Quadratrix of Hippias explained

The quadratrix or trisectrix of Hippias (also quadratrix of Dinostratus) is a curve which is created by a uniform motion. It is one of the oldest examples for a kinematic curve (a curve created through motion). Its discovery is attributed to the Greek sophist Hippias of Elis, who used it around 420 BC in an attempt to solve the angle trisection problem (hence trisectrix). Later around 350 BC Dinostratus used it in an attempt to solve the problem of squaring the circle (hence quadratrix).

Definition

ABCD

, and an inscribed quarter circle arc centered at

with radius equal to the side of the square. Let

be a point that travels with a constant angular velocity along the arc from

, and let

be a point that travels simultaneously with a constant velocity from

along line segment

\overline{AD}

, so that

and

start at the same time at

and arrive at the same time at

and

. Then the quadratrix is defined as the locus of the intersection of line segment

\overline{AE}

with the parallel line to

\overline{AB}

through

If one places such a square

ABCD

with side length

in a (Cartesian) coordinate system with the side

\overline{AB}

on the

-axis and with vertex

at the origin, then the quadratix is described by a planar curve

\gamma:(0,\tfrac{\pi}{2}] → R²

with

\gamma(t)=\beginx(t)\\y(t)\end=\begin\frac t\cot(t)\\\frac t\end

This description can also be used to give an analytical rather than a geometric definition of the quadratrix and to extend it beyond the

(0,\tfrac{\pi}{2}]

interval. It does however remain undefined at the singularities of

\cot(t)

except for the case of

t=0

where the singularity is removable due to

\lim_t\tot\cot(t)=1

and hence yields a continuous planar curve on the interval

(-\pi,\pi)

To describe the quadratrix as simple function rather than planar curve, it is advantageous to swap the

-axis and the

-axis, that is to place the side

\overline{AB}

on the

-axis rather than on the

-axis. Then the quadratrix forms the graph of the function

f(x) = x \cdot \cot\left(\frac \cdot x \right)

Angle trisection

The trisection of an arbitrary angle using only ruler and compasses is impossible. However, if the quadratrix is allowed as an additional tool, it is possible to divide an arbitrary angle into

equal segments and hence a trisection (

n=3

) becomes possible. In practical terms the quadratrix can be drawn with the help of a template or a quadratrix compass (see drawing).

Since, by the definition of the quadratrix, the traversed angle is proportional to the traversed segment of the associated squares' side dividing that segment on the side into

equal parts yields a partition of the associated angle as well. Dividing the line segment into

equal parts with ruler and compass is possible due to the intercept theorem.

For a given angle

\angleBAE

(at most 90°) construct a square

ABCD

over its leg

\overline{AB}

. The other leg of the angle intersects the quadratrix of the square in a point

and the parallel line to the leg

\overline{AB}

through

intersects the side

\overline{AD}

of the square in

. Now the segment

\overline{AF}

corresponds to the angle

\angleBAE

and due to the definition of the quadratrix any division of the segment

\overline{AF}

into

equal segments yields a corresponding division of the angle

\angleBAE

into

equal angles. To divide the segment

\overline{AF}

into

equal segments, draw any ray starting at

with

equal segments (of arbitrary length) on it. Connect the endpoint

of the last segment to

and draw lines parallel to

\overline{OF}

through all the endpoints of the remaining

n-1

segments on

\overline{AO}

. These parallel lines divide the segment

\overline{AF}

into

equal segments. Now draw parallel lines to

\overline{AB}

through the endpoints of those segments on

\overline{AF}

, intersecting the trisectrix. Connecting their points of intersection to

yields a partition of angle

\angleBAE

into

equal angles.

Since not all points of the trisectrix can be constructed with circle and compass alone, it is really required as an additional tool next to compass and circle. However it is possible to construct a dense subset of the trisectrix by circle and compass, so while one cannot assure an exact division of an angle into

parts without a given trisectrix, one can construct an arbitrarily close approximation by circle and compass alone.

Squaring of the circle

Squaring the circle with ruler and compass alone is impossible. However, if one allows the quadratrix of Hippias as an additional construction tool, the squaring of the circle becomes possible due to Dinostratus' theorem. It lets one turn a quarter circle into square of the same area, hence a square with twice the side length has the same area as the full circle.

According to Dinostratus' theorem the quadratrix divides one of the sides of the associated square in a ratio of

\tfrac{2}{\pi}

. For a given quarter circle with radius r one constructs the associated square ABCD with side length r. The quadratrix intersect the side in J with

\left|\overline{AJ}\right|=\tfrac{2}{\pi}r

. Now one constructs a line segment of length r being perpendicular to . Then the line through A and K intersects the extension of the side in L and from the intercept theorem follows

\left|\overline{BL}\right|=\tfrac{\pi}{2}r

. Extending to the right by a new line segment

\left|\overline{BO}\right|=\tfrac{r}{2}

yields the rectangle BLNO with sides and the area of which matches the area of the quarter circle. This rectangle can be transformed into a square of the same area with the help of Euclid's geometric mean theorem. One extends the side by a line segment

\left|\overline{OQ}\right|=\left|\overline{BO}\right|=\tfrac{r}{2}

and draws a half circle to right of, which has as its diameter. The extension of meets the half circle in R and due to Thales' theorem the line segment is the altitude of the right-angled triangle QNR. Hence the geometric mean theorem can be applied, which means that forms the side of a square OUSR with the same area as the rectangle BLNO and hence as the quarter circle.

Note that the point J, where the quadratrix meets the side of the associated square, is one of the points of the quadratrix that cannot be constructed with ruler and compass alone and not even with the help of the quadratrix compass based on the original geometric definition (see drawing). This is due to the fact that the two uniformly moving lines coincide and hence there exists no unique intersection point. However relying on the generalized definition of the quadratrix as a function or planar curve allows for J being a point on the quadratrix.

Historical sources

The quadratrix is mentioned in the works of Proclus (412–485), Pappus of Alexandria (3rd and 4th centuries) and Iamblichus (c. 240 – c. 325). Proclus names Hippias as the inventor of a curve called quadratrix and describes somewhere else how Hippias has applied the curve on the trisection problem. Pappus only mentions how a curve named quadratrix was used by Dinostratus, Nicomedes and others to square the circle. He neither mentions Hippias nor attributes the invention of the quadratrix to a particular person. Iamblichus just writes in a single line, that a curve called a quadratrix was used by Nicomedes to square the circle.

From Proclus' name for the curve, it is conceivable that Hippias himself used it for squaring the circle or some other curvilinear figure. However, most historians of mathematics assume that Hippias invented the curve, but used it only for the trisection of angles. According to this theory, its use for squaring the circle only occurred decades later and was due to mathematicians like Dinostratus and Nicomedes. This interpretation of the historical sources goes back to the German mathematician and historian Moritz Cantor.

External links

Michael D. Huberty, Ko Hayashi, Chia Vang: Hippias' Quadratrix

Quadratrix of Hippias explained

Definition

Angle trisection

Squaring of the circle

Historical sources

See also

Further reading

External links