Proto-Kra language explained

Proto-Kra
Familycolor:	Kra-Dai
Ancestor:	Proto-Kra–Dai
Target:	Kra languages
Region:	South China

Proto-Kra is the reconstructed ancestor of the Kra languages. It was reconstructed in 2000 by Weera Ostapirat in his Ph.D. dissertation.

Lower-level reconstructions

Ostapirat (2000) provided preliminary phonological reconstructions for several lower-level groupings before attempting a reconstruction of Proto-Kra.

Proto-Kra
- Proto-South-Western Kra
  - Proto-Western Kra (Gelao, Lachi)
  - Proto-Southern Kra (Laha)
- Proto-Central-East Kra
  - Proto-Central Kra (Paha)
  - Proto-Eastern Kra (Buyang, Qabiao)

Phonology

Consonants

Proto-Kra has a total of 32 consonants, seven of which (marked in green) can occur as syllable finals (Ostapirat 2000:224, 236).

Proto-Kra consonants
	Labial	Alveolar	Postalveolar	Retroflex	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Unvoiced Stop	pronounced as /p/	pronounced as /t/		pronounced as /ʈ/	pronounced as /c/	pronounced as /k/	pronounced as /ʔ/
Voiced Stop	pronounced as /b/	pronounced as /d/		pronounced as /ɖ/	pronounced as /ɟ/	pronounced as /ɡ/
Nasal	pronounced as /m/	pronounced as /n/		pronounced as /ɳ/	pronounced as /ɲ/	pronounced as /ŋ/
Unvoiced Affricate		pronounced as /ts/	pronounced as /tʃ/	pronounced as /ʈʂ/
Voiced Affricate		pronounced as /dz/	pronounced as /dʒ/	pronounced as /ɖʐ/
Unvoiced Fricative		pronounced as /s/	pronounced as /ʃ/			pronounced as /x/
Voiced Fricative		pronounced as /z/	pronounced as /ʒ/			pronounced as /ɣ/
Approximant	pronounced as /w/	pronounced as /l/			pronounced as /j/
Rhotic		pronounced as /r/

Miyake (2008, 2021)

Marc Miyake (2008,^[1] 2021^[2]) proposes alternative reconstructions for Ostapirat's (2000) Proto-Kra retroflex consonants, suggesting that many of them were actually non-retroflexes that had been influenced by pre-syllables, in particular with alveolar consonants leniting in intervocalic position. In synchronic Kra languages, reflexes are often attested as voiced fricatives, which Miyake (2021) does not believe to have developed from historical initial retroflex consonants. Some examples of Miyake's (2008) revised Proto-Kra reconstructions are provided below.

*tsəm 'one' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *tʂəm^C)
*tsun 'teach' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *tʂun^A)
*N-tsu 'pillar' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *m-tʂu^A)
*nok 'bird' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *ɳok^D)
*nui 'snow' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *ɳui^A)
*nəl 'fat' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *(m-)ɳəl^A)
*CV-nəŋh 'salty' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *ʔ-ɳəŋ^B)
*na 'thick' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *C-na^A)
*nak 'give' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *nak^D)
*klep 'fingernail' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *ʈ-lep^D)
*(k/tV-)loŋ 'vegetable' (Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *ɖ-loŋ^A)

Miyake (2021) reconstructs some disyllabic lexical forms for Proto-Kra, including *mata^A 'eye', *manok^D 'bird', and *kVtu^A1 'louse'.

Additionally, Miyake (2008) revises Ostapirat's Proto-Kra *pwl- as *CV-pl-, *bwl- as *CV-bl-, *m-pl- as *pl-, *(p/d/k)-l- as *(p/d/k)V-l-, *ʈ-l- as k-l-, and *ɖ-l- as *(k/tV)-l-. Proto-Kra consonants in Miyake (2021)^[2] as compared to Ostapirat (2000) are:

Ostapirat (2000)	Miyake (2021)
ʈ-	CVt-
ɖ-	CVd-
ɳ-	CVn-
ɭ-	CVl-
d-l-	CVl-
tʂ-	CVts-
dʐ-	CVdz-
hr-	hr-
r-	r-

Vowels

Proto-Kra has a total of 6 vowels (Ostapirat 2000:235).

Height! colspan="2"
Front	Central		Back
Close		pronounced as /i/			pronounced as /u/
Mid		pronounced as /e/		pronounced as /ə/	pronounced as /o/
Open				pronounced as /a/

Proto-Kra has 4 diphthongs, which are not found in closed syllables.

pronounced as /
- -ai
/
pronounced as /
- -aɯ
/
pronounced as /
- -ui
/
pronounced as /
- -au
/

Tones

Proto-Kra had an A–B–C–D tonal system typical of other Tai–Kadai languages (see Proto-Tai language#Tones). The tonal descriptions below are from Ostapirat (2000:237).

*A: *A is one of the most common tones.
*B: *B and *D are phonetically similar, as reflexes of tone *D are often the same as those of *B. This regularly occurs in all Kra languages except for Qabiao.
*C: *C is usually accompanied by glottal constriction and may have originally had a creaky or tense laryngeal quality. Some Gelao varieties and Yalang Buyang display the same reflex for *B and *C.
*D: *D is the only tone to occur exclusively in closed syllables.

The following table of phonetic characteristics of Proto-Kra tones was adapted from Ostapirat (2000:237).

Proto-Kra Tonal Characteristics
	A	B	C	D
Type of final	sonorants, vowels	lax larynx (?)	tense larynx	stops
Voicing	voiced	unvoiced	unvoiced	unvoiced
Vocal cords	vibrating	wide open	closed	closed
Vowel duration	long	medium	short	medium

Lexicon

Below are reconstructed Proto-Kra forms from Ostapirat (2000).

Body parts and bodily functions

*tai^C 'armpit (1)'
*lje^A 'armpit (2)'
*mum^C 'beard'
*hmok^D 'belly'
*plat^D 'blood (1)'
*kɣa^C 'blood (2)'
*plaɯ^C 'boil (n.)'
*dək^D 'bone'
*m-la^B 'cheek/face'
*tək^D 'chest'
*kaŋ^C 'chin'
*k-ra^A 'ear'
*kai^C 'excrement (1)'
*ʔik^D 'excrement (2)'
*m-ʈa^A 'eye'
*C-tot^D 'fart'
*ʈ-lep^D 'fingernail'
*kok^D 'foot'
*C-dəŋ^A 'forehead'
*m-di^A 'gall bladder'
*mot^D 'hair'
*m-səm^A 'hair (head)'
*mja^A 'hand'
*krai^B 'head'
*hlul^C 'heart'
*C-si^C 'intestine'
*C-ku^B 'knee'
*C-ka^A 'leg'
*təp^D 'liver'
*ʔaɯ^C 'meat'
*ŋuŋ^A 'mouth (1)'
*mul^B 'mouth (2)'
*m-ɖaɯ^A 'navel'
*C-jo^A 'neck'
*hŋət^D 'nose (1)'
*teŋ^C 'nose (2)'
*hŋwu^B 'pus'
*t-ru^B 'saliva'
*m-ba^B 'shoulder'
*kwau^B 'skin (1)'
*ta^A 'skin (2)'
*boŋ^A 'skin (3)'
*hloŋ^A 'stomach'
*ʒa^C 'tear (n.)'
*ɣwjən^A 'tendon (1)'
*ŋen^A 'tendon (2)'
*t-roŋ^A 'throat (1)'
*kɣe^A 'throat (2)'
*l-ma^A 'tongue'
*l-pən^A 'tooth (1)'
*C-tʃuŋ^A 'tooth (2)'
*t-lu^C 'waist'

Animals

*mot^D 'ant'
*C-me^A 'bear'
*re^A 'bee'
*ɳok^D 'bird'
*kwai^A 'buffalo'
*ku^C 'cat (wild)'
*ki^A 'chicken'
*ni^A 'cow'
*d-rat^D 'crab'
*ʔak^D 'crow (n.)'
*dit^D 'deer'
*x-ma^A 'dog'
*blaɯ^A 'duck (1)'
*kap^D 'duck (2)'
*ʈəm^A 'egg'
*p-la^A 'fish'
*x-mət^D 'flea'
*me^C 'goat'
*d-laŋ^C 'hawk'
*C-ku^A 'horn'
*ŋja^C 'horse'
*C-ʈu^A 'louse (head)'
*m-drəl^A 'louse (body)'
*kʒət^D 'maggot'
*tai^C 'monkey (1)'
*krok^D 'monkey (2)'
*m-lu^A 'monkey (gibbon)'
*dʒaŋ^A 'mosquito'
*x-mu^A 'pig'
*hlai^C 'rat'
*tʃui^A 'shellfish'
*C-tʃot^D 'tail'
*ŋa^A 'snake'
*(k-)di^A 'tiger'
*gwja^A 'wing'

Plants

*tok^D 'banana'
*m-te^C 'beans'
*m-pwa^B 'bran'
*ka^A 'cogon grass'
*m-tiŋ^A 'cucumber'
*C-kən^A 'ear of grain'
*hŋa^C 'flower (1)'
*bal^A 'flower (2)'
*C-mak^D 'fruit'
*C-sui^B 'garlic (1)'
*kɣa^A 'garlic (2)'
*kɣiŋ^A 'ginger'
*t-laɯ^A 'grass/tobacco'
*ɖiŋ^A 'leaf'
*l-ka^A 'mushroom'
*ca^A 'paddy (grain)'
*m-pləŋ^A 'peach'
*mla(ɯ)^C 'rice (cooked)'
*sal^A 'rice (husked)'
*kʒaŋ^A 'rice'
*tsaŋ^A 'root'
*pe^A 'seed'
*l-ŋa^A 'sesame'
*ʒaŋ^A 'sorghum'
*p-ɣak^D 'taro (1)'
*rwau^C 'taro (2)'
*ŋjan^C 'thorn'
*ti^A 'tree'
*ɖ-loŋ^A 'vegetable (1)'
*ʔop^D 'vegetable (2)'
*məl^A 'yam'

Nature

*m-tu^B1 'ash'
*la^B 'coal'
*muk^D 'cloud/fog'
*lu^B 'earth'
*ʔut^D 'earth (soil/mud)'
*na^A 'field (wet)'
*za^C 'field (dry)'
*pui^A 'fire'
*sui^A 'firewood'
*l-me^A 'frost'
*tsep^D 'hail'
*kjəl^C 'iron'
*m-ɖjan^A 'moon (1)'
*(C-)tjan^A 'moon (2)'
*dʐu^A 'mountain'
*mon^A 'rain'
*jəl^A 'rain'
*kron^A 'road'
*t-la^B 'rock (1)'
*ʔuŋ^A 'rock (2)'
*p-ra^A 'rock (3)'
*hŋai^A 'sand'
*praɯ^B 'silver (1)'
*ŋjən^A 'silver (2)'
*m-kwən^A 'smoke'
*ɳui^A 'snow'
*d-luŋ^A 'star'
*t-laŋ^A 'sunlight'
*(l-)wən^A 'sun'
*ʔuŋ^C 'water'
*gwjən^A 'wind'

Material culture

*kwan^A 'ax'
*da^A 'boat'
*dzaɯ^B/C 'chopsticks'
*C-ʃe^A 'comb'
*trau^C 'den/nest'
*x-ŋo^A 'door'
*d-luŋ^A 'drum'
*t-lop^D 'hat (bamboo)'
*kran^A 'house'
*kwli^A 'ladder (1)'
*kɣuŋ^A 'ladder (2)'
*plu^A 'liquor (1)'
*C-ka^C 'liquor (2)'
*t-laɯ^A 'medicine'
*dru^A 'mortar'
*ŋlot^D 'needle'
*tsak^D 'pestle'
*m-tʂu^A 'pillar'
*hɲe^A 'pillow'
*C-ʃak^D 'rope'
*ɲo^A 'salt'
*gwaŋ^A 'sieve'
*ʔen^C 'skirt'
*ʒun^B 'thread'
*mɣai^A 'village'

Kinship and pronouns

*tai^A 'brother (elder)'
*ʒaɯ^B 'brother (younger)'
*lak^D 'child'
*ba^A 'father'
*pa^B1 'father'
*m-li^B 'female-in-law'
*klal^A 'grandchild'
*m-pau^B 'grandfather'
*ja^C 'grandmother'
*ku^A 'I (1)'
*ʔe^A 'I (2)'
*C-paɯ^C 'male/husband'
*se^A 'male/husband'
*dʒu^C 'male-in-law'
*mai^C 'mother'
*n(ʒ)i^A 'name'
*bɣuŋ^C 'orphan'
*pi^C 'sister (elder)'
*ʔon^C 'sister (younger)'
*ŋun^A 'spirit'
*r-maŋ^A 'spirit'
*ʒan^A 'strength'
*t-ɣu^A 'we'
*ʔ-nau^A/C 'who'
*mə^A/B 'you'

Adjectives

*kəm^A 'bitter'
*hl/dəm^A 'black'
*ʔaŋ^C 'bright'
*ŋəl^C 'deaf'
*(h)lək^D 'deep'
*r-me^A 'drunk'
*kʒa^B 'dry'
*k-li^A 'far'
*(m-)ɳəl^A 'fat'
*m-tik^D 'full'
*ʔai^A 'good'
*kʒəl^A 'heavy'
*piŋ^C 'hot'
*dok^D 'itchy'
*pren^A 'lazy'
*kʒa^C 'light (not heavy)'
*ri^C 'long'
*ʔi^B 'many'
*d-la^C 'near'
*mal^A 'new'
*ku^B 'old (1)'
*kja^C/B 'old (2)'
*(k-)ɖep^D 'raw'
*ŋ(w)a^B 'real'
*hŋwu^B 'ripe'
*roŋ^B 'rotten'
*ʔ-ɳəŋ^B 'salty'
*tʃi^B 'satiated'
*ɖjel^C/B 'shallow'
*hɲan^C 'short (not long 1)'
*ti^C 'short (not long 2)'
*ta^B/C 'short (not tall)'
*gjaɯ^C 'skinny'
*bwlat^D 'sour'
*ʔet^D 'small'
*mu^B 'smelly'
*tjel^C 'sweet'
*k-ɣwaŋ^A 'tall'
*C-na^A 'thick'
*ɣwə^C 'thin'
*tu^C 'warm (1)'
*ʔun^B 'warm (2)'
*rək^D 'wet'
*r-ʔuk^D 'white'
*C-ŋil^C 'yellow'

Verbs

*p-la^A 'afraid'
*pluŋ^C 'alive'
*tsi^C 'ask'
*m-plau^B 'bark (v.)'
*ʔap^D 'bathe'
*ʈai^B 'bite'
*rəm^C 'bite'
*tsol^A 'buy'
*pa^C 'carry on back (1)'
*m-blik^D 'carry on back (2)'
*s-le^B 'choose'
*kləp^D 'close eye (1)'
*nəp^D 'close eye (2)'
*(C-)ma^A 'come'
*m-duŋ^A 'come (return)'
*ɖəŋ^A 'crow (v.)'
*te^C 'cut (1)'
*hrən^C 'cut (2)'
*caɯ^C 'descend (1)'
*d-loŋ^A 'descend (2)'
*pɣon^A 'die'
*du^A 'do'
*l-pən^A 'dream'
*hrom^C 'drink'
*m-ʈak^D 'dry in sun'
*kan^A 'eat'
*tok^D 'fall'
*t-lui^A 'flow'
*dəp^D 'forget'
*nak^D 'give'
*pwən^B 'get (1)'
*m-to^B 'get (2)'
*ɣwa^C 'go'
*kəm^C 'hatch'
*ʔən^A 'have'
*dʒək^D 'hear'
*kom^A 'hold in mouth (1)'
*ʔom^A 'hold in mouth (2)'
*p-ɣon^A 'kill'
*so^A 'know'
*k-so^A 'laugh'
*lim^C 'lick'
*(h)ŋwai^A/B 'love'
*təm^C 'plant (v.)'
*bet^D 'pluck'
*(ʔ)jəŋ^A/C 'rest'
*ʔi^B 'scold (1)'
*kən^C 'scold (2)'
*hɲan^B 'scold (3)'
*kai^A 'see'
*ti^C 'see (look)'
*s-ɣwi^A 'sell'
*səl^B 'shake/shiver'
*d-ri^C 'sick'
*ŋu^B 'sleep (1)'
*ʔu^B 'sleep (2)'
*mu^B 'smell'
*pɣa^B 'split (1)'
*de^B 'split (2)'
*lum^C 'steal'
*tsu^C 'steam (v.)'
*d-lwal C/A 'swallow (v.)'
*klut^D 'take off'
*tʂun^A 'teach'
*hŋa(ɯ)^A 'wait'
*C-pwi^A 'walk'
*le^C 'wear'
*ɲit^D 'weep'

Space, time, and deictics

*lju^A 'above'
*lon^A 'back/behind'
*dəŋ^C 'back/behind'
*kun^A 'before/front'
*ɲun^B/C 'below'
*(h)wən^A 'day'
*t-luŋ^C 'inside'
*mjaŋ^B 'left'
*m-ɖjan^A 'month'
*ri^C 'outside'
*(x-)mit^D 'right'
*ʔ-ɲa^C/B 'that'
*ʔ-ni^C/B 'this'
*m-(p)ɣiŋ^A 'year'

Numerals

*tʂəm^C 'one'
*sa^A 'two'
*tu^A 'three'
*pə^A 'four'
*r-ma^A 'five'
*x-nəm^A 'six'
*t-ru^A 'seven'
*m-ru^A 'eight'
*s-ɣwa^B 'nine'
*pwlot^D 'ten'
*kjən^A 'hundred'

References

Chen, Y.-L. (2018). Proto-Ong-Be. Doctoral dissertation, University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa.
Hsiu, Andrew. 2017. Potential loanwords in Kra.
Miyake, Marc. 2018. Chu and Kra-Dai.
Miyake, Marc. 2013. The other Kra-Dai numerals (Parts 1, 2).
Miyake, Marc. 2013. Proto-Kra 'seven'.
Miyake, Marc. 2013. Retroflexion or lenition?: Kra-Dai 'eye'.
Miyake, Marc. 2013. Thurgood's "Tai-Kadai and Austronesian: the nature of the historical relationship" (1994).
Miyake, Marc. 2012. t for *p in Vietnamese.
Miyake, Marc. 2011. Dating Proto-Kra-Dai: the clue of the old chicken.
Miyake, Marc. 2008. Did Proto-Kra have retroflex initials? (Parts 1, 2–6, 7–9, 10, 11)
Miyake, Marc. 2008. Correspondences between Proto-Kra and Proto-Tai implosives.
Miyake, Marc. 2008. From presyllables to Proto-Kra clusters?
Miyake, Marc. 2008. Proto-Kra presyllables and clusters with labial stops
Miyake, Marc. 2008. Were Kra words for 'chopsticks' borrowed from Chinese?
Miyake, Marc. 2008. 布央 Cloth center consonants.
Miyake, Marc. 2008. Limited knowledge only gets you *so far.
Miyake, Marc. 2008. What's *so funny about knowledge?
Ostapirat, Weera. 2000. "Proto-Kra." Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 23 (1): 1–251.
Ostapirat, Weera. (2009). Proto-Tai and Kra-Dai Finals *-l and *-c. Journal of Language and Culture, 28(2), 41–56.
Ostapirat, Weera. (2013). The Rime System of Proto-Tai. Bulletin of Chinese Linguistics, 7(1), 189–227.
Pittayaporn, Pittayawat. (2009). The Phonology of Proto-Tai (Doctoral dissertation). Cornell University.

External links

Notes and References

[Marc Miyake|Miyake, Marc]
Book: Miyake, Marc . Chapter 9: Retroflexion or Disyllabism? A Kra Puzzle . Brill . 2021-05-20 . Studies in Asian historical linguistics, philology and beyond: festschrift presented to Alexander V. Vovin in honor of his 60th birthday . 2023-01-19 . 115–136 . Kupchik . John . Alonso de la Fuente . José Andrés . Miyake . Marc Hideo . Vovin . Alexander . Leiden . 978-90-04-44856-8 . 1250436437 .