Proto-Indo-Iranian language explained

Proto-Indo-Iranian
Also Known As:	Proto-Indo-Iranic (PIIr)
Region:	Eurasian Steppe
Era:	late 3rd m. BCE
Familycolor:	Indo-European
Ancestor:	Proto-Indo-European
Target:	Indo-Iranian languages
Child1:	Proto-Indo-Aryan
Child2:	Proto-Iranian
Child3:	Proto-Nuristani

Proto-Indo-Iranian, also called Proto-Indo-Iranic or Proto-Aryan,^[1] is the reconstructed proto-language of the Indo-Iranian branch of Indo-European. Its speakers, the hypothetical Proto-Indo-Iranians, are assumed to have lived in the late 3rd millennium BC, and are often connected with the Sintashta culture of the Eurasian Steppe and the early Andronovo archaeological horizon.

Proto-Indo-Iranian was a satem language, likely removed less than a millennium from its ancestor, the late Proto-Indo-European language, and in turn removed less than a millennium from Vedic Sanskrit (of the Rigveda)^[2] and Old Avestan (of the Gathas), its descendants.

It is the ancestor of Indo-Aryan languages, the Iranian languages, and the Nuristani languages, predominantly spoken in the Southern Asian subregion of Eurasia.

Descriptive phonology

Proto-Indo-Iranian consonant segments

		Labial	Coronal		Palatal		Velar	Laryngeal
			dental/alveolar	post-alveolar	first	second
	voiceless	*p	*t		*ć	*č	*k
	voiced	*b	*d		*ȷ́	*ǰ	*g
	aspirated	*bʰ	*dʰ		*ȷ́ʰ	*ǰʰ	*gʰ
	voiceless		*s	*š				*H
	voiced		(*z)	(*ž)
Nasal		*m	*n
Liquid			(*l)	*r *r̥
Semivowel					*y		*w

PII vowel segments

High	*i (*ī)	*u (*ū)
Low	*a *ā

In addition to the vowels, *H, and *r̥ could function as the syllabic core. In many reconstructions, instances of *iH and *uH occur instead of *ī and *ū.

Two palatal series

Proto-Indo-Iranian is hypothesized to have contained two series of stops or affricates in the palatal to postalveolar region.^[3] The phonetic nature of this contrast is not clear, and hence they are usually referred to as the primary or first series (*ć *ȷ́ *ȷ́ʰ, continuing Proto-Indo-European palatovelar *ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ) and the second or secondary series (*č *ǰ *ǰʰ, continuing Proto-Indo-European plain and labialized velars, *k, *g, *gʰ and *kʷ, *gʷ, *gʷʰ, in palatalizing contexts).The following table shows the most common reflexes of the two series (Proto-Iranian is the hypothetical ancestor to the Iranian languages, including Avestan and Old Persian):^{[4] [5]}

PII	Proto-Indo-Aryan	Sanskrit	Proto-Iranian	Avestan	Old Persian	Nuristani
*ć	ś (pronounced as /[ɕ]/)	ś (pronounced as /[ɕ]/)	Iranian languages: *ts	s	θ	ċ (pronounced as /[ts]/) / š
*ȷ́	j (pronounced as /[dʑ]/)	j (pronounced as /[dʑ]/)	Iranian languages: *dz	z	d	j (pronounced as /[dz]/) / z
*ȷ́ʰ	źh (pronounced as /[dʑʱ]/)	h (pronounced as /[ɦ]/)
*č	c (pronounced as /[tɕ]/)	c (pronounced as /[tɕ]/)	Iranian languages: *č	č	č	č
*ǰ	j (pronounced as /[ɖʐ]/)	j (pronounced as /[dʑ]/)	Iranian languages: *ǰ	ǰ	ǰ	ǰ / ž
*ǰʰ	źh (pronounced as /[ɖʐʱ]/)	h (pronounced as /[ɦ]/)

Laryngeal

Proto-Indo-European is usually hypothesized to have had three to four laryngeal consonants, each of which could occur in either syllabic or non-syllabic positions. In Proto-Indo-Iranian, the laryngeals merged as one phoneme /*H/. Beekes suggests that some instances of this /*H/ survived into Rigvedic Sanskrit and Avestan as unwritten glottal stops as evidenced by metrics.^[6]

Accent

Like Proto-Indo-European and Vedic Sanskrit (and also Avestan, though it was not written down^[7]), Proto-Indo-Iranian had a pitch accent system similar to present-day Japanese, conventionally indicated by an acute accent over the accented vowel.

Historical phonology

The most distinctive phonological change separating Proto-Indo-Iranian from Proto-Indo-European is the collapse of the ablauting vowels *e, *o into a single vowel, Proto-Indo-Iranian *a (but see Brugmann's law). Grassmann's law, Bartholomae's law, and the Ruki sound law were also complete in Proto-Indo-Iranian.

A fuller list of some of the hypothesized sound changes from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Indo-Iranian follows:

• The Satem shift, consisting of two sets of related changes. The PIE palatals *ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ are fronted or affricated, eventually resulting in PII *ć, *ȷ́, *ȷ́ʰ, while the PIE labiovelars *kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ merge with the velars *k *g *gʰ.^[8]

PIE	PII	Sanskrit	Avestan	Latin	English	Glossary
	*ćatám	śatám	satəm	centum	hund(red)	id
	*ȷ́ā́nu	jā́nu	zānu	genū	knee	id
	*ȷ́ʰimás	himá	ziiā̊	hiems		'winter' / 'snow'
	*kás	kás	ka	quis	who	id
	*gā́wš	gaus	gao	bōs	cow	id
	*gʰarmás	gharmás	garəma	formus	warm	'warmth, heat'

• The PIE liquids merge as .^[9]

PIE	PII	Sanskrit	Avestan	Latin	English	Glossary
	*ćráwas	śrávas	srauua	clueō		'fame, honour, word'
	*wŕ̥kas	vŕ̥kas	vəhrka	lupus	wolf	id
	*gʰarmás	gharmás	garəma	formus	warm	'warmth, heat'

• The PIE syllabic nasals merge with *a.^[9]

PIE	pre-PII	PII	Sanskrit	Avestan	Latin	English	Glossary
	*dáćm̥	*dáća	dáśa	dasā	decem	ten	id
	*gm̥tás	*gatás	gatá	gata	ventus	come	'come, gone'
	*n̥bʰrás	*abʰrás	abhrá	aβra	imber		'rain, cloud'

• Bartholomae's law: an aspirate immediately followed by a voiceless consonant becomes voiced stop + voiced aspirate. In addition, dʰ + t > dᶻdʰ.^[10]

PIE	PII	Sanskrit	Avestan	English	Glossary
	*ubdʰás	sámubdha	ubdaēna	web, weave	'woven' / 'made of woven material'
	*wr̥dᶻdʰás	vr̥ddʰá	vərəzda		'grown, mature'
	*dáwgdʰi	dógdhi	daogdi	daugh(·ter)	'to milk'

• The Ruki rule: *s is retracted to *š when immediately following a liquid (*r *r̥ *l *l̥), a high vowel (*i *u), a PIE velar (*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ *k *g *gʰ *kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ) or the syllabic laryngeal *H̥.^[11] Its allophone *z likewise becomes *ž.^[9]

PIE	PII	Sanskrit	Avestan	Latin	English	Glossary
	*wišás	víṣas	viša	vīrus		'poison, venom'
	*ćH̥šam	aśiṣam	sīšā			'teach!'
	*ȷ́áwšati	jóṣati	zaošō	gustus		'to like, taste'
	*kšáp-	kṣáp-	xšap-			'darkness'
	*plúšiš	plúṣi	fruši	pūlex		'flea, noxious insect'
	*niždás	nīḷá/nīḍá	nižda	nīdus	nest	'nest'

• Before a dental occlusive, *ć becomes *š and *ȷ́ becomes *ž. *ȷ́ʰ also becomes *ž, with aspiration of the occlusive.^[12]

PIE	pre-PII	PII	Sanskrit	Avestan	Latin	English	Glossary
	*Haćtā́	*Haštā́	aṣṭá	ašta	octō	eight	'eight'
	*dr̥ćtás	*dr̥štás	dr̥ṣṭá	dərəšta			'seen, visible, apparent'
	*mr̥ȷ́d-	*mr̥žd-	mr̥ḷ-/mr̥ḍ-	mərəžd-			'to forgive, pardon'
	*uȷ́dʰás	*uždʰás	ūḍhá	užda	vector	weight	'carried'

• The sequence *ćš was simplified to *šš.^[13]

• The "second palatalization" or "law of palatals": *k *g *gʰ develop palatal allophones *č *ǰ *ǰʰ before the front vowels *i, *e.^[10] through an intermediate *kʲ *gʲ *gʲʰ.

PIE	pre-PII	PII	Sanskrit	Avestan	Latin	English	Glossary
	*-kʲa	*-ča	-ca	-ča	-que		'and'
	*gʲiHwás	*ǰiHwás	jīvás	juuō	vīvus	quick	'alive, living'
	*gʲʰánti	*ǰʰánti	hánti	jaiṇti	-fendit		'slays'

• Brugmann's law: *o or *ó in an open syllable lengthens to *ā.^[14]

• The vowels *e *o merge with *a. Similarly, *ē, *ō merge with *ā. This has the effect of giving full phonemic status to the second palatal series *č *ǰ *ǰʰ.

PIE	PII	Sanskrit	Avestan	Latin	English	Glossary
	*dádaHti	dádāti	dadāiti	dat		'to give'
	*Hdánts	dant	dantan	dēns	tooth	'tooth'
	*bʰráHtā	bhrā́tr̥	brātar	frāter	brother	'brother'
	*wā́kš	vā́k	vāxš	vōx		'voice'

• In certain positions, laryngeals were vocalized to *i. This preceded the second palatalization.^{[15] [16]}

• Following a consonant, and preceding a consonant cluster

• Following a consonant and word-final

• The Indo-European laryngeals all merged into one phoneme *H, which may have been a glottal stop. This was probably contemporary with the merging of *e and *o with *a.^[17]

• According to Lubotsky's Law, *H disappeared when followed by a voiced nonaspirated stop and another consonant:^[18]

Subsequent sound changes

Among the sound changes from Proto-Indo-Iranian to Indo-Aryan is the loss of the voiced sibilants *z, *ẓ, *ź; among those to Proto-Iranian is the de-aspiration of the PIE voiced aspirates.

PIE

OInd/VS

Av

-

p

>

p

p

ph̥₂tḗr "father"

pitā́ "father"

pitar- "father"

-

b

>

b

b

bél- "strong"

bálam "strength"

—

-

bʰ

>

bh

b

bʰréh₂tēr "brother"

bhrā́tār- "brother"

brātar- "brother

-

t

>

t

t

tuHóm "thou"

tuvám "thou"

tvəm "thou"

-

d

>

d

d

dóru "wood"

dā́ru "wood"

dāru- "wood"

-

dʰ

>

dh

d

dʰoHnéh₂- "grain"

dhānā́- "grain"

dāna- "grain"

-

ḱ

>

ś

s

déḱm̥ "ten"

dáśa "ten"

dasa "ten"

-

ǵ

>

j

z

ǵónu "knee"

jā́nu "knee"

zānu- "knee"

-

ǵʰ

>

h

z

ǵʰimós "cold"

himá- "cold, frost"

zəmaka- "winterstorm"

-

k

>

k ~ c

x ~ č

kruh₂rós "bloody"

krūrá- "bloody"

xrūra- "bloody"

-

téket "may he run"

—

tačat̰ "may he run"

-

g

>

g ~ j

g ~ ǰ

h₂éuges- "strength"

ójas- "strength"

aoǰah "strength"

-

h₂ugrós "strong"

ugrá- "strong"

ugra- "strong"

-

gʰ

>

gh ~ h

g ~ ǰ

dl̥Hgʰós "long"

dīrghá- "long"

darəga- "long"

-

dleHgʰistos "longest"

drā́ghiṣṭha

draǰišta- "longest"

-

kʷ

>

k ~ c

k ~ č

kʷós "who"

káḥ "who"

kō "who"

-

kʷe "and"

ca "and"

́ča "and"

-

gʷ

>

g ~ j

g ~ ǰ

gʷou- "cow"

gav- "cow"

gau- "cow"

-

gʷih₃wós "alive"

jīvá- "alive"

OPer ǰīva- "living"

-

gʷʰ

>

gh ~ h

g ~ ǰ

gʷʰnénti "strike" (pl.)

ghnánti "strike" (pl.)

—

-

gʷʰénti "strikes"

hánti "strikes"

ǰainti "strikes"

-

s

>

s

s ~ h

septm̥ "seven"

saptá "seven"

hapta "seven"

-

h₁ésti "is"

ásti "is"

asti "is"

-

y

>

y

y

yugóm "yoke"

yugam "yoke"

yuga- "yoke"

-

w

>

v

v

wéǵʰeti "drives, rides"

váhati "drives"

vazaiti "travels"

-

m

>

m

m

méh₂tēr "mother"

mātár- "mother"

mātar- "mother"

-

n

>

n

n

nós "us"

nas "us"

nō "us"

-

l

>

l ~ r

r

kʷeleti "moves"

carati "moves"

caraiti "moves"

-

r

>

r

r

bʰréh₂tēr "brother"

bhrā́tār- "brother"

brātar- "brother

-

n̥

>

a

a

n̥- "un-"

a- "un-"

a- "un-"

-

m̥

>

a

a

ḱm̥tóm "hundred"

śatám "hundred"

satəm "hundred"

-

l̥

>

r̥

ərər

wĺ̥kʷos "wolf"

vŕ̥ka- "wolf"

vəhrka- "wolf"

-

r̥

>

r̥

ərər

ḱŕ̥d- "heart"

hŕ̥d- "heart"

zərəd- "heart"

-

i

>

i

i

linékʷti "leaves"

riṇákti "leaves"

irinaxti "releases"

-

e

>

a

a

déḱm̥ "ten"

dáśa "ten"

dasa "ten"

-

ē

>

ā

ā

h₂nḗr "man"

nā "man"

nā "man"

-

a

>

a

a

h₂éǵeti "drives"

ájati "drives"

azaiti "drives"

-

ā

>

ā

ā

méh₂tēr "mother"

mātā́ "mother"

mātar- "mother"

-

o

>

a ~ ā

a ~ ā

ǵómbʰos "tooth, peg"

jā́mbha- "tooth, tusk"

—

-

ǵónu "knee"

jānu "knee"

zānu- "knee"

-

ō

>

ā

ā

dʰoHnéh₂- "grain"

dhānā́- "grain"

dāna- "grain"

-

u

>

u

u

yugóm "yoke"

yugám "yoke"

yuga- "yoke"

-

ū

>

ū

ū

mū́s "mouse"

mū́ṣ- "mouse"

NPer mūs "mouse"

-

h₁

>

∅

∅

h₁ésti "is"

ásti "is"

asti "is"

-

h₂

>

∅

∅

h₂ŕ̥tḱos "bear"

ŕ̥kṣa- "bear"

arəša- "bear"

-

h₃

>

∅

∅

h₃ókʷs(i) "eye"

ákṣi "eye"

aši "eye"

-

h₄

>

∅

∅

h₄órǵʰis "testicle"

—

ərəzi- "testicle"

Proto-Indo-Iranian	Old Iranian (Av, OP)	Vedic Sanskrit
Háćwas "horse"	Av aspa, OP asa	áśva
bʰaHgás "portion, share"	Av bāga	bhāgá
bʰráHtā "brother"	Av, OP brātar	bhrā́tr̥
bʰúHmiš "earth, land"	OP būmiš	bhū́mi-
mártyas "mortal, man"	Av maṣ̌iia, OP martiya	mártya
mā́Has "moon"	Av mā̊, OP māha	mā́s
wásr̥ "spring"	Av vaŋhar	vásara "morning"
Hr̥tás "truth"	Av aṣ̌a, OP arta	r̥tá
dʰráwgʰas "lie"	Av draoγa, OP drauga	drógha "using malicious words"
sáwmas "pressed (juice)"	Av haoma	sóma-

Morphology and basic vocabulary

Proto-Indo-Iranian has preserved much of the morphology of Proto-Indo-European (PIE): thematic and athematic inflection in both nouns and verbs, all three numbers (singular, dual and plural), all the tense, mood and voice categories in the verb, and the cases in the noun.

Personal pronouns (nominative case)

Pronouns, nouns and adjectives are inflected into the eight cases of PIE: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, ablative, locative and instrumental (with also a comitative/sociative meaning).

!Pronoun!PIE!PII

I	éǵ > *eǵHóm	aȷ́Hám > *aȷ́ʰám
You	túh₂	túH
He	ey- (*eyóm?) *só|*ayám*sá|-|She|*séh₂|*sáH|-|It|*tód|*tád|-|We|*wéy > *weyóm|*wayám|-|You (all)|*yū́|*yúH|-|They (m.)|*tóy|*táy|-|They (f.)|*téh₂es|*tā́s (or *táHas?)|-|They (n.)|*téh₂|*táH|} Three examples of verbs In verbs, the chief innovation is the creation of a passive conjugation with the suffix *-yá, with middle inflection.^[19] The following examples lack the dual plural and are conjugaten in the present tense. "To bear/carry"!Pronoun!PIE!PII I bʰéroh₂ > *bʰéroh₂mi bʰáraHmi You bʰéresi bʰárasi He, she, it bʰéreti bʰárati We bʰéromos > *bʰéroh₂mos? bʰáraHmas You (all) bʰérete bʰáratʰa They bʰéronti bʰáranti "To call/summon"!Pronoun!PIE!PII I (*ǵʰéwyemi >) *ǵʰwéyoh₂mi? ȷ́ʰwáyaHmi You ǵʰwéyesi ȷ́ʰwayasi He, she, it ǵʰwéyeti ȷ́ʰwáyati We ǵʰwéyomos > *ǵʰwéyoh₂mos? ȷ́ʰwáyaHmas You (all) ǵʰwéyete ȷ́ʰwayatʰa They ǵʰwéyonti ȷ́ʰwáyanti "To be" (athematic)!Pronoun!PIE!PII I h₁ésmi Hásmi You h₁ési Hási He, she, it h₁ésti Hásti We h₁smós Hsmás You (all) h₁sté Hstʰá They h₁sénti Hsánti Examples of noun declension Despite Proto-Indo-Iranian preserves much of the original morphology of Proto-Indo-European, an important innovation in the noun is the creation of a genitive plural ending *-nām used with vowel stems. ^[20] The following examples lack the dual number. Masculine noun "Wolf"!Case!Singular!Plural Nom. PIE *wĺ̥kʷos > PII *wŕ̥kas PIE *wĺ̥kʷoes > PII *wŕ̥kā(s) Gen. wĺ̥kʷosyo > *wŕ̥kasya wĺ̥kʷoHom > *wŕ̥kāna(H)m Dat. wĺ̥kʷoey > *wŕ̥kāy wĺ̥kʷomos > *wŕ̥kaybʰyas Acc. wĺ̥kʷom > *wŕ̥kam wĺ̥kʷoms > *wŕ̥kāns Voc. wĺ̥kʷe > *wŕ̥ka wĺ̥kʷoes > *wŕ̥kā(s) Abl. wĺ̥kʷead > *wŕ̥kāt wĺ̥kʷomos > *wŕ̥kaybʰyas Loc. wĺ̥kʷey/oy > *wŕ̥kay wĺ̥kʷoysu > *wŕ̥kayšu Instr. wĺ̥kʷoh₁ > *wŕ̥kā wĺ̥kʷōys > *wŕ̥kāyš Feminine noun "Cow" (e.g., Latin "vacca")!Case!Singular!Plural Nom. PIE *woḱéh₂ > PII *waćáH PIE *woḱéh₂es > PII *waćā́s Gen. woḱéh₂s > *waćáyaHs woḱéh₂oHom > *waćáHnām Dat. woḱéh₂ey > *waćáyaHy woḱéh₂mos > *waćáHbʰyas Acc. woḱā́m > *waćā́m woḱéh₂m̥s > *waćā́s Voc. woḱéh₂ > *waćay woḱéh₂es > *waćā́s Abl. woḱéh₂s > *waćáyaHs woḱéh₂mos > *waćáHbʰyas Loc. woḱéh₂(i) > *waćáyaH(m) woḱéh₂su > *waćáHsu Instr. woḱéh₂h₁ > *waćáyaH́ woḱéh₂mis > *waćáHbʰiš Neuter noun "Yoke"!Case!Singular!Plural Nom. PIE *yugóm > PII *yugám PIE *yugéh₂ > PII *yugáH Gen. yugósyo > *yugásya yugóHom > *yugā́na(H)m Dat. yugóey > *yugā́y yugómos > *yugáybʰyas Acc. yugóm > *yugám yugéh₂ > *yugáH Voc. yugóm > *yugám yugéh₂ > *yugáH Abl. yugéad > *yugā́t yugómos > *yugáybʰyas Loc. yugéy/óy > *yugáy yugóysu > *yugáyšu Instr. yugóh₁ > *yugā́ yugṓys > *yugā́yš An example of adjectival declension The morphology in adjectival declension is identical to the one in noun declension. The following example lacks the dual number. "Immortal" (*n̥-mr̥t-ós)!Case!Masculine(singular)!Feminine(singular)!Neuter(singular) Nom. PIE *n̥mr̥tós > PII *amŕ̥tas PIE *n̥mr̥téh₂ > PII *amŕ̥taH PIE *n̥mr̥tóm > PII *amŕ̥tam Gen. n̥mr̥tósyo > *amŕ̥tasya n̥mr̥téh₂s > *amŕ̥tayaHs n̥mr̥tósyo > *amŕ̥tasya Dat. n̥mr̥tóey > *amŕ̥tāy n̥mr̥téh₂ey > *amŕ̥tayaHi n̥mr̥tóey > *amŕ̥tā́y Acc. n̥mr̥tóm > *amŕ̥tam n̥mr̥tā́m > *amŕ̥tā́m n̥mr̥tóm > *amŕ̥tam Voc. n̥mr̥té > *amŕ̥ta n̥mr̥téh₂ > *amŕ̥tay n̥mr̥tóm > *amŕ̥tam Abl. n̥mr̥téad > *amŕ̥tāt n̥mr̥téh₂s > *amŕ̥tayaHs n̥mr̥téad > *amŕ̥tā́t Loc. n̥mr̥téy/óy > *amŕ̥tay n̥mr̥téh₂(i) > *amŕ̥tayaH(m) n̥mr̥téy/óy > *amŕ̥tay Instr. n̥mr̥tóh₁ > *amŕ̥tā n̥mr̥téh₂h₁ > *amŕ̥tayaH n̥mr̥tóh₁ > *amŕ̥tā́ !Case!Masculine(plural)!Feminine(plural)!Neuter(plural) Nom. PIE *n̥mr̥tóes > PII *amŕ̥ā(s) PIE *n̥mr̥téh₂es > PII *amŕ̥ā́s PIE *n̥mr̥téh₂ > PII *amŕ̥áH Gen. n̥mr̥tóHom > *amŕāna(H)m n̥mr̥téh₂oHom > *amŕ̥áHnām n̥mr̥tóHom > *amŕ̥ā́na(H)m Dat. n̥mr̥tómos > *amŕ̥aybʰyas n̥mr̥téh₂mos > *amŕ̥áHbʰyas n̥mr̥tómos > *amŕ̥áybʰyas Acc. n̥mr̥tóms > *amŕ̥āns n̥mr̥téh₂m̥s > *amŕ̥ā́s n̥mr̥téh₂ > *amŕ̥áH Voc. n̥mr̥tóes > *amŕ̥ā(s) n̥mr̥téh₂es > *amŕ̥ā́s n̥mr̥téh₂ > *amŕ̥áH Abl. n̥mr̥tómos > *amŕ̥aybʰyas n̥mr̥téh₂mos > *amŕ̥áHbʰyas n̥mr̥tómos > *amŕ̥áybʰyas Loc. n̥mr̥tóysu > *amŕ̥ayšu n̥mr̥téh₂su > *amŕ̥áHsu n̥mr̥tóysu > *amŕ̥áyšu Instr. n̥mr̥tṓys > *amŕ̥āyš n̥mr̥téh₂mis > *amŕ̥áHbʰiš n̥mr̥tṓys > *amŕ̥ā́yš Numerals !Numeral!PIE!PII One (1) h₁óynos > *h₁óykos Háykas Two (2) dwóh₁ dwáH Three (3) tréyes tráyas Four (4) kʷetwóres čatwā́ras Five (5) pénkʷe pánča Six (6) swéḱs šwáćš Seven (7) septḿ̥ saptá Eight (8) oḱtṓw Haštā́ Nine (9) h₁néwn̥ Hnáwa Ten (10) déḱm̥ dáća See also Substratum in the Vedic language Bibliography Book: Beekes , Robert Stephen Paul . A Grammar of Gatha-Avestan. Brill. 1988. 90-04-08332-4. Leiden; New York. Book: Burrow , T. . The Sanskrit Language. London. Faber & Faber. 1973. third. 0-571-04819-6. Book: Fortson , Benjamin W. . Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. illustrated. Malden, MA. Blackwell Publishing. 2004. 1-4051-0316-7. Book: Lubotsky , A. M. . The System of Nominal Accentuation in Sanskrit and Proto-Indo-European. Brill. 1988. 90-04-08835-0. Leiden; New York. Alexander Lubotsky, "The Indo-Iranian substratum" in Early Contacts between Uralic and Indo-European, ed. Carpelan et al., Helsinki (2001). Asko Parpola, 'The formation of the Aryan branch of Indo-European', in Blench and Spriggs (eds), Archaeology and Language III, London and New York (1999). Further reading Contacts between Indo-Iranian and Uralic: Book: Kuz’Mina, E.E. . J.P. Mallory . Indo-Iranian contacts with other linguistic groups . The Origin of the Indo-Iranians . Leiden, The Netherlands . Brill . 2007 . 199-204 . 10.1163/ej.9789004160545.i-763.53. Book: On the emergence, contacts and dispersal of Proto-Indo-European, Proto-Uralic and Proto-Aryan in an archaeological perspective . Christian . Carpelan . Asko . Parpola . Language and Prehistory of the Indo-European Peoples: A Cross-Disciplinary Perspective . Adam Hyllested . Benedicte Nielsen Whitehead . Thomas Olander . Birgit Anette Olsen . Copenhagen . Museum Tusculanums Forlag . 2017 . 77-87 . 9788763545310 . Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European . 7. Parpola . Asko . Asko Parpola . 2017a . Finnish vatsa ~ Sanskrit vatsá and the formation of Indo-Iranian and Uralic languages . Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Aikakauskirja . 96 . 245–286 . 10.33340/susa.70229 . Holopainen, Sampsa (2019). Indo-Iranian borrowings in Uralic: Critical overview of sound substitutions and distribution criterion. Helsinki: University of Helsinki. PhD thesis. Holopainen . Sampsa . 2020 . Indo-Iranian loanwords in Finnic - A critical overview . Acta Linguistica Petropolitana. Труды института лингвистических исследований . 3 . XVI . 613-668 . Access date: 11.05.2024. Bjørn Rasmus G. Indo-European loanwords and exchange in Bronze Age Central and East Asia: Six new perspectives on prehistoric exchange in the Eastern Steppe Zone. Evol Hum Sci. 2022 Apr 22;4:e23. PMID: 37599704; PMCID: PMC10432883. Book: Sámmol Ánte, Luobbal Sámmol . Proto-Uralic . Marianne Bakró-Nagy . Marianne Bakró-Nagy. Johanna Laakso . Elena Skribnik . The Oxford Guide to the Uralic Languages . Oxford . Oxford University Press . 2022 . 3–27 [25-26] . 10.1093/oso/9780198767664.003.0001. Accessed 10 May 2024. Book: Holopainen, S. . The RUKI Rule in Indo-Iranian and the Early Contacts with Uralic . Internal and External Causes of Language Change: The Naxos Papers . Nikolaos Lavidas . Alexander Bergs . Elly van Gelderen . Ioanna Sitaridou . Springer Nature . 2023 . 315–346 . 9783031309762 . 10.1007/978-3-031-30976-2_11. External links Web site: Early Indo-Iranic loans in Uralic: Sounds and strata. Martin Joachim Kümmel, University of Jena. Seminar for Indo-European Studies. ]

Notes and References

1. Book: Peter Bellwood. Immanuel Ness. The Global Prehistory of Human Migration. 10 November 2014. John Wiley & Sons. 978-1-118-97059-1.
2. Encyclopedia: Proto-Indo-European verb-finality: Reconstruction, typology, validation . Hans Henrich . Hock . Hans Henrich Hock . Proto-Indo-European Syntax and its Development . Leonid . Kulikov . Nikolaos . Lavidas . John Benjamins . 2015.
3. Burrow, pp. 78–79
4. Book: Ramat , Anna Giacalone . The Indo-European Languages. illustrated. London ; New York. Routledge. 1998. 0-415-06449-X. 134.
5. Book: Cardona , George . The Indo-Aryan Languages. Dhanesh Jain . London ; New York. Routledge. 2003. 0-7007-1130-9. 24.
6. Beekes (1988), p. 50
7. Beekes, p. 55
8. Burrow, pp. 74–75
9. Fortson, p. 182
10. Fortson, p. 181
11. F. B. J. Kuiper. 1976. "Old East Iranian dialects." Indo-Iranian Journal 18, p. 242.
12. Burrow, p. 91
13. Burrow, pp. 92–94
14. Fortson, p. 183
15. Beekes, pp. 85–86
16. Lubotsky, p. 53
17. get ref
18. Beekes, pp. 88–89
19. Fortson p. 205
20. Fortson p. 205