Prymnesin-2 Explained

Prymnesin-2 is an organic compound that is secreted by the haptophyte Prymnesium parvum. It belongs to the prymnesin family and has potent hemolytic and ichthyotoxic properties. In a purified form it appears as a pale yellow solid.[1] P. parvum is responsible for red harmful algal blooms worldwide, causing massive fish killings. When these algal blooms occur, this compound poses a threat to the local fishing industry. This is especially true for brackish water, as the compound can reach critical concentrations more easily.

Structure and reactivity

The structural formula of prymnesin-2 is: C96H136Cl3NO35. The compound exhibits multiple chiral centers. The molecule is amphoteric, which means that it can act both as base and an acid. This is because all 16 hydroxyls, except for one at C32, are concentrated on carbons C48-84, and there α-L-xylofuranose moiety at C77.[2] This might lead to interaction with biomembranes, which is thought to be the basis of its toxicity. The difference between prymnesin-1 and prymnesin-2 is the glycosidic residues: L-arabinose, D-galactose and D-ribose, yet prymnesin-2 and prymnesin-1 show comparable activities. Prymnesins also have unique features: The possession of only one methyl, but three chlorine atoms, four C-C triple bonds, sugars and an amino group.[3]

Biosynthesis

Prymnesin-1 and prymnesin-2 are both are derived from acetate-related (i.e. polyketide) metabolism, based on knowledge about the structure of the prymnesins. In general primary and secondary metabolites such as fatty acids, polyketides and non-ribosomal peptides are synthesised by the acetate pathway[4] . In 2024 the backbone of A-type prymnesins like prymnesin-2 was reported to be made by giant polyketide synthase enzymes dubbed the "PKZILLAs"[5] .

Mechanism of action

The mechanism of action of prymnesin-2 remains to be determined. Prymnesin-2 and prymnesin-1 show comparable activities. Prymnesin-2 has shown multiple functionalities, such as potent hemolytic activity and diverse biological activities, such as mouse lethality, ichthyotoxicity and activity inducing influx into cultured cells. The hemolytic potency of prymnesin-2 exceeds that of plant saponin by 50.000 times.[6]

Prymnesin-2 causes hemolysis by direct interaction between toxin and cell surface. Partly due to interaction with cellular lipids, mainly to interaction with a specific binding site on the blood cell surface. This is supported by the observation of competitive inhibition by the prymnesin-2 analogues, which assume the presence of a specific binding site on the blood cell surface. Also the process of toxin molecule aggregation may be involved in the main mechanism of the haemolytic activity.

Toxicity

Prymnesin-2 is an ichthyotoxic compound with the ability to hemolyze blood. 2.5 nM is needed for a 50% hemolysis rate of a 1% rat blood cell suspension, and 9 nM is enough for killing freshwater fish. The hemolytic and ichthyotoxic properties increase when the pH of the solution rises from 7 to 8.[7] Prymnesin-2 causes calcium ion influx into C6 rat glioma cells at a concentration of 70 nM.[8]

Besides the lytic effect on blood cells, hepatocytes, Hela cells and artificial liposomes are affected by prymnesin-2.

As seen in the table below, prymnesin-2 is highly hemolytic for blood cells of different animal species, even when compared to the already highly hemolytic toxin saponin.

Table1. Sensitivities of blood cells from different animal species!!Prymnesin-2 (nM)!Saponin (nM)!Relative to saponin
Mouse2.5170006800
Rabbit1.7150008800
Dog0.52500050000
Sheep0.62300038000
Chicken1.9170008900
Carp1.6115007200

Effects on animals

In the US, the first recorded P. parvum bloom occurred in 1985 in a semi-arid region of the country (Pecos River, Texas).[9] Since then, the incidence of P. parvum blooms dramatically increased in the US, where the organism has invaded lakes and rivers throughout southern regions and most recently into northern regions. The magnitude of P. parvum blooms are also increasing over the past decade compared to 30 years ago, with massive fish killings as result.[10] [11] [12]

See also

Notes and References

  1. Igarashi. Tomoji. Satake. Masayuki. Yasumoto. Takeshi. Prymnesin-2: A Potent Ichthyotoxic and Hemolytic Glycoside Isolated from the Red Tide Alga Prymnesium parvum. Journal of the American Chemical Society. 118. 2. 479–480. 10.1021/ja9534112. en. 1996.
  2. Igarashi . Tomoji . Satake . Masayuki . Yasumoto . Takeshi . Structures and Partial Stereochemical Assignments for Prymnesin-1 and Prymnesin-2: Potent Hemolytic and Ichthyotoxic Glycosides Isolated from the Red Tide AlgaPrymnesium parvum . Journal of the American Chemical Society . American Chemical Society (ACS) . 121 . 37 . 1999 . 0002-7863 . 10.1021/ja991740e . 8499–8511.
  3. Yasumoto. Takeshi. The chemistry and biological function of natural marine toxins. The Chemical Record. en. 1. 3. 228–242. 10.1002/tcr.1010. 11895121. 1528-0691. 2001.
  4. Manning. Schonna R.. La Claire. John W.. 2010-03-16. Prymnesins: Toxic Metabolites of the Golden Alga, Prymnesium parvum Carter (Haptophyta). Marine Drugs. en. 8. 3. 678–704. 10.3390/md8030678. 20411121. 2857367. free.
  5. Fallon . Timothy R. . Shende . Vikram V. . Wierzbicki . Igor H. . Pendleton . Amanda L. . Watervoort . Nathan F. . Auber . Robert P. . Gonzalez . David J. . Wisecaver . Jennifer H. . Moore . Bradley S. . Giant polyketide synthase enzymes in the biosynthesis of giant marine polyether toxins . Science . 385 . 6709 . 2024-08-09 . 0036-8075 . 10.1126/science.ado3290 . 671–678.
  6. Igarashi. T.. Aritake. S.. Yasumoto. T.. 1998. Biological activities of prymnesin-2 isolated from a red tide alga Prymnesium parvum. Natural Toxins. 6. 1. 35–41. 1056-9014. 9851510. 10.1002/(SICI)1522-7189(199802)6:1<35::AID-NT7>3.0.CO;2-7.
  7. Granéli. Edna. Salomon. Paulo S.. Factors Influencing Allelopathy and Toxicity in Prymnesium parvum. JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association. 1 February 2010. 46. 1. 108–120. 10.1111/j.1752-1688.2009.00395.x. 2010JAWRA..46..108G. en. 1752-1688.
  8. Morohashi. Akio. Satake. Masayuki. Oshima. Yasukatsu. Igarashi. Tomoji. Yasumoto. Takeshi. Absolute configuration at C14 and C85 in prymnesin-2, a potent hemolytic and ichthyotoxic glycoside isolated from the red tide alga Prymnesium parvum. Chirality. 13. 9. 601–605. 10.1002/chir.1184. 11579456. en. 1520-636X. 2001.
  9. James T. L., De La Cruz A.. Prymnesium parvum Carter (Chrysophyceae) as a suspect of mass mortalities of fish and shellfish communities in western Texas, Texas Journal of Science, 1989, vol. 41 (pp. 429-430).
  10. Roelke. Daniel. Augustine. Sarah. Buyukates. Yesim. 2003-11-01. Fundamental Predictability in Multispecies Competition: The Influence of Large Disturbance.. The American Naturalist. 162. 5. 615–623. 10.1086/378750. 14618539. 19980618. 0003-0147.
  11. Buyukates. Yesim. Roelke. Daniel. 2005-10-01. Influence of Pulsed Inflows and Nutrient Loading on Zooplankton and Phytoplankton Community Structure and Biomass in Microcosm Experiments Using Estuarine Assemblages. Hydrobiologia. en. 548. 1. 233–249. 10.1007/s10750-005-5195-x. 40194710. 0018-8158.
  12. Miller. Carrie J.. Roelke. Daniel L.. Davis. Stephen E.. Li. Hsiu-Ping. Gable. George. The role of inflow magnitude and frequency on plankton communities from the Guadalupe Estuary, Texas, USA: Findings from microcosm experiments. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science. 80. 1. 67–73. 10.1016/j.ecss.2008.07.006. 2008. 2008ECSS...80...67M.