Proto-Trans–New Guinea language explained

Proto-Trans–New Guinea
Also Known As:PTNG
Region:New Guinea Highlands
Familycolor:Papuan
Target:Trans–New Guinea languages
Child1:Proto-Anim
Child2:Proto-Awyu–Ok
Child3:Proto-Momuna–Mek

Proto-Trans–New Guinea is the reconstructed proto-language ancestral to the Trans–New Guinea languages. Reconstructions have been proposed by Malcolm Ross and Andrew Pawley.

Phonology

Proto-Trans–New Guinea is reconstructed with a typical simple Papuan inventory: five vowels, pronounced as //i e a o u//, three phonations of stops at three places, pronounced as //p t k, b d ɡ, m n ŋ// (Andrew Pawley reconstructs the voiced series as prenasalized pronounced as //mb nd ŋɡ//), plus a palatal affricate pronounced as //dʒ ~ ndʒ//, the fricative pronounced as //s//, and the approximants pronounced as //l j w//. Syllables are typically (C)V, with CVC possible at the ends of words. Many of the languages have restricted tone systems.

+Consonants[1] BilabialApicalPalatalVelar
Plosivep tk
Prenasalised plosivesᵐb ⁿdᶮʤᵑg
Nasalsm nɲ ŋ
Fricativess
Lateralsl
Semivowelsw j

The Proto-Trans–New Guinea vowels are reconstructed as having a cross-linguistically frequent five-vowel system:

+VowelsFrontCentralBack
Closepronounced as /i/pronounced as /u/
Midpronounced as /e/pronounced as /o/
Opena

Pronouns

Ross reconstructs the following pronominal paradigm for Trans–New Guinea, with *a~*i ablaut for singular~non-singular:

I
  • na
we
  • ni
thou
  • ga
you
  • gi
s/he
  • (y)a, *ua
they
  • i

There is a related but less commonly attested form for 'we', *nu, as well as a *ja for 'you', which Ross speculates may have been a polite form. In addition, there were dual suffixes *-li and *-t, and a plural suffix *-nV, (i.e. n plus a vowel) as well as collective number suffixes *-pi- (dual) and *-m- (plural) that functioned as inclusive we when used in the first person. (Reflexes of the collective suffixes, however, are limited geographically to the central and eastern highlands, and so might not be as old as proto-Trans–New Guinea.)

Morphology

Studies group Madang, Finisterre-Huon, and Kainantu-Goroka together as part of a larger Northeast New Guinea (NENG) group on the basis of morphological evidence, such as mutually reconstructable verbal suffixes that mark subject:[2]

Proto-Northeast New Guinea subject-marking verbal suffixes
singular dual plural
1st person
  • -Vn
  • -u(l,t)
  • -un, *-i
2nd person
  • -an
  • -i(l,t)
  • -ai, *-i, *-a
3rd person
  • -a, *-i
  • -ai
Comparison of reconstructions of subject-marking verbal suffixes
proto-Northeast New Guinea Proto-Trans–New Guinea (tentative)
1sg
  • -Vn
  • -in
?
  • -u
  • -Vn
2sg
  • -an
  • -an,*-i
  • -an
  • -an
  • -Vn
3sg
  • -a,*-i
  • -a,*-an
  • -a,*-i
  • -ai,*-i
  • -a,*-i
1du
  • -u(l,t)
-*-u(l,t)
  • -u(l,t)
  • -ur
  • -u(l,t)
2/3du
  • -i(l,t)
  • -i(l,t)
  • -i(l,t)
?
  • -i(l,t)
1pl
  • -un,*-i
  • -un
  • -un
  • -un
2/3pl
  • -ai,*-i,*-a
  • -ai,*-i
  • -e,*-i
  • -a

Lexicon

Lexical words, such as *niman 'louse', may also be reconstructed:

Reflexes of *niman 'louse', which attest to an intermediate *iman in the east:

Chimbu–Wahgi: Mid/Nuclear Wahgi numan

Engan: Enga & Kewa lema

Finisterre–Huon: Kâte imeŋ, Selepet imen

Gogodala mi

Kainantu–Goroka: Awa nu, Tairora nume, Fore numaa, Gende (tu)nima

Southern Kiwai nimo

Koiarian: Managalasi uma

Kolopom: Kimaghama nome, Riantana nome

Kwale nomone

Madang: Kalam yman, Watiwa (Rai Coast) im, Sirva (Adelbert) iima

Mek: Kosarek ami

Marori nemeŋk

Paniai Lakes: Ekari yame (metathesis?)

Timor–Alor–Pantar: Western Pantar (h)amiŋ, Oirata amin (metathesis?)

Wiru nomo

Questionable branches:

Pauwasi: Yafi yemar

Central Sentani mi

The Proto-Trans–New Guinea negative is reconstructed as *ma-.[1] Negatives in Trans–New Guinea languages usually have either an mV- or nV- form.[1]

Reconstructions

body parts
arm, forearm
  • mbena
belly, internal organs
  • mundun
blood
  • ke(nj,s)a
bone
  • kondaC
brain
  • muk[V]
breast
  • amu
buttocks
  • simbi + modifier
cheek
  • mVkVm
claw, hand
  • sikal or *sakil
ear
  • kand(i,e)k[V]
excrement 1 [same as 'guts']
excrement 2
  • ata
eye 1 (cf. egg 2)
  • (ŋg,k)iti-maŋgV
eye 2
  • ŋg(a,u)mu
eye 3
  • nVpV
fingernail
  • (mb,p)(i,u)t(iu)C
foot, lower leg
  • k(a,o)nd(a,o)[C]
forehead, head
  • mVtVna
guts, intestines, bowels
  • sim(i,u), *simbi
hair 1
  • (nd,s)umu(n,t)[V]
hair 2, leaf
  • iti
head 1
  • kV(mb,p)utu
head 2
  • mVtVna
heart 1 (cf. belly, egg 2)
  • mundu-maŋgV
heart 2
  • simu
heart 3
  • kamu
knee
  • (ŋg,k)atuk
leg 1
  • k(a,o)nd(a,o)[C]
leg 2, calf
  • kitu
liver
  • [ma]pVn
milk, sap
  • muk
mouth, teeth
  • maŋgat[a]
navel
  • simu + modifier
neck 1
  • k(a,e)(nd,t)ak
neck 2, nape, side of
  • kuma(n,ŋ)[V]
nose
  • mundu
penis
  • mo
saliva
  • si(mb,p)at[V]
shoulder
  • kinV
skin
  • (ŋg,k)a(nd,t)apu
testicles
  • walaka
tongue 1
  • mbilaŋ
tongue 2
  • me(l,n)e
tooth 1 (see mouth)
tooth 2
  • titi
urine
  • [si]si, *siti, *pisi
kin terms
brother, older
  • [mb]amba
father
  • apa, *mbapa
grandparent
  • apus[i]
husband, man
  • ambi
mother, free form
  • am(a,i,u)
mother, bound form
  • na-
sibling, older
  • nan(a,i)
sibling, older same sex
  • [mb]amba
sister
  • aya
age-gender and other social categories
baby
  • ŋaŋa
boy
  • nV
man, husband
  • ambi
orphan, widow & child
  • mbeŋga-masi
woman, female
  • panV
birds, bird parts
bird 1
  • n[e]i
bird 2
  • yaka[i]
cassowary
  • ku[y]a
egg 1
  • mun(a,e,i)ka
egg 2, fruit, seed
  • maŋgV
tail
  • a(mb,m)u
wing
  • mbutu
insects
butterfly
  • apa[pa]ta
fly
  • ŋgambu
louse
  • niman, *iman
mosquito
  • kasin
plants, plant parts
bark
  • ka(nd,t)ap[u]
  • kal(a,i)pV
fruit, seed (cf. egg 2)
  • maŋgV
leaf 1, hair
  • iti
leaf 2
  • sasak
root
  • kindil
sap, milk
  • muk
taro
  • mV
tree, wood
  • inda
inanimate world
ashes 1
  • sumbu
ashes 2
  • kambu-sumbu
ashes 3
  • la(ŋg,k)a
cloud 1, sky
  • samb[V]
cloud 2
  • ka(mb,p)utu
fire 1
  • k(a,o)nd(a,u)p
fire 2
  • inda
fire 3
  • kambu
flame
  • mbalaŋ
ground 1
  • man[a]
ground 2
  • maka[n]
lightning, light
  • (mb,m)elak
moon 1
  • takVn[V]
moon 2
  • kal(a,i)m
morning
  • k(i,u)tuma + X
night
  • k(i,u)tuma
sand
  • sa(ŋg,k)asiŋ
sky 1, cloud
  • samb[V]
thunder, sky 2
  • kumut, *tumuk
smoke 1
  • kambu(s,t)(a,u)
smoke 2
  • kambu-la(ŋg,k)a
stone 1
  • kamb(a,u)na
stone 2
  • [na]muna
sun 1
  • kamali
sun 2
  • ketane
water 1
  • ok[V]
water 2
  • nok
wind 1
  • kumbutu
wind 2, breeze
  • pinVm
artefacts
axe
  • tu
fence
  • wati
netbag 1
  • kun
netbag 2
  • at(i,u)
string, rope
  • asi
intangible cultural concepts
instructions, language, word, speech
  • mana
mind, thought
  • n(o,u)man
name 1
  • imbi
name 2, who
  • wani
shadow, spirit
  • k(aw,o)nan
song, type of
  • saŋ
witchcraft
  • kum
independent pronouns (for subject, object, possessor)
1 singular
  • na
2 singular
  • ŋga
3 singular
  • ya
3 singular
  • wa
1 plural
  • ni, *nu
1 plural
  • ni
2 plural
  • ŋgi, *ki
1 dual
  • niLi, *nuLi
2 dual
  • ŋgiLi, *kiLi
3 dual
  • iLi
verbal suffixes marking person-number of subject
1 singular
  • -Vn
2 singular
  • -an
1 dual
  • -uL
2/3 dual
  • -iL
1 plural
  • -un
1 singular different subject
  • -pa
verbs
be (live, stay, sit)
  • mVna-
bite
  • s(i,u)-
blow
  • pu + verb
break
  • pa(ŋg,k)-
burn
  • nd(a,e,i)-
burn, light a fire
  • ki-
carry (on back, shoulder)
  • kak(i,u)-
come
  • me-
cook
  • andu-
cut, chop
  • tVk-
die
  • kumV-
do, make
  • ti-
dream
  • kina(mb,p)-
eat, drink
  • na-
fly, flutter
  • putu(putu)-
give
  • mV-
go 1
  • pu-
go 2
  • yata-
hit
  • tu-
know, hear, see
  • nVŋg-
laugh
  • ŋgiti (+ verb)
live, be, sit see 'be'
put
  • (m,p)a(l,t)V-
say, speak
  • nde-
see, know, perceive
  • nVŋg-
shoot
  • tVmV-
sleep 1, lie down
  • kin(i,u)[m]
sleep 2
  • p(e,i)t(e,i)o-
speak, talk
  • nde-
spit
  • kasipa-
stand
  • t(a,e,i)k[V]-
swell
  • su + verb
take
  • (nd,t)a-
tie
  • ndiŋga-, *ndaŋgi
turn (oneself)
  • mbuli[ki] + verb
urinate
  • X + *si- (urine + verb)
vomit
  • mVŋ[g]V ti-
adjectives
blue
  • muk[V]
cold
  • kukam(o,u)
dry
  • ŋgatata
full
  • t(o,u)k(i,u) ti-
heavy
  • kenda
long
  • k(o,u)t(u,i)p
new
  • kVtak
short
  • tumba
straight
  • tutu[tu]ku
conjunctions
and
  • ito
negatives
not
  • ma- (+ verb)
numerals
two
  • ta(l,t)(a,e)

Lexical comparison

Body parts! family !! language !! head !! hair !! ear !! eye !! nose !! tooth !! tongue !! leg !! blood !! bone !! skin !! breast
Trans-New GuineaProto-Trans-New Guinea
  • kobutu; *kV(mb,p)utu; *mUtUna; *mVtVna
  • iti; *(nd,s)umu(n,t)[V]; *zumun
  • ka(nd,t)(i,e)C; *kat(i,e)C; *tVmV(d)
  • g(a,u)mu; *ŋg(a,u)mu; *(ŋg,k)iti [maŋgV]; *nVpV
  • mundu; *mutu
  • magata; *maŋgat[a]; *titi
  • balaŋ; *mbilaŋ; *me(l,n)e; *me(n,l)e
  • kani(n); *k(a,o)ond(a,o)C; *kitu
  • ke(ñj,s)a; *kesa
  • kondaC; *kwata(l,n)
  • gatapu; *(ŋg,k)a(nd,t)apu
  • amu
West BomberaiProto-Mbahaam-Iha
  • kaˈnda
  • kʷⁱɛr
  • wⁱɛk
  • ˈtɔkar
  • pak
  • sɔn
Asmat-KamoroProto-Asmat-Kamrau
  • uɸu
  • ɸini
  • jiɸ[a/o]ne
  • manaN
  • miC
  • siC
  • komane
  • mawu
  • ese
  • eake
  • awo
Ok-OksapminProto-Ok-Oksapmin
  • kiin
  • (mu)duum
  • fV(lV)ŋ
  • xeim
Greater AwyuProto-Awyu-Dumut
  • kɑibɑn; *xaiban
  • möxö; *muk; *ron
  • turun
  • kerop
  • togut
  • fɔgat; *fɔgɛt; *pogɑt
  • gom
  • kɑt; *xa(t)
  • ɑm; *om
KayagaricProto-Gondu River
  • toxom
  • upm
  • itipaːm
  • sakam
  • jup
  • o[x/ɣ]om
  • maetap
  • apit
  • jes
  • nomop
  • pip
  • etum
KolopomProto-Kolopom
  • tipV; *mVrV[w]
  • muen[a]
? *mVrVk; *[ndz][o/u]an
  • VnV
  • ŋgon
  • t[e]r[a]k
  • mepreŋg
  • iendz
  • mam
AnimProto-Fly River
  • kindV[C]
  • kam
  • sas
  • mbai[a]ŋg; *ɸia[u]
AnimProto-Inland Gulf
  • gia
  • tu; *jeja
  • kuɸino
  • dasi
  • ta; *bese
  • koda; *sasa
  • idini
  • ɸia
  • nikopi; *ko[j]ipo
  • jono
AnimProto-Lower Fly River
  • duɾumə; *duɾum
  • towap
  • baɾid
  • miw
  • suwə; *kam; *su
  • jimə; *jim
  • nauɾə
  • naɾak(ə); *baig
  • bub
AnimProto-Marind
  • pa
  • kembet, *kambet
  • kind
  • aŋgi₂p
  • maŋgat
  • inum
  • tegu
  • do
  • haiau, *hiau
  • ugu
  • bub
MaroriMororimerao pu ayix terox tegu ŋgorom ŋgwar par
Gogodala-SukiGogodalaganabi tita igibi tao mina poso mɛlɛpila gosa kaka omo
KiwaianProto-Kiwai
  • kepuɾu
  • mus[ua]
  • gaɾe
  • idomaɾi
  • wodi
  • ibo(-nVɾV)
  • uototoɾo[p/b]e
  • sakiɾo
  • kaɾima; *sa[w]i
  • soɾo
  • tama
  • amo
Paniai LakesEkari (Paniai Lake dialect)migo iyo peka juma egó etá emo mitoo kadó ama
DaniDani, Lower Grand Valley (Tangma dialect)mʋkkʋl-oak nesi nesakko neil-ekken namisaŋ naik namili mep noak nakap neilak
SomahaiMomunatoko toko-ate otu ija i jo-ku janɨ toko ke
MekProto-Mek
  • p[ɔ]t[ɔ]ŋ
  • aᵓ
  • atiŋ
  • jo̝
  • se̝l[ija]mu
  • jan
  • e̝ne̝ŋ
  • jɔk
  • mɔᵘm
Awin-PaProto-Kamula-Elevala
  • ke̝ba
  • m[ɔ/o̝]d[ɔ/o̝]
  • kinɔ
  • kine̝
  • bate̝
  • taⁱ
  • tama
  • ke̝dɔ
East StricklandGobasiulʌkib o dɔsɔ dulo hiɔ̃ mina mɔi ili hɔma sõho kib kɔlɔf tɔnu
Duna-BogayaDunakuni hini kɔhane
konane
le kuma ne
nee
ogone
ɔgɔne
tia kuyila kuni pulu abu
adu; amu
Duna-BogayaBogayayeľʌ
yela
heepi
yeľʌ eľika
hona
hɔnʌn
kina
ki:nʌn
kuuma
pfouľu
yagai
yʌkʌi
iki
ɩkin
yehei
yehʌi
sokoya
yesʌ
hakale
hʌv̧ʌľe
hugwa
hukuʌn
alu
ʌľu
BosaviKalulimise
misẽ
misẽ fɔ̃
mise foon
kenẽ
malo
si migi beso
bis
eʌn
sano
gidaafoo
gip
hɔbɔ
hooboo
ki dɔgɔf
toogoof
|| bo; bu|-! Kutubu! Proto-Lake Kutubu| *uni || *iti || || *hʲĩ || *sabe || *mete || *atu || *kotage || || *kigi || *ga[o/u] || *hʲokõ|-! Enga-Kewa-Huli! Enga (Sari dialect)| aiyomba || iri || kale || lenge || lya || neŋge || || moko || taiyoko || kuli || yoŋge || andu|-! Wiru! Wiru|| tobou || pine; píne || kabidi || lene || timini || kime || keke; keké || kawa || kamate || tono || kepene || adu|-! Chimbu-Wahgi! Kuman|| bit-na; bɩtiɩno || iŋguno; yungo || kina-na; kunano || gumutino; ongomit-na || guma-ne; gumano || siŋguno || dirambino || kati; kat-na || borɔmai; bořumai; maiam || yambiřo; yombura || gaŋgino || amu-na; amuno|-! Madang! Proto-Madang| *gat(a,i)(m) || *imunu || *kaun(i) || *amu || *mutu(gu) || *make || *mele || *kani(n) || *ka(d,r)a; *kara || *kwaten || *ga(n,r)a || *amu(na)|-! Finisterre! Mungkip|| kʰige || sɨsa; sɪsa || maget; magitnɛ || dae; da·ge || miminɛ; mimiŋge || ma || mabɛm; mabim || kada || we·q || kwadi; kwadzi || girim || nom|-! Huon! Selepet|| kun; kun- || somot; somot- || âdâp-; ɔndɔp || sen; sen- || hâme-; hɔme || sât-; sot || nibilam-; nimbilam || || hep- || haǥit; hahit- || hâk-; hɔk || nam; nam-|-! Kainantu-Goroka! Proto-Eastern Kainantu-Goroka| *-'no-N; *pia- || || *ä-Q-ra-N || || *-hi-Q || || *-mäpi-V || || *nade-V || || || *nä-N|-! Kainantu-Goroka! Proto-Eastern Kainantu| *piᵄtɐ || *jɐᵘsi || *ɑːtoː || *wu || *ipi || *wɐⁱ || *m₂ɑːpiɾi || *ipu || *wi[ʔt]ipɐ || *muʔjɑːni || || *nɑːNmɐ|-! Kainantu-Goroka! Proto-Northern Kainantu| *noːN || *jɐᵘ || *ɑːʔ || *u || *siʔ || *wɐj || *[m/n][ɐⁱ]piɾ || *tɐɾ || *nɑːɾeː || *(ɐ-)jɐNpɐ || || *nɑːN|-! Angan! Simbari|| minta || mindata || kaantɨka || sɨmta || sɨmputa || maanka || kwaavlɨlɨ || sɨwla || mɨnjaaka || yankinta || kɨlaaka || aamɨnta|-! Turama-Kikori! Proto-Rumu-Omati| *mab || *b[au]t || *go̝ || *isĩ || *ju || *magu || || *tãᵋ || || *tab || || *sõ̝|-! Goilalan! Fuyug|| hul ha; ondobe || are; hul haluma || gadolo || hul li; im || hul hunga; unge || hul usi || hul asese || soga || tana || hude || hul hoda; ode || hul duda|-! Goilalan! Tauade|| kɔrɔtɔ || awutu || kepapaí || tavai || ki:tʰ || nɔtɔvai || aivi || lɔ'vai || il'iví || keniví || kɔtipai || data|-! Greater Binanderean! Proto-Binandere| *ciro; *giti || *tu || || *dibe; *diti || || *di || *VwVwV || || *ju; *orrә || *bobo; *wetu || *tamә || *ami|-! Koiarian! Proto-Koiarian| || *fómo || || *ni || *uri || || || || *taɣo || || *vata || *amu|-! Kwalean! Proto-Kwalean (Ross)| || *iku(va) || || *(u)bu(i)vi(ma) || *ʒaʒore || *vono(ne); *wano(ne) || || || *ruu || *esi(ne) || *ahiri || *n(a)u(ne)|-! Kwalean! Proto-Humene-Uare (Usher)| || *igu || || *ubuma || *jajɔɾɛ || *ɣɔnɔnɛ || *majanɛ || *ɔda || *ɾɔo̝ || *e̝tinɛ || *ahe̝ɾe̝ || *nuunɛ|-! Manubaran! Proto-Manubaran (Ross)| *ada || *weʔia || *ane-ma || *ne(u) || *uru-ma || *gade || *afie || *[n,y]u-ka || || *nena || *roʔ(o,a) || |-! Manubaran! Proto-Mount Brown (Usher)| *ada || *u[w]e[t/k]a || *anema || *ne || *uɾuma || *gade || *api[j]e || || *daweʔa || *nena || *ɾoʔo || *sisu|-! Yareban! Proto-Musa River| *bo-tai || *idi || *ome || *nai-tai || *iboʔo || *ni[ʔ]o || *meana || *buɾi || *iwa || *tai || *ope || *ama|-! Mailuan! Mailu (Ilai dialect)|| ilolo || liʔimu || ʔope || ini || durumu || maʔa || goba || ʔau || lala || kisa || ʔopi || ama|-! Dagan! Daga|| iwa || igumewa || darinewa || yamewa || ginewa || nodonewa || mɛriwa || || dɛnip || kaemewa || ɛpiwa || amewa|}
Nature! family !! language !! louse !! dog !! pig !! bird !! egg !! tree !! sun !! moon !! water !! fire !! stone !! path
Trans-New GuineaProto-Trans-New Guinea
  • niman
  • n(e,i); *n(e)i; *n[e]i; *yak; *yaka[i]; *yanem
  • maŋgV; *munaka; *mun(a,u)ka
  • ida; *inda ~ *iñja
  • kamali; *kamuli; *ketana
  • kal(a,i)m; *kamali; *takVn; *takVn[V]
  • nok; *(n)ok; *ok(u); *ok[V]
  • inda; *k(a,e)dap; *k(a,e)(n,d)ap; *kambu; *k(a,o)nd(a,u)p
  • kamb(a,u)na; *(na)muna; *[na]muna
West BomberaiProto-Mbahaam-Iha
  • mɛⁱn
  • jaˈmbar
  • [ku]ˈndur
  • wun
  • wiˈra
  • kaˈminV
  • kaˈpas
  • kiˈra
  • war
Asmat-KamoroProto-Asmat-Kamrau
  • amo
  • juwuɾi
  • oɸo
  • [a]sa
  • ose
  • jawu
  • buɾa
  • m[oi/ui]
  • usa
  • jeta
Ok-OksapminProto-Ok-Oksapmin
  • mVjaan
  • kVŋ; *saamVVn
  • aleem; *ilnem
  • ataan
  • kajoop
Greater AwyuProto-Awyu-Dumut
  • gut
  • angay; *ɑgɑi; *set
  • wi
  • yet
  • wɑidin
  • yin
  • seyɑt
  • wɑkot
  • ox
  • yin
  • irop
KayagaricProto-Gondu River
  • num
  • epe
  • wakum
  • suopam
  • map-jaxam
  • wom
  • taːm
  • xa[x/ɣ]atam
  • o[x/ɣ]om
  • atu
  • maitn
  • kamein
KolopomProto-Kolopom
  • nemeŋg
  • n[ia]
  • k[o/u][a]
  • uak
  • nd[ua]t
  • kumbanV
  • ndzu
  • mete
AnimProto-Fly River
  • n[u]m[u]ŋg
  • mbasik
  • kanV
  • nde
  • tae
AnimProto-Inland Gulf
  • uani
  • gaso
  • maɸa
  • ewesa
  • ɸutu; *usu
  • de
  • nowumu; *siwio
  • bubei
  • ogo
  • maɸi; *ta[j]e
  • jigei
AnimProto-Lower Fly River
  • oɾ[eae]n
  • s[eae]; *diɾean
  • m[i/e]nawə
  • dawod
  • sVɣaɾə
  • naukə
  • manom
  • manom
  • mau[g/k]ə
  • j[i]au
  • didigə
  • ewean
AnimProto-Marind
  • nahun; *mba[m/mb]
  • ŋgat
  • basik
  • ujub
  • magaw
  • de
  • katane
  • mandou
  • adeka
  • tekaw
  • ketaɾ; *seŋga
  • isas
MaroriMororinemeŋkkoro bosik ujif vi kwi kum deke sir mere
Gogodala-SukiGogodalaami soke uai kadɛpa wi ila nabidi
KiwaianProto-Kiwai
  • nimo
  • [k]umu
  • wowogo
  • kikopu
  • nuk₂a; *kota
  • saɾik₂i; *si[w]io
  • sagomi; *owe
  • kobo
  • keɾa
  • (nok₂oɾa-)kopi
  • gabo
Paniai LakesEkari (Paniai Lake dialect)uka dodi ekina bedo nipo pija meuka
tani
agoo uwo bodija mogo itá
DaniDani, Lower Grand Valley (Tangma dialect)napɩ jekke wam sʋe sʋe-kken e mo tuki i ettu helep kwe
SomahaiMomunaamega kwoka uwo magisaga kwo ɨkɨ iŋga kukwa kɨ
MekProto-Mek
  • ami
  • gam
  • be̝sam
  • mak, *mag
  • do̝[k]
  • gal
  • k[ɛ]t[e̝]ŋ
  • wal
  • m[ɛ/a]g
  • o̝ᵘg
  • gɛⁱl; *gidig
  • bi[t/s]ig
Awin-PaProto-Kamula-Elevala
  • awV
  • ti
  • m₂aⁱnæ
  • te̝ja
  • m[ɔ/o̝]k[ɔ/o̝]
  • je̝
  • gani
  • ike̝
East StricklandGobasiom sɔf bɔi sigɔ wigɔ hɔlɔ hɔmɔ̃n õs ogɔ hõ dɔbu yo
Duna-BogayaDunatete yawi isa heka hapa lowa
lɔwa
hewa eke yu lɔwa kiliana
lowa puru
kana
kuna
Duna-BogayaBogayafando
fiľʌ
ɔv̧ɔpi
yau
ʌpʌn aka
pitʌkʌ
oondi
pitʌkʌ ɔ̃udi
dowa
tɔuʌ
owa
ɔwa
kaiyuu
kʌiu
paiyuku
pʌiuku
dowada
tɔun
haana
hʌnʌ
BosaviKalulife
fẽ
gasa
kasʌ
kabɔ ɔ̃bẽ
oloone; oobaa
ɔ̃bẽ uš
us
i of
ɔf
ili hɔ̃n
hoon
de
di
u
KutubuProto-Lake Kutubu
  • g[e/ẽ/a]s[a/ã]
  • mena
  • hʲaka
  • kapa
  • ita
  • he̝ge̝
  • hẽ
  • ita
  • kana
  • ig[i]a
Enga-Kewa-HuliEnga (Sari dialect)tilya yana mena yaka yaka tuku ita niki
nira
kana indaki ira kan kait
WiruWirunomo
nomò
tue kaì ini
inì
mu̧ yomo
yomò
lou
loú
tokene ue
uè
toe kue
kué
Chimbu-WahgiKumannuman aʝg
agi; akɬ̥
bogla
bugɬa
kua mugɬo
muɬo
endi ande
andesuŋgua
ba nigl
nikɬ̥
baugl
doŋga
kombuglo
kombugɬo
konbo
konumbo
MadangProto-Madang
  • [n]iman
  • kVbara
  • munaka
  • tari
  • kamali
  • kalam; *takun
  • yag(V)
  • k(a,e)dap
  • namanu
FinisterreMungkipmi
mīŋ
sap kare jāŋ qiliq bɛm maim
male
jaʁip ime
imɛ
kuduk
kugup
qawade tɛlɛ
tɛrɛpmēŋ
HuonSelepetimen soso nâi
nɔi
nak dewutâ
dewutɔ
emesenŋe to kɔlɔp kât
kɔt
giop
Kainantu-GorokaProto-Eastern Kainantu-Goroka
  • nu-N
  • iya-N
  • poe-V
  • yë-V
  • no-N
  • ida-V
  • ä-N
Kainantu-GorokaProto-Eastern Kainantu
  • numɐ
  • w₂ɐⁱni
  • p₂uᵄɾɐ
  • inɑːmɐ; *uwini
  • uɾu
  • jɐtɐɾi
  • j₂uᵄni
  • [u]toːnɐ
  • noːni
  • iʔjɐ
  • oːni
  • ɑːni
Kainantu-GorokaProto-Northern Kainantu
  • nuN
  • ijɐN
  • poːɾ
  • nuN
  • uɾ
  • jɑːj
  • ɑːʔ
  • wi[ɾ]oːN
  • noːN
  • itɐ
  • oː[ɾ/j]
  • ɑːj
AnganSimbariila njɨlɨka ntaqatɨ pantapta ika kwɨnja
nilya
lampaaka aalya
wanya
ntɨka sɨla
Turama-KikoriProto-Rumu-Omati
  • gutɔm
  • gas
  • gɔ[u]n
  • gaᵋ
  • d[ɔ]um
  • i
  • ɛsɔa
  • wẽ̝
  • i
  • dɛⁱ
GoilalanFuyughi ho
oi
ovo Nemba
nembe
hulombo i'i evuli hama ʒu oki zo enamba
inambe
GoilalanTauadedautʰ kɔveřa pɔřu kide mutuwu eata vatava ɔne ipi e'na·m evi'ti bɔřiƀařa
Greater BinandereanProto-Binandere
  • sinә
  • pu
  • munju
  • i
  • iji; *waeko
  • inua
  • awo
  • gmb(ro)
  • begata; *esa; *ndai
KoiarianProto-Koiarian
  • ʔumu
  • ugu[fa]
  • uni
  • idí
  • vené
  • muni
KwaleanProto-Kwalean (Ross)
  • (n)omo(ne)
  • ɣuni
  • aba
  • teboare
  • ma(va)
  • mada
  • bato
  • vou; *wara
  • ire
  • hadi
KwaleanProto-Humene-Uare (Usher)
  • nɔmɔnɛ
  • ɣo̝ni
  • aba
  • ne̝ni; *t[e̝]b[o̝]ɾ[e̝]
  • maɣa
  • maˈda
  • batɔ
  • wɔu
  • iɾɛ
  • hadi
  • e̝bi
ManubaranProto-Manubaran (Ross)
  • gue
  • auna
  • Dona
  • erena
  • une-ma
  • yabo
  • maida(ka)
  • e(y)oʔa; *mohe- (?)
  • koru
  • ita
ManubaranProto-Mount Brown (Usher)
  • gu[w]e
  • auna
  • dona
  • eɾena
  • unema
  • jabo
  • me[i]daʔa
  • ejoʔa
  • koɾu
  • ita
  • waʔiga
  • ida
YarebanProto-Musa River
  • uʔa
  • kua
  • boɾo
  • gasiɾa; *ada
  • baka; *uɾimi
  • ana
  • eweaka
  • maɾabe; *sakaɾa
  • adua
  • inaʔa
  • oma; *gebiɾo
  • daʔaba
MailuanMailu (Ilai dialect)tuma daritalae manu muruʔu ana nina dovele ʔaʔama eu gomana laea
DaganDagakuisin eao tuan nɛnip bagua oma oam siragam kaum om
Miscellaneous! family !! language !! man !! woman !! name !! eat !! one !! two
Trans-New GuineaProto-Trans-New Guinea
  • abV; *ambi
  • panV; *pan(V)
  • ibi; *imbi; *wani
  • na; *na-
  • ta(l,t)(a,e)
West BomberaiProto-Mbahaam-Iha
  • nami-sar
  • t[ɔ/u]mb[ɔ/u]r
  • nⁱɛ
  • nawa
  • ɔkʷɔ[nɔ]
Asmat-KamoroProto-Asmat-Kamrau
  • ɟawoɟa
  • uwase
  • n[a]-
  • ɟawa[kV]
  • kaboma
Ok-OksapminProto-Ok-Oksapmin
  • win
Greater AwyuProto-Awyu-Dumut
  • ran; *rɑn
  • füp; *pip
  • ɑde; *en; *ɛn-
  • rumo; *rumon
KayagaricProto-Gondu River
  • jo[k]
  • enop
  • na[k]
  • xapti
  • pa[x/ɣ]amo[x/k]
  • tousiki
KolopomProto-Kolopom
  • ndz[ia]p
  • jowa[k]
  • n[e/a][k/ŋg]
  • [j]enapa; *sVp
AnimProto-Fly River
  • anem
  • anum
  • ija (?)
  • meas[i]
AnimProto-Inland Gulf
  • aneme
  • anumu
  • jiga
  • jaigio
  • measi
AnimProto-Lower Fly River
  • anem(ə)
  • anum(ə)
  • gag
  • tamu
  • ɣoɾ[e]a[u][k]
  • mis
AnimProto-Marind
  • anem
  • anum
  • igij
  • ɣawi[ɣ]
  • ijako[d]; *ijakod
  • inah
MaroriMororiyexri nex kef sekodu yenadu
Gogodala-SukiGogodaladala
dalagi
ato
susɛgi
gagi na
KiwaianProto-Kiwai
  • dubu
  • oɾobo; *upi
  • paini, *paina
  • oɾuso (sg.), *iɾiso (pl.)
  • nak[o/u]
  • netoa
Paniai LakesEkari (Paniai Lake dialect)jame eka nai ena
kate
wijá
DaniDani, Lower Grand Valley (Tangma dialect)ap he
hʋmɩ
ettake oppakke-at p:ie
SomahaiMomunamogo-mearu nowa-
MekProto-Mek
  • ge̝l
  • si
  • de̝-(b)
  • [na]tɔn
  • b[e̝/ɛ]te̝ne̝
Awin-PaProto-Kamula-Elevala
  • k[ɔ/o̝]b[a/ɔ]
  • pi
  • de̝-
  • tV[n/d]o̝
East StricklandGobasios uliʌ hũni nɔwalaga hele bihinɔ̃n
Duna-BogayaDunaanoa
anɔa
ima yaka nai-
neyana
du yapa
Duna-BogayaBogayaami
ʌmĩ
ĩmiʌ
imya
ʌmĩn
yaga
nã
nosii
mɔsʌ kɔmʌ
moso
efʌn
yeefa
BosaviKalulikalu ga
kesali; kesari
wi maya ãgel
angel
a̧dep
ãdip
KutubuProto-Lake Kutubu
  • ne-
  • hʲaga
Enga-Kewa-HuliEnga (Sari dialect)akali eŋda keŋge neŋge mendai lapoma
WiruWiruali atoa
atòa
ibini
ibíni
nakò
one ne nako
odene takuta
ta kutà
Chimbu-WahgiKumanyagl
yakɬ̥
ambu kaŋgin
kangi-ne
neuŋgua suařa suo
MadangProto-Madang
  • na-gali(k)
  • ibi; *wañim
  • (n,ñ)a
  • kati(ŋ,g)a
  • arigita
FinisterreMungkipmɛ tam buŋām
wow
nʌna kubugaŋ lifɛt
HuonSelepetlok apet
ibi
kut
kut-
ne
ni-
konok yâhâp
Kainantu-GorokaProto-Eastern Kainantu-Goroka
  • kwe-(t)-V
  • -wi-Q
  • boda
Kainantu-GorokaProto-Eastern Kainantu
  • wɐⁱ-iNti
  • ɐnɑːjeː
  • utu
  • nɐ-
  • moːʔjɑː
  • tɑːɾɐ
Kainantu-GorokaProto-Northern Kainantu
  • wɑːⁱNsɐ
  • ɐnɑːsi
  • wiʔ
  • mɐnɑː
  • tɑːN
AnganSimbarikwala aampala yavata an̲aantapyɨ pɨrɨ'mɨna pɨvɨraalna
Turama-KikoriProto-Rumu-Omati
  • e̝ne̝ne̝n
  • t[aⁱ/aᵋ]
GoilalanFuyugA'a
an
Amu
amuri
ifa huni nene fida ʒuvalo
GoilalanTauadebaře iva ape'te ɔmei nai kɔne kupal'iai
Greater BinandereanProto-Binandere
  • embә
  • bamnә
  • jajo; *jawә
  • ind-; *mind-
  • daba
KoiarianProto-Koiarian
  • maɣina
  • ifí
  • i-
  • (i,o)gau
KwaleanProto-Kwalean (Ross)
  • vaʒe
  • no'ɣone
  • ni
  • anE-
  • teba
  • aheu
KwaleanProto-Humene-Uare (Usher)
  • wajɛ
  • nɔgɔnɛ
  • ni
  • an-
  • te̝bɔ
  • ahɛu
ManubaranProto-Manubaran (Ross)
  • amie
  • roka
  • iri-
  • yokohi
  • (ye)(ka)ma[nu]
ManubaranProto-Mount Brown (Usher)
  • ami[j]e
  • ɾema
  • ɾoka
  • iɾi-
  • jokohi
  • [ɾ/j]ema
YarebanProto-Musa River
  • e[ʔe]me
  • aweta
  • ibi
  • it-
  • demu
MailuanMailu (Ilai dialect)egi avesa omu isiisi ʔomu ʔava
DaganDagaapan oaen yaoa naiwan daiton dɛrɛ

For other lexical comparison tables of Papuan languages, see also:

See also

Synchronic reflexes

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

Notes and References

  1. Book: Pawley . Andrew . Hammarström . Harald . Palmer . Bill . 2018 . The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide . The Trans New Guinea family . The World of Linguistics . 4 . Berlin . De Gruyter Mouton . 21–196 . 978-3-11-028642-7 . 10.1515/9783110295252-002.
  2. Suter . Edgar . Ford . Kevin . A Comparative Look at the Dual and Plural Forms of verb Inflections and Pronouns in Northeast New Guinea Papuan Languages . Language and Linguistics in Melanesia . 1997 . 28 . 17-68 . Linguistic Society of Papua New Guinea; Society on Pidgins and Creoles in Melanesia . Ukarumpa, Papua New Guinea . PDF . 0023-1959.

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