Properties of metals, metalloids and nonmetals explained

can be broadly divided into metals, metalloids, and nonmetals according to their shared physical and chemical properties. All elemental metals have a shiny appearance (at least when freshly polished); are good conductors of heat and electricity; form alloys with other metallic elements; and have at least one basic oxide. Metalloids are metallic-looking, often brittle solids that are either semiconductors or exist in semiconducting forms, and have amphoteric or weakly acidic oxides. Typical elemental nonmetals have a dull, coloured or colourless appearance; are often brittle when solid; are poor conductors of heat and electricity; and have acidic oxides. Most or some elements in each category share a range of other properties; a few elements have properties that are either anomalous given their category, or otherwise extraordinary.

Properties

Metals

See main article: article and Metal. Elemental metals appear lustrous (beneath any patina); form mixtures (alloys) when combined with other metals; tend to lose or share electrons when they react with other substances; and each forms at least one predominantly basic oxide.

Most metals are silvery looking, high density, relatively soft and easily deformed solids with good electrical and thermal conductivity, closely packed structures, low ionisation energies and electronegativities, and are found naturally in combined states.

Some metals appear coloured (Cu, Cs, Au), have low densities (e.g. Be, Al) or very high melting points (e.g. W, Nb), are liquids at or near room temperature (e.g. Hg, Ga), are brittle (e.g. Os, Bi), not easily machined (e.g. Ti, Re), or are noble (hard to oxidise, e.g. Au, Pt), or have nonmetallic structures (Mn and Ga are structurally analogous to, respectively, white P and I).

Metals comprise the large majority of the elements, and can be subdivided into several different categories. From left to right in the periodic table, these categories include the highly reactive alkali metals; the less-reactive alkaline earth metals, lanthanides, and radioactive actinides; the archetypal transition metals; and the physically and chemically weak post-transition metals. Specialized subcategories such as the refractory metals and the noble metals also exist.

Metalloids

See main article: article and Metalloid. Metalloids are metallic-looking often brittle solids; tend to share electrons when they react with other substances; have weakly acidic or amphoteric oxides; and are usually found naturally in combined states.

Most are semiconductors, and moderate thermal conductors, and have structures that are more open than those of most metals.

Some metalloids (As, Sb) conduct electricity like metals.

The metalloids, as the smallest major category of elements, are not subdivided further.

Nonmetals

See main article: article and Nonmetal (chemistry). Nonmetallic elements have open structures; tend to gain or share electrons when they react with other substances; and do not form distinctly basic oxides.

Most are gases at room temperature; have relatively low densities; are poor electrical and thermal conductors; have relatively high ionisation energies and electronegativities; form acidic oxides; and are found naturally in uncombined states in large amounts.

Some nonmetals (black P, S, and Se) are brittle solids at room temperature (although each of these also have malleable, pliable or ductile allotropes).

From left to right in the periodic table, the nonmetals can be divided into the reactive nonmetals and the noble gases. The reactive nonmetals near the metalloids show some incipient metallic character, such as the metallic appearance of graphite, black phosphorus, selenium and iodine. The noble gases are almost completely inert.

Comparison of properties

Overview

properties of elemental metals and nonmetals are quite distinct, as shown in the table below. Metalloids, straddling the metal-nonmetal border, are mostly distinct from either, but in a few properties resemble one or the other, as shown in the shading of the metalloid column below and summarized in the small table at the top of this section.

Authors differ in where they divide metals from nonmetals and in whether they recognize an intermediate metalloid category. Some authors count metalloids as nonmetals with weakly nonmetallic properties. Others count some of the metalloids as post-transition metals.

Details

Anomalous properties

Within each category, elements can be found with one or two properties very different from the expected norm, or that are otherwise notable.

Metals

Sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium, barium, platinum, gold

Manganese

Iron, cobalt, nickel, gadolinium, terbium, dysprosium, holmium, erbium, thulium

Iridium

Gold

Mercury

  1. Bricks and bowling balls will float on the surface of mercury thanks to it having a density 13.5 times that of water. Equally, a solid mercury bowling ball would weigh around 50 pounds and, if it could be kept cold enough, would float on the surface of liquid gold.
  2. The only metal having an ionisation energy higher than some nonmetals (sulfur and selenium) is mercury.
  3. Mercury and its compounds have a reputation for toxicity but on a scale of 1 to 10, dimethylmercury ((CH3)2Hg) (abbr. DMM), a volatile colourless liquid, has been described as a 15. It is so dangerous that scientists have been encouraged to use less-toxic mercury compounds wherever possible. In 1997, Karen Wetterhahn, a professor of chemistry specialising in toxic metal exposure, died of mercury poisoning ten months after a few drops of DMM landed on her "protective" latex gloves. Although Wetterhahn had been following the then-published procedures for handling this compound, it passed through her gloves and skin within seconds. It is now known that DMM is exceptionally permeable to (ordinary) gloves, skin, and tissues. And its toxicity is such that less than one-tenth of a ml applied to the skin will be seriously toxic.[9]

Lead

Bismuth

Uranium

Plutonium

Metalloids

Boron

Boron, antimony

Silicon

  1. The thermal conductivity of silicon is better than that of most metals.
  2. A sponge-like porous form of silicon (p-Si) is typically prepared by the electrochemical etching of silicon wafers in a hydrofluoric acid solution.[13] Flakes of p-Si sometimes appear red;[14] it has a band gap of 1.97–2.1 eV.[15] The many tiny pores in porous silicon give it an enormous internal surface area, up to 1,000 m2/cm3.[16] When exposed to an oxidant,[17] especially a liquid oxidant,[16] the high surface-area to volume ratio of p-Si creates a very efficient burn, accompanied by nano-explosions,[13] and sometimes by ball-lightning-like plasmoids with, for example, a diameter of 0.1–0.8 m, a velocity of up to 0.5 m/s and a lifetime of up to 1s.[18] The first ever spectrographic analysis of a ball lightning event (in 2012) revealed the presence of silicon, iron and calcium, these elements also being present in the soil.[19]

Arsenic

Antimony

Nonmetals

Hydrogen

  1. Water (H2O), a well-known oxide of hydrogen, is a spectacular anomaly.[21] Extrapolating from the heavier hydrogen chalcogenides, namely hydrogen sulfide H2S, hydrogen selenide H2Se, and hydrogen telluride H2Te, water should be "a foul-smelling, poisonous, inflammable gas... condensing to a nasty liquid [at] around –100 °C". Instead, due to hydrogen bonding, water is "stable, potable, odorless, benign, and... indispensable to life".[22]
  2. Less well-known of the oxides of hydrogen is the trioxide, H2O3. Berthelot proposed the existence of this oxide in 1880 but his suggestion was soon forgotten as there was no way of testing it using the technology of the time.[23] Hydrogen trioxide was prepared in 1994 by replacing the oxygen used in the industrial process for making hydrogen peroxide, with ozone. The yield is about 40 per cent, at –78 °C; above around –40 °C it decomposes into water and oxygen.[24] Derivatives of hydrogen trioxide, such as ("bis(trifluoromethyl) trioxide") are known; these are metastable at room temperature. Mendeleev went a step further, in 1895, and proposed the existence of hydrogen tetroxide as a transient intermediate in the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide;[23] this was prepared and characterised in 1974, using a matrix isolation technique. Alkali metal ozonide salts of the unknown hydrogen ozonide (HO3) are also known; these have the formula MO3.[25]

Helium

  1. At temperatures below 0.3 and 0.8 K respectively, helium-3 and helium-4 each have a negative enthalpy of fusion. This means that, at the appropriate constant pressures, these substances freeze with the addition of heat.
  2. Until 1999 helium was thought to be too small to form a cage clathrate—a compound in which a guest atom or molecule is encapsulated in a cage formed by a host molecule—at atmospheric pressure. In that year the synthesis of microgram quantities of He@C20H20 represented the first such helium clathrate and (what was described as) the world's smallest helium balloon.[26]

Carbon

  1. Graphite is the most electrically conductive nonmetal, better than some metals.
  2. Diamond is the best natural conductor of heat; it even feels cold to the touch. Its thermal conductivity (2,200 W/m•K) is five times greater than the most conductive metal (Ag at 429); 300 times higher than the least conductive metal (Pu at 6.74); and nearly 4,000 times that of water (0.58) and 100,000 times that of air (0.0224). This high thermal conductivity is used by jewelers and gemologists to separate diamonds from imitations.
  3. Graphene aerogel, produced in 2012 by freeze-drying a solution of carbon nanotubes and graphite oxide sheets and chemically removing oxygen, is seven times lighter than air, and ten per cent lighter than helium. It is the lightest solid known (0.16 mg/cm3), conductive and elastic.[27]

Phosphorus

Iodine

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Notes and References

  1. [#Brownet|Brown et al. 2009, p. 137]
  2. [#Brescia1975|Bresica et al. 1975, p. 137]
  3. [#Jansen2005|Jansen 2005]
  4. [#Russell2005|Russell & Lee 2005, p.&nbsp;246]
  5. [#Russell2005|Russell & Lee 2005, p.&nbsp;244–5]
  6. [#Donohoe|Donohoe 1982, pp.&nbsp;191–196]
  7. [#Jackson2000|Jackson 2000]
  8. [#Stoye|Stoye 2014]
  9. [#Witt|Witt 1991]
  10. [#Dumé2003|Dumé 2003]
  11. [#Alvarez|Benedict et al. 1946, p.&nbsp;19]
  12. [#Dalhouse|Dalhouse University 2015]
  13. [#DuPlessis|DuPlessis 2007, p.&nbsp;133]
  14. [#Gösele|Gösele & Lehmann 1994, p.&nbsp;19]
  15. [#Chen|Chen, Lee & Bosman 1994]
  16. [#Kovalev|Kovalev et al. 2001, p.&nbsp;068301-1]
  17. [#Mikulec|Mikulec, Kirtland & Sailor 2002]
  18. [#Bychkov|Bychkov 2012, pp.&nbsp;20–21]
  19. [#Slezak|Slezak 2014]
  20. [#Wiberg2001|Wiberg 2001, p.&nbsp;758]
  21. [#Sacks|Sacks 2001, p.&nbsp;204]
  22. [#Sacks|Sacks 2001, pp.&nbsp;204–205]
  23. [#Cerkovnik|Cerkovnik & Plesničar 2013, p.&nbsp;7930]
  24. [#Emsley1994|Emsley 1994, p.&nbsp;1910]
  25. [#Wiberg2001|Wiberg 2001, p.&nbsp;497]
  26. [#Cross|Cross, Saunders & Prinzbach]
  27. [#Sun|Sun, Xu & Gao 2013]
  28. [#Nakao|Nakao 1992]

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