| Punjab | |
| Native Name: | ਪੰਜਾਬ (Punjabi Gurmukhi) پنجاب (Punjabi Shahmukhi) |
| Native Name Lang: | pa |
| Settlement Type: | Region |
| Nickname: | Land of the Five Rivers |
| Subdivision Type: | Countries |
| Subdivision Name: |  Pakistan India |
| Subdivision Type2: | Largest city |
| Subdivision Name2: | Lahore |
| Subdivision Type3: | Second largest city |
| Subdivision Name3: | Faisalabad |
| Named For: | Five tributaries of the Indus River |
| Demographics Type1: | Demographics |
| Demographics1 Title1: | Ethnic groups |
| Demographics1 Info1: | Punjabis Minor: Saraikis, Hindkowans, Haryanvis, Pashtuns, Himachalis, Dogras, Muhajirs, Kashmiris, Biharis[1] |
| Demographics1 Title2: | Languages |
| Demographics1 Info2: | Punjabi, its dialects and varieties and others |
| Demographics1 Title3: | Religions |
| Demographics1 Info3: | Islam (60%) Hinduism (29%) Sikhism (10%) Christianity (1%) Others (<1%) |
| Unit Pref: | Metric |
| Area Total Km2: | 458,354.5 |
| Population Total: | million |
| Population Density Km2: | auto |
| Population Demonym: | Punjabi |
| Timezone1: | IST in India |
| Utc Offset1: | +05:30 |
| Timezone2: | PKT in Pakistan |
| Utc Offset2: | +05:00 |
| Footnotes: | Demographics based on British Punjab's colonial borders |
Punjab (; in Panjabi; Punjabi pə̞ɲˈdʒäːb/; also romanised as Panjāb or Panj-Āb), also known as the Land of the Five Rivers, is a geopolitical, cultural, and historical region in South Asia. It is specifically located in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent, comprising areas of modern-day eastern-Pakistan and northwestern-India. Punjab's major cities are Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi, Gujranwala, Multan, Ludhiana, Amritsar, Sialkot, Chandigarh, Shimla, Jalandhar, Patiala, Gurugram, and Bahawalpur.
Punjab grew out of the settlements along the five rivers, which served as an important route to the Near East as early as the ancient Indus Valley civilization, dating back to,[2] followed by migrations of the Indo-Aryan peoples. Agriculture has been the chief economic feature of the Punjab and formed the foundation of Punjabi culture.[2] The Punjab emerged as an important agricultural region, especially following the Green Revolution during the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s, and has been described as the "breadbasket of both India and Pakistan."[2]
Punjab's history is a tapestry of conflict, marked by the rise of indigenous dynasties and empires. Following Alexander the Great's invasion in the 4th century BCE, Chandragupta Maurya allied with Punjabi republics to establish the Maurya Empire.[3] Successive reigns of the Indo-Greek Kingdom, Kushan Empire, and Indo-Scythians followed, but were ultimately defeated by Eastern Punjab Janapadas such as the Yaudheya, Trigarta Kingdom, Audumbaras, Arjunayanas, and Kuninda Kingdom.[4] [5] In the 5th and 6th centuries CE, Punjab faced devastating Hunnic invasions, yet the Vardhana dynasty emerged triumphant, ruling over Northern India.[6] The 8th century CE witnessed the Hindu Shahis rise, known for defeating the Saffarid dynasty and the Samanid Empire. Concurrently, the Tomara dynasty and Katoch Dynasty controlled eastern Punjab, resisting Ghaznavid invasions.[7] Islam took hold in Western Punjab under Ghaznavid rule. The Delhi Sultanate then succeeded the Ghaznavids in which the Tughlaq dynasty and Sayyid dynasty Sultans are described as Punjabi origin.[8] [9] The 15th century saw the emergence of the Langah Sultanate in south Punjab, acclaimed for its victory over the Lodi dynasty. After the Mughal Empire's decline in the 18th century, Punjab experienced a period of anarchy. In 1799 CE, the Sikh Empire established its rule, undertaking conquests into Kashmir and Durrani Empire held territories, shaping the diverse and complex history of Punjab.
The boundaries of the region are ill-defined and focus on historical accounts and thus the geographical definition of the term "Punjab" has changed over time. In the 16th century Mughal Empire the Punjab region was divided into three, with the Lahore Subah in the west, the Delhi Subah in the east and the Multan Subah in the south. Under the British Raj until the Partition of India in 1947, the Punjab Province encompassed the present Indian states and union territories of Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Chandigarh, and Delhi, and the Pakistani regions of Punjab, and Islamabad Capital Territory.
The predominant ethnolinguistic group of the Punjab region are the Punjabi people, who speak the Indo-Aryan Punjabi language. Punjabi Muslims are the majority in West Punjab (Pakistan), while Punjabi Sikhs are the majority in East Punjab (India). Other religious groups include Hinduism, Christianity, Jainism, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, and Ravidassia.
The name Punjab is of Persian origin, with its two parts (and) being cognates of the Sanskrit words and, of the same meaning.[10] The word pañjāb is thus calque of Indo-Aryan "pañca-áp" and means "The Land of Five Waters", referring to the rivers Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Beas.[11] All are tributaries of the Indus River, the Sutlej being the largest. References to a land of five rivers may be found in the Mahabharata, in which one of the regions is named as Panchanada .[12] [13] Earlier, the Punjab was known as Sapta Sindhu or Hapta Hendu in Avesta, translating into "The Land of Seven Rivers", with the other two being Indus and Kabul.[14] The ancient Greeks referred to the region as Pentapotamía (Greek, Modern (1453-);: Πενταποταμία), which has the same meaning as that of Punjab.[15] [16] [17]
See main article: History of Punjab.
The Punjab region is noted as the site of one of the earliest urban societies, the Indus Valley Civilization which flourished from about and declined rapidly 1,000 years later, following the Indo-Aryan migrations that overran the region in waves between and .[18] Frequent intertribal wars stimulated the growth of larger groupings ruled by chieftains and kings, who ruled local kingdoms known as Mahajanapadas. The rise of kingdoms and dynasties in the Punjab is chronicled in the ancient Hindu epics, particularly the Mahabharata. The epic battles described in the Mahabharata are chronicled as being fought in what is now the state of Haryana and historic Punjab. The Gandharas, Kambojas, Trigartas, Andhra, Pauravas, Bahlikas (Bactrian settlers of the Punjab), Yaudheyas, and others sided with the Kauravas in the great battle fought at Kurukshetra.[19] According to Fauja Singh and L.M. Joshi: "There is no doubt that the Kambojas, Daradas, Kaikayas, Andhra, Pauravas, Yaudheyas, Malavas, Saindhavas, and Kurus had jointly contributed to the heroic tradition and composite culture of ancient Punjab."[20]
The earliest known notable local king of this region was known as King Porus, who fought the famous Battle of the Hydaspes against Alexander the Great. His kingdom spanned between rivers Hydaspes (Jhelum) and Acesines (Chenab); Strabo had held the territory to contain almost 300 cities.[21] He (alongside Abisares) had a hostile relationship with the Kingdom of Taxila which was ruled by his extended family. When the armies of Alexander crossed the Indus in its eastward migration, probably in Udabhandapura, he was greeted by the ruler of Taxila, Omphis. Omphis had hoped to force both Porus and Abisares into submission leveraging the might of Alexander's forces and diplomatic missions were mounted, but while Abisares accepted the submission, Porus refused. This led Alexander to seek for a face-off with Porus. Thus began the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BCE; the exact site remains unknown. The battle is thought to be resulted in a decisive Greek victory; however, A. B. Bosworth warns against an uncritical reading of Greek sources that were exaggerated.
Alexander later founded two cities—Nicaea at the site of victory and Bucephalous at the battle-ground, in memory of his horse, who died soon after the battle. Later, tetradrachms would be minted depicting Alexander on horseback, armed with a sarissa and attacking a pair of Indians on an elephant.[22] Porus refused to surrender and wandered about atop an elephant, until he was wounded and his force routed. When asked by Alexander how he wished to be treated, Porus replied "Treat me as a king would treat another king".[23] Despite the apparently one-sided results, Alexander was impressed by Porus and chose to not depose him.[24] [25] Not only was his territory reinstated but also expanded with Alexander's forces annexing the territories of Glausaes, who ruled to the northeast of Porus' kingdom.
After Alexander's death in, Perdiccas became the regent of his empire, and after Perdiccas's murder in, Antipater became the new regent.[26] According to Diodorus, Antipater recognized Porus's authority over the territories along the Indus River. However, Eudemus, who had served as Alexander's satrap in the Punjab region, treacherously killed Porus.[27]
Chandragupta Maurya, with the aid of Kautilya, had established his empire around . The early life of Chandragupta Maurya is not clear. Kautilya enrolled the young Chandragupta in the university at Taxila to educate him in the arts, sciences, logic, mathematics, warfare, and administration. Megasthenes' account, as it has survived in Greek texts that quote him, states that Alexander the Great and Chandragupta met, which if true would mean his rule started earlier than . As Alexander never crossed the Beas River, so his territory probably lay in the Punjab region. He has also been variously identified with Shashigupta (who has same etymology as Chandragupta) of Paropamisadae (western Punjab) on the account of same life events.[28] With the help of the small Janapadas of Punjab, he had gone on to conquer much of the North West Indian subcontinent.[29] He then defeated the Nanda rulers in Pataliputra to capture the throne. Chandragupta Maurya fought Alexander's successor in the east, Seleucus when the latter invaded. In a peace treaty, Seleucus ceded all territories west of the Indus and offered a marriage, including a portion of Bactria, while Chandragupta granted Seleucus 500 elephants. The chief of the Mauryan military was also always a Yaudheyan warrior according to the Bijaygadh Pillar inscription, which states that the Yaudheyas elected their own chief who also served as the general for the Mauryans.[30] [31] The Mauryan military was also made up vastly of men from the Punjab Janapadas.[32]
Chandragupta's rule was very well organised. The Mauryans had an autocratic and centralised administration system, aided by a council of ministers, and also a well-established espionage system. Much of Chandragupta's success is attributed to Chanakya, the author of the Arthashastra. According to Buddhist sources Chanakya was native of the Punjab who resided in Taxila. Much of the Mauryan rule had a strong bureaucracy that had regulated tax collection, trade and commerce, industrial activities, mining, statistics and data, maintenance of public places, and upkeep of temples.
In the 9th century, the Hindu Shahi dynasty originating from the region of Oddiyana,[33] [34] replaced the Taank kingdom, ruling Western Punjab along with eastern Afghanistan. The tribe of the Gakhars/Khokhars, formed a large part of the Hindu Shahi army according to the Persian historian Firishta. The most notable rulers of the empire were Lalliya, Bhimadeva and Jayapala who were accredited for military victories.
Lalliya had reclaimed the territory at and around Kabul between 879 and 901 CE after it had been lost under his predecessor to the Saffarid dynasty. He was described as a fearsome Shahi. Two of his ministers reconstructed by Rahman as Toramana and Asata are said to of have taken advantage of Amr al-Layth's preoccupation with rebellions in Khorasan, by successfully raiding Ghazna around 900 CE.
After a defeat in Eastern Afghanistan suffered on the Shahi ally Lawik, Bhimadeva mounted a combined attack around 963 CE. Abu Ishaq Ibrahim was expelled from Ghazna and Shahi-Lawik strongholds were restored in Kabul and adjacent areas. This victory appears to have been commemorated in the Hund Slab Inscription (HSI).
The Turkic Ghaznavids in the tenth century overthrew the Hindu Shahis and consequently ruled for 157 years in Western Punjab, gradually declining as a power until the Ghurid conquest of Lahore by Muhammad of Ghor in 1186, deposing the last Ghaznavid ruler Khusrau Malik.[35] Following the death of Muhammad of Ghor in 1206 by Punjabi assassins near the Jhelum river, the Ghurid state fragmented and was replaced in northern India by the Delhi Sultanate.
The Tughlaq dynasty's reign formally started in 1320 in Delhi when Ghazi Malik assumed the throne under the title of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq after defeating Khusrau Khan at the Battle of Lahrawat.
During Ghazi Malik's reign, in 1321 he sent his eldest son Jauna Khan, later known as Muhammad bin Tughlaq, to Deogir to plunder the Hindu kingdoms of Arangal and Tilang (now part of Telangana). His first attempt was a failure.[36] Four months later, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq sent large army reinforcements for his son asking him to attempt plundering Arangal and Tilang again.[37] This time Jauna Khan succeeded and Arangal fell, it was renamed to Sultanpur, and all plundered wealth, state treasury and captives were transferred from the captured kingdom to the Delhi Sultanate.The Muslim aristocracy in Lukhnauti (Bengal) invited Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq to extend his coup and expand eastwards into Bengal by attacking Shamsuddin Firoz Shah, which he did over 1324–1325 CE, after placing Delhi under control of his son Ulugh Khan, and then leading his army to Lukhnauti. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq succeeded in this campaign.
After his father's death in 1325 CE, Muhammad bin Tughlaq assumed power and his rule saw the empire expand to most of the Indian subcontinent, its peak in terms of geographical reach.[38] He attacked and plundered Malwa, Gujarat, Lakhnauti, Chittagong, Mithila and many other regions in India.[39] His distant campaigns were expensive, although each raid and attack on non-Muslim kingdoms brought new looted wealth and ransom payments from captured people. The extended empire was difficult to retain, and rebellions became commonplace all over the Indian subcontinent.[40] Muhammad bin Tughlaq died in March 1351 while trying to chase and punish people for rebellion and their refusal to pay taxes in Sindh and Gujarat.[41]
After Muhammad bin Tughlaq's death, the Tughlaq empire was in a state of disarray with many regions assuming independence; it was at this point that Firuz Shah Tughlaq, Ghazi Malik's nephew, took reign. His father's name was Rajab (the younger brother of Ghazi Malik) who had the title Sipahsalar. His mother Naila was a Punjabi Bhatti princess (daughter of Rana Mal) from Dipalpur and Abohar according to the historian William Crooke.[42] [43] The southern states had drifted away from the Sultanate and there were rebellions in Gujarat and Sindh, while "Bengal asserted its independence." He led expeditions against Bengal in 1353 and 1358. He captured Cuttack, desecrated the Jagannath Temple, Puri, and forced Raja Gajpati of Jajnagar in Orissa to pay tribute.[44] [45] He also laid siege to the Kangra Fort and forced Nagarkot to pay tribute.[46] During this time, Tatar Khan of Greater Khorasan attacked Punjab, but he was defeated and his face slashed by the sword given by Feroz Shah Tughlaq to Raja Kailas Pal who ruled the Nagarkot region in Punjab.[47]
See also: Sayyid dynasty. Khizr Khan established the Sayyid dynasty, the fourth dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate after the fall of the Tughlaqs.[48]
Following Timur's 1398 sack of Delhi, he appointed Khizr Khan as deputy of Multan (Punjab). He held Lahore, Dipalpur, Multan and Upper Sindh.[49] [50] Khizr Khan captured Delhi on 28 May 1414 thereby establishing the Sayyid dynasty. Khizr Khan did not take up the title of sultan, but continued the fiction of his allegiance to Timur as Rayat-i-Ala(vassal) of the Timurids - initially that of Timur, and later his son Shah Rukh.[51] After the accession of Khizr Khan, the Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and Sindh were reunited under the Delhi Sultanate, where he spent his time subduing rebellions.[52] Punjab was the powerbase of Khizr Khan and his successors as the bulk of the Delhi army during their reigns came from Multan and Dipalpur.[53]
Khizr Khan was succeeded by his son Mubarak Shah after his death on 20 May 1421. Mubarak Shah referred to himself as Muizz-ud-Din Mubarak Shah on his coins, removing the Timurid name with the name of the Caliph, and declared himself a Shah.[54] [55] He defeated the advancing Hoshang Shah Ghori, ruler of Malwa Sultanate and forced him to pay heavy tribute early in his reign.[56] Mubarak Shah also put down the rebellion of Jasrath Khokhar and managed to fend off multiple invasions by the Timurids of Kabul.[57]
The last ruler of the Sayyids, Ala-ud-Din, voluntarily abdicated the throne of the Delhi Sultanate in favour of Bahlul Khan Lodi on 19 April 1451, and left for Badaun, where he died in 1478.
In 1445, Sultan Qutbudin, chief of Langah (a Jat Zamindar tribe),[58] [59] [60] [61] established the Langah Sultanate in Multan after the fall of the Sayyid dynasty. Husseyn Langah I (reigned 1456–1502) was the second ruler of Langah Sultanate. He undertook military campaigns in Punjab and captured Chiniot and Shorkot from the Lodis. Shah Husayn successfully repulsed attempted invasion by the Lodis led by Tatar Khan and Barbak Shah, as well as his daughter Zeerak Rumman.[62]
The Mughals came to power in the early 16th century and gradually expanded to control all of the Punjab from their capital at Lahore. During the Mughal era, Saadullah Khan, born into a family of Punjabi agriculturalists[63] belonging to the Thaheem tribe[64] from Chiniot[65] remained grand vizier (or Prime Minister) of the Mughal Empire in the period 1645–1656. Other prominent Muslims from Punjab who rose to nobility during the Mughal Era include Wazir Khan,[66] Adina Beg Arain,[67] and Shahbaz Khan Kamboh.[68] The Mughal Empire ruled the region until it was severely weakened in the eighteenth century. As Mughal power weakened, Afghan rulers took control of the region. Contested by the Marathas and Afghans, the region was the center of the growing influence of the misls, who expanded and established the Sikh Confederacy as the Mughals and Afghans weakened, ultimately ruling the Punjab, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and territories north into the Himalayas.
See also: Sikh Empire. In the 19th century, Maharajah Ranjit Singh established the Sikh Empire based in the Punjab.[69] The empire existed from 1799, when Ranjit Singh captured Lahore, to 1849, when it was defeated and conquered in the Second Anglo-Sikh War. It was forged on the foundations of the Khalsa from a collection of autonomous Sikh misls.[70] [71] At its peak in the 19th century, the Empire extended from the Khyber Pass in the west to western Tibet in the east, and from Mithankot in the south to Kashmir in the north. It was divided into four provinces: Lahore, in Punjab, which became the Sikh capital; Multan, also in Punjab; Peshawar; and Kashmir from 1799 to 1849. Religiously diverse, with an estimated population of 3.5 million in 1831 (making it the 19th most populous country at the time),[72] it was the last major region of the Indian subcontinent to be annexed by the British Empire.
See also: Punjab Province (British India). The Sikh Empire ruled the Punjab until the British annexed it in 1849 following the First and Second Anglo-Sikh Wars.[73] Most of the Punjabi homeland formed a province of British India, though a number of small princely states retained local rulers who recognized British authority. The Punjab with its rich farmlands became one of the most important colonial assets. Lahore was a noted center of learning and culture, and Rawalpindi became an important military installation. Most Punjabis supported the British during World War I, providing men and resources to the war effort even though the Punjab remained a source of anti colonial activities. Disturbances in the region increased as the war continued. At the end of the war, high casualty rates, heavy taxation, inflation, and a widespread influenza epidemic disrupted Punjabi society. In 1919, Colonel Reginald Dyer ordered troops under command to fire on a crowd of demonstrators, mostly Sikhs in Amritsar. The Jallianwala massacre fueled the Indian independence movement. Nationalists declared the independence of India from Lahore in 1930 but were quickly suppressed. When the Second World War broke out, nationalism in British India had already divided into religious movements. Many Sikhs and other minorities supported the Hindus, who promised a secular multicultural and multireligious society, and Muslim leaders in Lahore passed a resolution to work for a Muslim Pakistan, making the Punjab region a center of growing conflict between Indian and Pakistani nationalists. At the end of the war, the British granted separate independence to India and Pakistan, setting off massive communal violence as Muslims fled to Pakistan and Hindu and Sikh Punjabis fled east to India.
The British Raj had major political, cultural, philosophical, and literary consequences in the Punjab, including the establishment of a new system of education. During the independence movement, many Punjabis played a significant role, including Madan Lal Dhingra, Sukhdev Thapar, Ajit Singh Sandhu, Bhagat Singh, Udham Singh, Kartar Singh Sarabha, Bhai Parmanand, Choudhry Rahmat Ali, and Lala Lajpat Rai. At the time of partition in 1947, the province was split into East and West Punjab. East Punjab (48%) became part of India, while West Punjab (52%) became part of Pakistan.[74] The Punjab bore the brunt of the civil unrest following partition, with casualties estimated to be in the millions.[75] [76] [77] [78]
Another major consequence of partition was the sudden shift towards religious homogeneity occurred in all districts across Punjab owing to the new international border that cut through the province. This rapid demographic shift was primarily due to wide scale migration but also caused by large-scale religious cleansing riots which were witnessed across the region at the time. According to historical demographer Tim Dyson, in the eastern regions of Punjab that ultimately became Indian Punjab following independence, districts that were 66% Hindu in 1941 became 80% Hindu in 1951; those that were 20% Sikh became 50% Sikh in 1951. Conversely, in the western regions of Punjab that ultimately became Pakistani Punjab, all districts became almost exclusively Muslim by 1951.
The geographical definition of the term "Punjab" has changed over time. In the 16th century Mughal Empire it referred to a relatively smaller area between the Indus and the Sutlej rivers.[79] [80]
At its height in the first half of the 19th century, the Sikh Empire spanned a total of over .[81] [82] [83]
The Punjab was a region straddling India and the Afghan Durrani Empire. The following modern-day political divisions made up the historical Punjab region during the Sikh Empire:
After Ranjit Singh's death in 1839, the empire was severely weakened by internal divisions and political mismanagement. This opportunity was used by the East India Company to launch the First and Second Anglo-Sikh Wars. The country was finally annexed and dissolved at the end of the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849 into separate princely states and the province of Punjab. Eventually, a Lieutenant Governorship was formed in Lahore as a direct representative of the Crown.[93]
See also: Punjab Province (British India). In British India, until the Partition of India in 1947, the Punjab Province was geographically a triangular tract of country of which the Indus River and its tributary the Sutlej formed the two sides up to their confluence, the base of the triangle in the north being the Lower Himalayan Range between those two rivers. Moreover, the province as constituted under British rule also included a large tract outside these boundaries. Along the northern border, Himalayan ranges divided it from Kashmir and Tibet. On the west it was separated from the North-West Frontier Province by the Indus, until it reached the border of Dera Ghazi Khan District, which was divided from Baluchistan by the Sulaiman Range. To the south lay Sindh and Rajputana, while on the east the rivers Jumna and Tons separated it from the United Provinces.[94] In total Punjab had an area of approximately 357 000 km square about the same size as modern day Germany, being one of the largest provinces of the British Raj.
It encompassed the present day Indian states of Punjab, Haryana, Chandigarh, Delhi, and some parts of Himachal Pradesh which were merged with Punjab by the British for administrative purposes (but excluding the former princely states which were later combined into the Patiala and East Punjab States Union) and the Pakistani regions of the Punjab, Islamabad Capital Territory and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
In 1901 the frontier districts beyond the Indus were separated from Punjab and made into a new province: the North-West Frontier Province. Subsequently, Punjab was divided into four natural geographical divisions by colonial officials on the decadal census data:[95] [96]
The struggle for Indian independence witnessed competing and conflicting interests in the Punjab. The landed elites of the Muslim, Hindu and Sikh communities had loyally collaborated with the British since annexation, supported the Unionist Party and were hostile to the Congress party–led independence movement.[97] Amongst the peasantry and urban middle classes, the Hindus were the most active National Congress supporters, the Sikhs flocked to the Akali movement whilst the Muslims eventually supported the Muslim League.
Since the partition of the sub-continent had been decided, special meetings of the Western and Eastern Section of the Legislative Assembly were held on 23 June 1947 to decide whether or not the Province of the Punjab be partitioned. After voting on both sides, partition was decided and the existing Punjab Legislative Assembly was also divided into West Punjab Legislative Assembly and the East Punjab Legislative Assembly. This last Assembly before independence, held its last sitting on 4 July 1947.[98]
See main article: List of cities in the Punjab region by population.
Historically, Lahore has been the capital of the Punjab region and continues to be the most populous city in the region, with a population of 11 million for the city proper. Faisalabad is the 2nd most populous city and largest industrial hub in this region. Other major cities are Rawalpindi, Gujranwala, Multan, Ludhiana, Amritsar, Jalandhar, and Chandigarh are the other cities in Punjab with a city-proper population of over a million.
The climate has significant impact on the economy of Punjab, particularly for agriculture in the region. Climate is not uniform over the whole region, as the areas adjacent to the Himalayas generally receive heavier rainfall than those at a distance.[99]
There are three main seasons and two transitional periods. During the hot season, from mid-April to the end of June, the temperature may reach . The monsoon season, from July to September, is a period of heavy rainfall, providing water for crops in addition to the supply from canals and irrigation systems. The transitional period after the monsoon season is cool and mild, leading to the winter season, when the temperature in January falls to at night and by day. During the transitional period from winter to the hot season, sudden hailstorms and heavy showers may occur, causing damage to crops.[100]
See main article: Punjabis.
See also: Punjabi dialects and languages. The major language is Punjabi, which is written in India with the Gurmukhi script, and in Pakistan using the Shahmukhi script.[101] The Punjabi language has official status and is widely used in education and administration in Indian Punjab, whereas in Pakistani Punjab these roles are instead fulfilled by the Urdu language.
Several languages closely related to Punjabi are spoken in the various parts of the region. Dogri,[102] Kangri,[103] and other western Pahari dialects are spoken in the north-central and northeastern parts of the region, while Bagri[104] is spoken in south-central and southeastern sections. Meanwhile, Saraiki is generally spoken across a wide belt covering the southwest, while in the northwest there are large pockets containing speakers of Hindko and Pothwari.
| Percentage | ||
| 1911 | ||
|---|---|---|
| Punjabi | 75.93% | |
| Western Hindi | 15.82% | |
| Western Pahari | 4.11% | |
| Rajasthani | 3.0% | |
| Balochi | 0.29% | |
| Pashto | 0.28% | |
| English | 0.15% | |
| Other | 0.42% |
See main article: Religion in the Punjab.
Hinduism is the oldest of the religions practised by Punjabi people, however, the term Hindu was also applied over a vast territory with much regional diversity.[105] The historical Vedic religion constituted the religious ideas and practices in the Punjab during the Vedic period, centered primarily in the worship of Indra.[106] [107] [108] [109] The bulk of the Rigveda was composed in the Punjab region between circa 1500 and 1200 BCE,[110] while later Vedic scriptures were composed more eastwards, between the Yamuna and Ganges rivers. An ancient Indian law book called the Manusmriti, developed by Brahmin Hindu priests, shaped Punjabi religious life from 200 BCE onward.[111]
Later, the spread of Buddhisim and Jainism in the Indian subcontinent saw the growth of Buddhism and Jainism in the Punjab.[112] Islam was introduced via southern Punjab in the 8th century, becoming the majority by the 16th century, via local conversion.[113] [114] There was a small Jain community left in Punjab by the 16th century, while the Buddhist community had largely disappeared by the turn of the 10th century.[115] The region became predominantly Muslim due to missionary Sufi saints whose dargahs dot the landscape of the Punjab region.[116]
The rise of Sikhism in the 1700s saw some Punjabis, both Hindu and Muslim, accepting the new Sikh faith.[117] A number of Punjabis during the colonial period of India became Christians, with all of these religions characterizing the religious diversity now found in the Punjab region.
A number of Punjabis during the colonial period of India became Christians, with all of these religions characterizing the religious diversity now found in the Punjab region.[118] Additionally during the colonial era, the practice of religious syncretism among Punjabi Muslims and Punjabi Hindus was noted and documented by officials in census reports:
| Religious group | Population % 1881 | Population % 1891 | Population % 1901 | Population % 1911 | Population % 1921 | Population % 1931 | Population % 1941 | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Islam | 47.6% | 47.8% | 49.2% | 50.8% | 51.1% | 52.4% | 53.2% | |
| Hinduism | 43.8% | 43.6% | 41.8% | 36.3% | 35.1% | 31.7% | 30.1% | |
| Sikhism | 8.2% | 8.2% | 8.5% | 11.9% | 12.4% | 14.3% | 14.9% | |
| Christianity | 0.1% | 0.2% | 0.3% | 0.8% | 1.3% | 1.5% | 1.5% | |
| Other religions / No religion | 0.2% | 0.2% | 0.2% | 0.2% | 0.2% | 0.2% | 0.2% |
| 1881[120] [121] [122] | 1901[123] | 1911[124] [125] | 1921[126] | 1931[127] | 1941[128] | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 9,872,745 | 12,183,345 | 12,275,477 | 12,813,383 | 14,929,896 | 18,259,744 | ||||||||
| 9,095,175 | 10,344,469 | 8,773,621 | 8,799,651 | 9,018,509 | 10,336,549 | ||||||||
| 1,706,165 | 2,102,896 | 2,883,729 | 3,107,296 | 4,071,624 | 5,116,185 | ||||||||
| 42,572 | 49,983 | 46,775 | 41,321 | 43,140 | 45,475 | ||||||||
| 28,054 | 66,591 | 199,751 | 332,939 | 419,353 | 512,466 | ||||||||
| 3,251 | 6,940 | 7,690 | 5,912 | 7,753 | 854 | ||||||||
| 413 | 477 | 653 | 526 | 569 | 4,359 | ||||||||
| 24 | 54 | 19 | 13 | 39 | |||||||||
| Others | 57 | 12 | 0 | 13 | 0 | 34,190 | |||||||
| Total population | 20,748,432 | 24,754,737 | 24,187,750 | 25,101,060 | 28,490,857 | 34,309,861 | |||||||
| 1881[129] | 1901[130] | 1911 | 1921 | 1931 | 1941 | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 6,201,859 | 7,951,155 | 8,494,314 | 8,975,288 | 10,570,029 | 13,022,160 | |||||||||
| 1,449,913 | 1,944,363 | 1,645,758 | 1,797,141 | 1,957,878 | 2,373,466 | |||||||||
| 272,908 | 483,999 | 813,441 | 863,091 | 1,180,789 | 1,520,112 | |||||||||
| 12,992 | 42,371 | 144,514 | 247,030 | 324,730 | 395,311 | |||||||||
| 4,352 | 5,562 | 5,977 | 5,930 | 6,921 | 9,520 | |||||||||
| 354 | 300 | 377 | 309 | 413 | 312 | |||||||||
| 0 | 6 | 168 | 172 | 32 | 87 | |||||||||
| 9 | 36 | 16 | 6 | 7 | ||||||||||
| Others | 21 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 0 | 19,128 | ||||||||
| Total Population | 7,942,399 | 10,427,765 | 11,104,585 | 11,888,985 | 14,040,798 | 17,340,103 | ||||||||
| 1881 | 1901 | 1911 | 1921 | 1931 | 1941 | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 7,645,262 | 8,400,106 | 7,127,863 | 7,002,510 | 7,060,631 | 7,963,083 | |||||||||
| 3,670,886 | 4,232,190 | 3,781,163 | 3,838,095 | 4,359,867 | 5,237,584 | |||||||||
| 1,433,257 | 1,618,897 | 2,070,288 | 2,244,205 | 2,890,835 | 3,596,073 | |||||||||
| 38,220 | 44,421 | 40,798 | 35,391 | 36,219 | 35,955 | |||||||||
| 15,062 | 24,220 | 55,237 | 85,909 | 94,623 | 117,155 | |||||||||
| 3,251 | 6,934 | 7,522 | 5,740 | 7,721 | 767 | |||||||||
| 59 | 177 | 276 | 217 | 156 | 4,047 | |||||||||
| 15 | 18 | 3 | 7 | 32 | ||||||||||
| Others | 36 | 12 | 0 | 5 | 0 | 15,062 | ||||||||
| Total Population | 12,806,033 | 14,326,972 | 13,083,165 | 13,212,075 | 14,450,059 | 16,969,758 | ||||||||
| 1881 | 1901 | 1911 | 1921 | 1931 | 1941 | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 4,975,901 | 5,825,964 | 4,790,624 | 4,735,960 | 4,709,545 | 5,314,610 | ||||||||
| 3,751,891 | 4,481,366 | 4,144,971 | 4,350,186 | 5,112,215 | 6,247,791 | ||||||||
| 1,390,873 | 1,605,457 | 1,993,750 | 2,186,429 | 2,816,785 | 3,576,659 | ||||||||
| 36,479 | 41,877 | 39,111 | 33,515 | 34,806 | 34,744 | ||||||||
| 11,729 | 22,103 | 58,462 | 140,104 | 198,081 | 247,028 | ||||||||
| 139 | 299 | 412 | 318 | 314 | 235 | ||||||||
| 1 | 3 | 132 | 184 | 23 | 39 | ||||||||
| 19 | 28 | 14 | 5 | 30 | |||||||||
| Others | 49 | 12 | 0 | 6 | 0 | 14,844 | |||||||
| Total population | 10,167,062 | 11,977,100 | 11,027,490 | 11,446,716 | 12,871,774 | 15,435,980 | |||||||
| 1881 | 1901 | 1911 | 1921 | 1931 | 1941 | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1,458,481 | 1,598,853 | 1,630,084 | 1,642,176 | 1,729,008 | 1,929,634 | ||||||||
| 70,642 | 76,480 | 74,205 | 77,425 | 82,711 | 87,485 | ||||||||
| 3,840 | 3,415 | 4,400 | 4,471 | 2,586 | 2,129 | ||||||||
| 3,250 | 6,931 | 7,518 | 5,718 | 7,705 | 614 | ||||||||
| 2,680 | 3,897 | 7,894 | 7,610 | 8,948 | 12,245 | ||||||||
| 536 | 483 | 358 | 356 | 291 | 425 | ||||||||
| 4 | 7 | 18 | 40 | 3 | 3,895 | ||||||||
| 0 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 0 | |||||||||
| Others | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0 | 1 | |||||||
| Total population | 1,539,433 | 1,690,066 | 1,724,480 | 1,737,801 | 1,831,253 | 2,036,428 | |||||||
| 1881 | 1901 | 1911 | 1921 | 1931 | 1941 | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 3,511,174 | 3,741,759 | 3,551,989 | 3,587,246 | 4,009,166 | 4,751,911 | ||||||||
| 2,159,634 | 2,042,505 | 1,588,097 | 1,556,703 | 1,565,034 | 1,799,915 | ||||||||
| 284,592 | 350,587 | 565,596 | 570,759 | 753,168 | 906,802 | ||||||||
| 10,363 | 29,930 | 92,524 | 117,172 | 132,500 | 155,386 | ||||||||
| 5,231 | 7,278 | 6,695 | 6,866 | 7,299 | 9,172 | ||||||||
| 200 | 117 | 152 | 111 | 76 | 141 | ||||||||
| 0 | 6 | 11 | 8 | 22 | 171 | ||||||||
| 5 | 17 | 1 | 7 | 6 | |||||||||
| Others | 1 | 0 | 0 | 3 | 0 | 1,681 | |||||||
| Total population | 5,971,195 | 6,172,187 | 5,805,081 | 5,838,869 | 6,467,272 | 7,625,185 | |||||||
| 1881 | 1901 | 1911 | 1921 | 1931 | 1941 | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 2,539,038 | 3,883,740 | 4,504,312 | 4,798,526 | 5,725,804 | 7,172,557 | ||||||||
| 501,159 | 877,147 | 764,816 | 864,812 | 1,014,922 | 1,292,390 | ||||||||
| 28,020 | 142,955 | 316,489 | 342,498 | 492,723 | 620,479 | ||||||||
| 2,122 | 11,143 | 44,365 | 71,192 | 86,186 | 107,923 | ||||||||
| 326 | 345 | 611 | 584 | 744 | 1,134 | ||||||||
| 70 | 54 | 71 | 57 | 176 | 88 | ||||||||
| 0 | 0 | 29 | 2 | 3 | 30 | ||||||||
| 0 | 6 | 3 | 0 | 3 | |||||||||
| Others | 7 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 17,664 | |||||||
| Total population | 3,070,742 | 4,915,384 | 5,630,699 | 6,077,674 | 7,320,558 | 9,212,268 | |||||||
In the present-day, the vast majority of Pakistani Punjabis are Sunni Muslim by faith, but also include significant minority faiths, such as Shia Muslims, Ahmadi Muslims, Hindus, Sikhs and Christians.
Sikhism, founded by Guru Nanak is the main religion practised in the post-1966 Indian Punjab state. About 57.7% of the population of Punjab state is Sikh, 38.5% is Hindu, with the remaining population including Muslims, Christians, and Jains.[131] Punjab state contains the holy Sikh cities of Amritsar, Anandpur Sahib, Tarn Taran Sahib, Fatehgarh Sahib and Chamkaur Sahib.
The Punjab was home to several Sufi saints, and Sufism is well established in the region.[132] Also, Kirpal Singh revered the Sikh Gurus as saints.[133]
| Punjab Region | Punjab (Pakistan) | Punjab (India) | Haryana | Delhi | Himachal Pradesh | Islamabad | Chandigarh | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total population | Percentage | ||||||||||||||||
| 114,130,322 | 107,541,602 | 535,489 | 1,781,342 | 2,158,684 | 149,881 | 1,911,877 | 51,447 | ||||||||||
| 54,159,083 | 211,641 | 10,678,138 | 22,171,128 | 13,712,100 | 6,532,765 | 737 | 852,574 | ||||||||||
| 18,037,312 | 16,004,754 | 1,243,752 | 570,581 | 79,896 | 138,329 | ||||||||||||
| 2,715,952 | 2,063,063 | 348,230 | 50,353 | 146,093 | 12,646 | 86,847 | 8,720 | ||||||||||
| 267,649 | 45,040 | 52,613 | 166,231 | 1,805 | 1,960 | ||||||||||||
| 160,759 | 158,021 | 2,738 | |||||||||||||||
| 139,019 | 33,237 | 7,514 | 18,449 | 78,659 | 1,160 | ||||||||||||
| Others | 185,720 | 15,328 | 98,450 | 44,760 | 15,803 | 8,950 | 1,169 | 1,260 | |||||||||
| Total population | 189,795,816 | 109,989,655 | 27,743,338 | 25,351,462 | 16,787,941 | 6,864,602 | 2,003,368 | 1,055,450 | |||||||||
See also: List of Punjabi tribes. The Punjab region is diverse. Historic census reports taken in the colonial era details the main castes are represented, alongside numerous subcastes and tribes (also known as Jāti or Barādarī), formed parts of the various ethnic groups in the region, contemporarily known as Punjabis, Saraikis, Haryanvis, Hindkowans, Dogras, Paharis, and more.
| 1881 | 1891 | 1901 | 1911 | 1921 | 1931 | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jat | 4,223,885 | 4,500,340 | 4,884,285 | 4,891,060 | 5,453,747 | 6,070,032 | |||||||
| Rajput | 1,648,426 | 1,747,989 | 1,784,402 | 1,586,274 | 1,853,025 | 2,351,650 | |||||||
| Brahman | 1,040,771 | 1,069,132 | 1,077,252 | 985,901 | 994,529 | 1,058,598 | |||||||
| Chuhra | 1,039,039 | 1,175,504 | 1,175,003 | 912,998 | 750,596 | 681,359 | |||||||
| Chamar | 1,033,727 | 1,147,913 | 1,172,118 | 1,075,941 | 1,134,700 | 1,102,465 | |||||||
| Arain | 795,471 | 890,264 | 1,003,698 | 973,888 | 1,086,455 | 1,329,312 | |||||||
| Julaha | 593,199 | 620,401 | 651,800 | 626,960 | 643,403 | 672,243 | |||||||
| Tarkhan | 564,385 | 621,718 | 675,361 | 637,971 | 614,912 | 654,053 | |||||||
| Gujjar | 539,251 | 600,198 | 611,904 | 595,598 | 627,451 | 696,442 | |||||||
| Arora | 538,465 | 603,131 | 647,945 | 667,943 | 707,495 | 769,694 | |||||||
| Kumhar | 465,676 | 515,331 | 561,298 | 542,906 | 570,158 | 62,0402 | |||||||
| Bania | 437,000 | 442,000 | 452,000 | 404,000 | 374,169 | ||||||||
| Jhinwar | 418,499 | 458,702 | 450,362 | 331,951 | 371,418 | 370,168 | |||||||
| Khatri | 392,413 | 418,517 | 433,579 | 423,704 | 452,902 | 516,207 | |||||||
| Awan | 350,848 | 389,402 | 420,504 | 425,450 | 439,975 | 538,760 | |||||||
| Kanet | 346,000 | 370,000 | 390,000 | 404,000 | 288,159 | 305,814 | |||||||
| Mochi | 334,034 | 384,179 | 408,314 | 410,977 | 429,242 | 466,832 | |||||||
| Baloch | 331,851 | 383,138 | 466,645 | 530,976 | 531,084 | 624,691 | |||||||
| Nai | 323,703 | 371,144 | 370,019 | 344,845 | 360,653 | 380,657 | |||||||
| Sheikh | 293,606 | 287,778 | 264,656 | 276,687 | 244,800 | 407,576 | |||||||
| Lohar | 291,506 | 323,420 | 347,099 | 319,847 | 322,195 | 333,910 | |||||||
| Teli | 250,544 | 291,513 | 309,433 | 284,505 | 305,122 | 339,124 | |||||||
| Pathan | 210,613 | 221,262 | 246,790 | 272,547 | 261,729 | 345,438 | |||||||
| Sayyid | 200,728 | 217,034 | 230,802 | 239,160 | 247,087 | 293,313 | |||||||
| Mirasi | 192,107 | 230,700 | 244,506 | 223,093 | 232,280 | 242,685 | |||||||
| Machhi | 167,882 | 196,574 | 236,122 | 239,702 | 280,956 | 314,791 | |||||||
| Ahir | 165,878 | 188,838 | 197,805 | 201,299 | 201,539 | 221,897 | |||||||
| Kashmiri | 149,733 | 141,280 | 189,878 | 175,334 | 166,449 | 200,066 | |||||||
| Saini | 147,183 | 120,507 | 121,722 | 107,759 | 120,376 | 157,301 | |||||||
| Sunar | 145,903 | 164,087 | 174,628 | 155,993 | 127,090 | 159,655 | |||||||
| Kamboh | 129,468 | 150,646 | 173,780 | 171,536 | 180,870 | 239,385 | |||||||
| Dhobi | 123,767 | 139,421 | 142,342 | 151,566 | 163,908 | 174,519 | |||||||
| Meo | 112,566 | 115,916 | 133,300 | 120,752 | 111,564 | 124,821 | |||||||
| Faqir | 111,995 | 300,214 | 362,266 | 262,511 | 270,070 | 283,634 | |||||||
| Ghirath | 110,507 | 118,631 | 121,718 | 121,107 | 117,949 | 122,785 | |||||||
| Chhimba | 100,448 | 141,819 | 147,152 | 124,090 | 120,695 | 92,491 | |||||||
| Qassab | 92,571 | 109,435 | 114,158 | 117,363 | 120,820 | 127,198 | |||||||
| Rathi | 82,957 | 100,656 | 37,793 | 97,763 | 118,015 | 134,093 | |||||||
| Dagi & Koli | 78,559 | 167,772 | 153,990 | 172,269 | 165,159 | 182,056 | |||||||
| Mughal | 92,000 | 118,000 | 98,000 | 99,000 | 88,951 | ||||||||
| Jogi-Rawal | 90,000 | 91,000 | 76,000 | 83,000 | 80,577 | ||||||||
| Dumna | 66,169 | 64,046 | 53,394 | 72,250 | 36,669 | 32,055 | |||||||
| Dhanuk | 66,000 | 74,000 | 77,000 | 83,000 | 87,278 | ||||||||
| Dogar | 63,000 | 70,000 | 75,000 | 68,000 | 74,369 | ||||||||
| Khoja | 62,000 | 90,000 | 99,000 | 63,000 | 87,461 | ||||||||
| Mallah | 62,000 | 77,000 | 73,000 | 78,000 | 74,233 | ||||||||
| Mali | 58,672 | 95,989 | 105,956 | 96,883 | 92,933 | 72,299 | |||||||
| Bharai | 56,000 | 67,000 | 66,000 | 58,000 | 61,721 | ||||||||
| Barwala | 55,000 | 64,000 | 69,000 | 64,000 | 65,907 | ||||||||
| Mahtam | 50,313 | 56,982 | 82,719 | 81,805 | 94,325 | 64,004 | |||||||
| Labana | 47,000 | 55,000 | 56,000 | 58,000 | 56,316 | ||||||||
| Megh | 37,373 | 41,068 | 44,315 | 39,549 | 30,465 | 22,539 | |||||||
| Khokhar | 36,000 | 130,000 | 108,000 | 60,000 | 69,169 | ||||||||
| Darzi | 30,190 | 36,919 | 39,164 | 35,508 | 38,256 | 45,688 | |||||||
| Bawaria | 22,013 | 26,420 | 29,112 | 32,849 | 34,807 | 32,508 | |||||||
| Sansi | 19,920 | 22,218 | 26,000 | 24,439 | 17,402 | 28,262 | |||||||
| Od | 15,652 | 22,450 | 26,160 | 31,690 | 28,502 | 32,719 | |||||||
| Sarera | 10,792 | 11,366 | 9,587 | 10,743 | 9,873 | 11,230 | |||||||
| Pakhiwara | 3,741 | 3,674 | 3,595 | 3,711 | 2,801 | 3,100 | |||||||
| Ghosi | 2,221 | 2,652 | 3,012 | 2,419 | 502 | 3,836 | |||||||
| Harni | 1,318 | 4,157 | 3,462 | 3,360 | 2,988 | 3,387 | |||||||
| Maliar | 81,000 | 90,000 | 88,755 | ||||||||||
| Mussalli | 57,367 | 309,543 | 323,549 | 412,295 | |||||||||
| Qureshi | 53,000 | 71,000 | 97,625 | ||||||||||
| Aggarwal | 339,494 | 349,322 | 373,014 | ||||||||||
| Bagaria | 1,262 | 1,619 | 2,446 | ||||||||||
| Total population | 20,800,995 | 22,915,894 | 24,367,113 | 23,791,841 | 25,101,514 | 28,490,869 | |||||||
See main article: Economy of Punjab, India.
The historical region of Punjab produces a relatively high proportion of the food output from India and Pakistan. The region has been used for extensive wheat farming. In addition, rice, cotton, sugarcane, fruit, and vegetables are also grown.
The agricultural output of the Punjab region in Pakistan contributes significantly to Pakistan's GDP. Both Indian and Pakistani Punjab is considered to have the best infrastructure of their respective countries. The Indian state of Punjab is currently the 16th richest state or the eighth richest large state of India. Pakistani Punjab produces 68% of Pakistan's foodgrain production.[134] Its share of Pakistan's GDP has historically ranged from 51.8% to 54.7%.[135]
Called "The Granary of India" or "The Bread Basket of India", Indian Punjab produces 1% of the world's rice, 2% of its wheat, and 2% of its cotton.[136] In 2001, it was recorded that farmers made up 39% of Indian Punjab's workforce.[137] In the Punjab region of Pakistan, 42.3% of the labour force is engaged in the agriculture sector.[138]
Alternatively, Punjab is also adding to the economy with the increase in employment of Punjab youth in the private sector. Government schemes such as 'Ghar Ghar Rozgar and Karobar Mission' have brought enhanced employability in the private sector., more than 32,000 youths have been placed in different jobs and 12,000 have been skill-trained.[139]
"The legacy of the Vedic religion in Hinduism is generally overestimated. The influence of the mythology is indeed great, but the religious terminology changed considerably: all the key terms of Hinduism either do not exist in Vedic or have a completely different meaning. The religion of the Veda does not know the ethicised migration of the soul with retribution for acts (karma), the cyclical destruction of the world, or the idea of salvation during one's lifetime (jivanmukti; moksa; nirvana); the idea of the world as illusion (maya) must have gone against the grain of ancient India, and an omnipotent creator god emerges only in the late hymns of the rgveda. Nor did the Vedic religion know a caste system, the burning of widows, the ban on remarriage, images of gods and temples, Puja worship, Yoga, pilgrimages, vegetarianism, the holiness of cows, the doctrine of stages of life (asrama), or knew them only at their inception. Thus, it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions."
Web site: Stephanie . Jamison . Michael . Witzel . 1992 . Vedic Hinduism . Harvard University . 3 . 5 August 2022 . 13 April 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180413055150/http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/vedica.pdf . live . : "... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradictio in terminis since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism."
See also