Red Hill water contamination. May 27, 2022. Hawaiʻi Public Radio. June 2, 2022. May 30, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220530111112/https://www.hawaiipublicradio.org/local-news/2022-05-27/survey-responses-reported-health-symptoms-from-water-navy-red-hill-contamination. live.
  49. News: Cocke. Sophie. Survey details ills from Navy's fuel-tainted water. May 27, 2022. Honolulu Star-Advertiser. . June 14, 2022. subscription. June 9, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220609185539/https://www.staradvertiser.com/2022/05/27/hawaii-news/survey-details-ills-from-navys-fuel-tainted-water/. live.
  50. News: Knodell. Kevin. Navy divers work to remove fuel contaminants at Red Hill water facility. December 13, 2021. Honolulu Star-Advertiser. February 13, 2022. subscription. . February 13, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220213115325/https://www.staradvertiser.com/2021/12/13/hawaii-news/navy-divers-work-to-remove-fuel-contaminants-at-red-hill-water-facility/. live.
  51. News: Schenfeld. Nikki. Navy gives inside look of cleanup efforts at Red Hill Shaft. December 12, 2021. KHON2. May 30, 2022. May 30, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220530111034/https://www.khon2.com/local-news/navy-gives-inside-look-of-cleanup-efforts-at-red-hill-shaft/. live.
  52. News: Kim. Scott. Cruz. Catherine. Navy begins flushing water from Red Hill Shaft into Halawa Stream. January 31, 2022. Hawaiʻi Public Radio. May 30, 2022. May 30, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220530111036/https://www.hawaiipublicradio.org/local-news/2022-01-31/navy-to-begin-flushing-contaminated-water-from-red-hill-shaft. live.
  53. News: Jedra. Christina. Water From Contaminated Red Hill Well Will Be Treated, Discharged Into Halawa Stream. January 27, 2022. Honolulu Civil Beat. May 30, 2022. May 30, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220530111035/https://www.civilbeat.org/2022/01/water-from-contaminated-red-hill-well-will-be-treated-discharged-into-halawa-stream/. live.
  54. Hawaiʻi Department of Health. DOH Grants Permit to Navy to Remove Fuel Contamination From Red Hill Shaft. January 27, 2022. May 30, 2022. May 30, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220530111035/https://health.hawaii.gov/news/newsroom/doh-grants-permit-to-navy-to-remove-fuel-contamination-from-red-hill-shaft/. live.
  55. News: Cocke. Sophie. No end in sight for Red Hill water pumping. June 28, 2022. Honolulu Star-Advertiser. . subscription. June 28, 2022. June 28, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220628101351/https://www.staradvertiser.com/2022/06/28/hawaii-news/no-end-in-sight-for-red-hill-water-pumping/. live.
  56. News: Jedra. Christina. Some Military Families Still Don't Trust Their Water. The Navy Says It's Safe. May 13, 2022. Honolulu Civil Beat. May 30, 2022. June 10, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220610053511/https://www.civilbeat.org/2022/05/some-military-families-still-dont-trust-their-water-the-navy-says-its-safe/. live.
  57. News: Treisman. Rachel. Thousands displaced from Oahu military base due to contamination in Navy water system. December 15, 2021. NPR. February 14, 2022. February 15, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220215094815/https://www.npr.org/2021/12/15/1064514935/water-contamination-hawaii. live.
  58. News: Richardson. Mahealani. Navy begins filtering tap water, but it could be a while before displaced residents can go home. December 20, 2021. Hawaii News Now. June 2, 2022. June 2, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220602121526/https://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/2021/12/21/navy-begins-filtering-its-tap-water/. live.
  59. News: Kime. Patricia. Navy Making Progress Flushing Contaminated Water at Pearl Harbor as CDC Wants to Hear from Residents. January 24, 2022. Military.com. May 30, 2022. May 30, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220530111035/https://www.military.com/daily-news/2022/01/24/navy-making-progress-flushing-contaminated-water-pearl-harbor-cdc-wants-hear-residents.html. live.
  60. News: . Navy completes initial flushing of water system lines serving Joint Base Pearl Harbor-Hickam. January 21, 2022. Honolulu Star-Advertiser. May 30, 2022. May 30, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220530111034/https://www.staradvertiser.com/2022/01/21/breaking-news/navy-completes-initial-flushing-of-water-system-lines-serving-joint-base-pearl-harbor-hickam/. live.
  61. Hawaiʻi Department of Health. DOH Declares Four Navy Drinking Water Distribution System Zones Safe. March 18, 2022. May 30, 2022. May 10, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220510223700/https://health.hawaii.gov/news/newsroom/doh-declares-four-navy-drinking-water-distribution-system-zones-safe/. live.
  62. Web site: Consillio. Kristen. 'This was supposed to be…paradise' | Military mom on Ford Island leaving Hawaii due to ongoing water contamination at home|date=July 1, 2022. KITV. July 5, 2022.
  63. News: . In wake of well shutdowns, BWS asks residents to use water wisely to avoid restrictions. December 9, 2021. Hawaii News Now. June 2, 2022. December 10, 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20211210002412/https://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/2021/12/09/live-board-water-supply-discusses-states-latest-findings-tainted-water-probe/. live.
  64. News: Jedra. Christina. Honolulu Water Customers Asked To Reduce Water Usage. March 10, 2022. Honolulu Civil Beat. June 2, 2022. April 12, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220412115633/https://www.civilbeat.org/2022/03/honolulu-water-customers-asked-to-reduce-water-usage/. live.
  65. News: Yee. Chelsea. Moore. Bryce. BWS explains request for water conservation on Oahu. March 10, 2022. KHON2. June 12, 2022. June 8, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220608080424/https://www.khon2.com/local-news/bws-explains-request-for-water-conservation-on-oahu/. live.
  66. Honolulu Board of Water Supply. Signs of Strain on Beretania Wells Prompts Call for All Oahu Water Users to Voluntarily Reduce Use by 10%. March 10, 2022. June 2, 2022. April 28, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220428023758/https://www.boardofwatersupply.com/news-events/news-releases/2022/signs-of-strain-on-wells-prompts-conservation-call. live.
  67. News: Bodon. Sabrina. Voluntary water conservation is paying off for Oʻahu, Board of Water Supply says. May 25, 2022. Hawaiʻi Public Radio. June 2, 2022. June 2, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220602121527/https://www.hawaiipublicradio.org/local-news/2022-05-25/voluntary-water-conservation-honolulu-board-of-water-supply-red-hill-housing. live.
  68. News: Blair. Allyson. As Red Hill crisis drags on, Board of Water Supply races to drill new wells. September 12, 2022. Hawaii News Now. September 14, 2022.
  69. Web site: . August 4, 2022 . BWS detects petroleum contamination in Moanalua Valley monitoring well . August 18, 2022 . Hawaii News Now . en.
  70. News: Jedra. Christina. Navy's Opposition To Governor's Red Hill Order Raises Question Of State Versus Federal Power. December 7, 2021. Honolulu Civil Beat. February 9, 2022. February 10, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220210094313/https://www.civilbeat.org/2021/12/navys-opposition-to-governors-red-hill-order-raises-questions-of-state-versus-federal-power/. live.
  71. News: Cocke. Sophie. Knodell. Kevin. State orders shutdown of Navy's Red Hill fuel facility. December 7, 2021. Honolulu Star-Advertiser. . February 9, 2022. subscription. February 9, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220209125121/https://www.staradvertiser.com/2021/12/07/hawaii-news/state-orders-shutdown-of-navys-red-hill-fuel-facility/. live.
  72. News: . State orders Navy to suspend operations at Red Hill, de-fuel underground tanks. December 6, 2021. Hawaii News Now. June 12, 2022. February 10, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220210104413/https://www.hawaiinewsnow.com/2021/12/07/live-governor-state-health-officials-discuss-navys-water-crisis/. live.
  73. News: Jedra. Christina. Hearing Officer Calls For Closing Red Hill Fuel Facility To Avert 'Imminent Threat'. December 27, 2021. Honolulu Civil Beat. February 22, 2022. February 22, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220222121302/https://www.civilbeat.org/2021/12/hearing-officer-calls-for-closing-red-hill-fuel-facility-to-avert-imminent-threat/. live.
  74. News: Cocke. Sophie. Red Hill fuel facility a 'ticking time bomb,' Hawaii official says. December 28, 2021. Honolulu Star-Advertiser. . June 12, 2022. subscription. December 28, 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20211228105145/https://www.staradvertiser.com/2021/12/28/hawaii-news/red-hill-fuel-facility-a-ticking-time-bomb-hawaii-official-says/. live.
  75. News: Jedra. Christina. Hawaii Health Department Affirms Order To Shut Down Red Hill Fuel Tanks. January 3, 2022. Honolulu Civil Beat. June 12, 2022. January 12, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220112083618/https://www.civilbeat.org/2022/01/hawaii-health-department-affirms-order-to-shut-down-red-hill-fuel-tanks/. live.
  76. News: Cocke. Sophie. Hawaii Department of Health upholds emergency order to drain Navy's Red Hill fuel tanks. January 4, 2022. Honolulu Star-Advertiser. June 12, 2022. subscription. June 12, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220612131833/https://www.staradvertiser.com/2022/01/04/hawaii-news/hawaii-department-of-health-upholds-emergency-order-to-drain-navys-red-hill-fuel-tanks/. live.
  77. News: Demirjian. Karoun. Horton. Alex. Pentagon to shutter fuel storage facility that contaminated drinking water at Pearl Harbor. March 7, 2022. Washington Post. April 12, 2022. March 13, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220313074809/https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/2022/03/07/red-hill-fuel-storage-pear-harbor/. live.
  78. News: Jedra. Christina. Feds Agree To Stop Fighting Order To Drain Red Hill. April 22, 2022. Honolulu Civil Beat. June 14, 2022. May 18, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220518104014/https://www.civilbeat.org/beat/feds-agree-to-stop-fighting-order-to-drain-red-hill/. live.
  79. News: Cocke. Sophie. Navy drops lawsuit against Hawaii over defueling Red Hill. April 23, 2022. Honolulu Star-Advertiser. . June 14, 2022. subscription. April 24, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220424084336/https://www.staradvertiser.com/2022/04/23/hawaii-news/navy-drops-lawsuit-against-hawaii-over-defueling-red-hill/. live.
  80. News: McAvoy. Audrey. Military drops appeal of Hawaiʻi order to drain fuel tanks. April 25, 2022. Hawaiʻi Public Radio. Associated Press. June 14, 2022. June 14, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220614110912/https://www.hawaiipublicradio.org/local-news/2022-04-25/us-military-drops-appeal-of-hawaii-order-to-drain-fuel-tanks. live.
  81. News: Cocke. Sophie. Navy given 6 months to submit plan for closing Red Hill. May 11, 2022. Honolulu Star-Advertiser. . June 14, 2022. subscription. June 14, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220614105600/https://www.staradvertiser.com/2022/05/11/hawaii-news/navy-given-6-months-to-submit-plan-for-closing-red-hill/. live.
  82. News: Cruz. Catherine. Hawaiʻi issues 2nd emergency order to Navy to defuel and close Red Hill. May 11, 2022. Hawaiʻi Public Radio. June 14, 2022. June 14, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220614153103/https://www.hawaiipublicradio.org/the-conversation/2022-05-11/hawaii-issues-2nd-emergency-order-to-defuel-red-hill-6-months-after-crisis-began. live.
  83. News: Knodell. Kevin. Pentagon releases 2-year plan to drain Red Hill fuel tanks. July 1, 2022. Honolulu Star-Advertiser. . subscription. July 11, 2022.
  84. News: . Read the third-party assessment of the Navy Red Hill fuel storage facility. May 27, 2022. Hawaiʻi Public Radio. June 14, 2022. June 14, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220614110912/https://www.hawaiipublicradio.org/local-news/2022-05-27/navy-releases-assessment-of-red-hill-fuel-storage-military. live.
  85. News: Jedra. Christina. Consultant: Fixing Red Hill's Decrepit Infrastructure Could Take 2 Years. May 27, 2022. Honolulu Civil Beat. June 14, 2022. June 9, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220609135653/https://www.civilbeat.org/2022/05/consultant-fixing-red-hills-decrepit-infrastructure-could-take-2-years/. live.
  86. News: Cocke. Sophie. Major repairs needed for Red Hill fuel to be drained. May 28, 2022. Honolulu Star-Advertiser. . June 14, 2022. subscription. June 14, 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220614111013/https://www.staradvertiser.com/2022/05/28/hawaii-news/major-repairs-needed-for-red-hill-fuel-to-be-drained/. live.
  87. News: Ordonio. Cassie. Oahu Water Chief Urges Navy To Drain Red Hill Fuel Tanks Faster. July 1, 2022. Honolulu Civil Beat. July 11, 2022.
  88. News: Cruz . Catherine . Military families will have their day in court over 2021 fuel-contaminated water . 30 April 2024 . Hawai'i Public Radio . April 25, 2024.
  89. News: Marklay . Chloe . Over 100 military families sue Navy over health impacts of fuel contamination at Red Hill . KITV / Island News . December 9, 2022.
  90. News: Kime . Patricia . Legal Claims over Red Hill Water Contamination Balloon to 4,600 as November Filing Deadline Looms . 1 May 2024 . Military.com . September 28, 2023.

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