Pornography addiction explained

Pornography addiction is the scientifically controversial application of an addiction model to the use of pornography.[1] Pornography use may be part of compulsive behavior, with negative consequences to one's physical, mental, social, or financial well-being. While the World Health Organization's ICD-11 (2022) has recognized compulsive sexual behaviour disorder (CSBD) as an "impulsive control disorder",[2] CSBD is not an addiction,[3] and the American Psychiatric Association's DSM-5 (2013) and the DSM-5-TR (2022) do not classify compulsive pornography consumption as a mental disorder or a behavioral addiction.[3]

Problematic Internet pornography viewing is the viewing of Internet pornography that is problematic for an individual due to personal or social reasons, including the excessive time spent viewing pornography instead of interacting with others and the facilitation of procrastination. Individuals may report depression, social isolation, career loss, decreased productivity, or financial consequences as a result of their excessive Internet pornography viewing impeding their social lives.

Symptoms and diagnosis

See also: Effects of pornography.

Universally accepted diagnostic criteria for pornography addiction or problematic pornography viewing do not exist. Pornography addiction is often defined operationally by the frequency of pornography viewing and negative consequences.[4] The only diagnostic criteria for a behavioral addiction in the current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders are for pathological gambling, and they are similar to those for substance abuse and dependence, such as preoccupation with the behavior, diminished ability to control the behavior, tolerance, withdrawal, and adverse psychosocial consequences. Diagnostic criteria have been proposed for other behavioral addictions, and these are usually also based on established diagnoses for substance abuse and dependence.[5]

Pornography use has also been associated with many issues such as Sexual Satisfaction, Marital Quality, and Gender Violence. These are detailed in Opposition to Pornography.

A proposed diagnosis for hypersexual disorder includes pornography as a subtype of this disorder. It includes criteria such as time consumed by sexual activity interfering with obligations, repetitive engagement in sexual activity in response to stress, repeated failed attempts to reduce these behaviors, and distress or impairment of life functioning.[6] A study on problematic Internet pornography viewing used the criteria of viewing Internet pornography more than three times a week during some weeks, and viewing causing difficulty in general life functioning.

According to the American Society of Addiction Medicine, some psychological and behavioral changes characteristic of addiction brain changes include addictive cravings, impulsiveness, weakened executive function, desensitization, and dysphoria.[7] BOLD fMRI results have shown that individuals diagnosed with compulsive sexual behavior (CSB) show enhanced cue reactivity in brain regions associated traditionally with drug-cue reactivity.[8] [9] These regions include the amygdala and the ventral striatum.[8] [9] Men without CSB who had a long history of viewing pornography exhibited a less intense response to pornographic images in the left ventral putamen, possibly suggestive of desensitization.[8]

Neuropsychopharmacological and psychological researches on pornography addiction conducted between 2015 and 2021 have concluded that most studies have been focused entirely or almost exclusively on men in anonymous settings, and the findings are contradictory.[9] Some researchers support the idea that pornography addiction qualifies as a form of behavioral addiction into the umbrella construct of hypersexual behavior and/or a subset of compulsive sexual behavior (CSB),[10] and should be treated as such, whereas others have detected the increased activation of ventral striatal reactivity in men for cues predicting erotic but not monetary rewards and cues signaling erotic pictures, therefore suggesting similarities between pornography addiction and conventional addiction disorders.[9]

Despite the fact that pornography is being spuriously indicted as a public health crisis in the United States and elsewhere,[11] [12] with problematic Internet and online pornography use reported to constitute an increasing burden on public mental health since the 2000s, psychopathological models and diagnostic criteria have lacked consensus, and the body of evidence on the effectiveness of therapeutic approaches is still scarce.

Svedin et. al. found that moderate consumption of pornography is associated with good mental health in boys, while both extremes (too much or too few) yielded worse mental health. Watching deviant (non-mainstream) pornography was associated with worse mental health in boys, but girls were unaffected.

Diagnostic status

Pornography addiction is a controversial concept, since it appears to be "largely morally, ideologically, and politically motivated." Although it is a "nice theory", empirical support for it is largely missing, and the "industry of porn/sex addiction is based on conservative moral values around sexuality that intrude into clinical practice".[13] Julie Sale stated "No-one refutes that clients access therapy for help with sexual behaviours that they feel they have no control over. The issue is how these client experiences are conceptualised and how the clinical formulation informs treatment."[14]

The status of pornography addiction as an addictive disorder, rather than simply a compulsivity, has been hotly contested.[15] [16] Furthermore, research suggests that the use of a pornography addiction label may indicate a socially (as opposed to clinically) driven nosology.[17]

In November 2016, the American Association of Sexuality Educators, Counselors and Therapists (AASECT) issued a position statement on sex/porn addiction which states that AASECT "does not find sufficient empirical evidence to support the classification of sex addiction or porn addiction as a mental health disorder, and does not find the sexual addiction training and treatment methods and educational pedagogies to be adequately informed by accurate human sexuality knowledge. Therefore, it is the position of AASECT that linking problems related to sexual urges, thoughts or behaviors to a porn/sexual addiction process cannot be advanced by AASECT as a standard of practice for sexuality education delivery, counseling or therapy."[18]

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) includes a new section for behavioral addictions, but includes only one disorder: pathological gambling.[19] One other behavioral addiction, internet gaming disorder, appears in the conditions proposed for further study in DSM-5. Psychiatrists cited a lack of research support for refusing to include other behavioral disorders, such as pornography, at the time.

Porn addiction is not a diagnosis in DSM-5 (or any previous version).[20] [21] [22] "Viewing pornography online" is mentioned verbatim in the DSM-5,[19] but it is not considered a mental disorder either.[20] [21] [22]

A number of studies have found neurological markers of addiction in internet porn users,[23] [24] [25] which is consistent with a large body of research finding similar markers in other kinds of problematic internet users. Yet other studies found that critical biomarkers of addiction were missing,[26] and most addiction biomarkers have never been demonstrated for pornography.[27]

The International Classification of Disorders 11 (ICD-11) rejected "pornography addiction".[3] Specifically, the World Health Organization (WHO) wrote: "Based on the limited current data, it would therefore seem premature to include [problematic Internet use] in ICD-11."[28]

However, ICD-11 does include the "Compulsive sexual behaviour disorder" (CSBD)[29] in the "impulse control disorders" section. It is defined as "a persistent pattern of failure to control intense, repetitive sexual impulses or urges resulting in repetitive sexual behaviour." David J. Ley argued that that is not an endorsement of the concept of pornography addiction. ICD also specifically excludes anyone from this diagnosis whose distress is due to moral conflict alone, yet moral incongruence is the strongest predictor of believing one is addicted to porn.[30] Note that two studies now contradict this, finding that narcissism,[31] especially antagonist narcissism,[32] predicts identification as a pornography addict.

Introductory psychology textbook authors Coon, Mitterer and Martini, passingly mentioning NoFap, speak of pornography as a "supernormal stimulus" but use the model of compulsion rather than addiction.[33] Addiction and compulsion are models of mental disorders which cancel each other out,[34] [35] [36] the term "addiction" being deprecated,[37] but ICD-11 does not support the existence of "porn addiction"/"sex addiction".[38]

DSM-5-TR, published in March 2022, does not recognize a diagnosis of sexual addiction/compulsion (which would include internet pornography viewing).[3] [39] [40]

ICD-11 has added pornography to CSBD.[41] However, this is categorized as an impulse control disorder, not an addictive disorder.[41] It has been argued that the CSBD diagnosis is not based upon sex research.[42]

Neither DSM-5, nor DSM-5-TR, nor ICD-10, nor ICD-11 recognize sex addiction or porn addiction as a valid diagnosis.[3] [31] Rothman has stated "pornography is not yet clearly established as a risk factor for multiple health outcomes".

A 2022 book by McKee, Litsou, Byron, and Ingham casts serious doubts upon the model of "porn addiction", suggesting that sexual shame should be blamed, instead of pornography. They note that much of the research on the effects of pornography often confuses correlation with causation,[43] and that much pornography research has been normative (i.e. moralistic) instead of descriptive.[43]

Even scientists who find a problem with excessive pornography consumption state that moderate pornography consumption is healthy.[44]

Treatment

Cognitive-behavioral therapy has been suggested as a possible effective treatment for pornography addiction based on its success with internet addicts, though no clinical trials have been performed to assess effectiveness among pornography addicts as of 2012.[45] Acceptance and commitment therapy has also been shown to be a potentially effective treatment for problematic internet pornography viewing.

Online pornography

Some clinicians and support organizations recommend voluntary use of Internet content-control software, internet monitoring, or both, to manage online pornography use.[46] [47] [48] Sex researcher Alvin Cooper and colleagues suggested several reasons for using filters as a therapeutic measure, including curbing accessibility that facilitates problematic behavior and encouraging clients to develop coping and relapse prevention strategies.[46] Cognitive therapist Mary Anne Layden suggested that filters may be useful in maintaining environmental control.[48] Internet behavior researcher David Delmonico stated that, despite their limitations, filters may serve as a "frontline of protection."[47]

Medications

Studies of those with non-paraphilic expressions of hypersexuality have hypothesized that various mood disorders, as defined in the DSM, may occur more frequently in sexually compulsive men.[49] [50] [51]

Compulsive sexual behavior has been treated with antidepressants including SSRIs and serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, Naltrexone (a medication used to inhibit reward mechanisms in opiate or alcohol addictions), other mood-stabilizers, and anti-androgens.

Epidemiology

A 2017 study using a representative sample of Australians researched distress about sex video use.[52] It found that of 10,131 women surveyed, 0.5% of women agreed with the statement that they were "addicted" to pornography; 1.2% (of 4,218 who viewed) when limited to women who say they viewed sex films. The comparable figure limiting to men who view sex films was 4.4%. This was without any clinical screening that should eliminate primary disorders (e.g., depression) or religious-based concerns, so these should be considered high-end estimates for potential disorders, if any exist.

Most studies of rates use a convenience sample. One 2000 study of a convenience sample of 9,265 people found that 1% of Internet users have concerns about their Internet use and 17% of users meet criteria for problematic sexual compulsivity, meaning they score above one standard deviation of the mean on the Kalichman Sexual Compulsivity Scale.[53] A survey of 84 college-age males found that 2060% of a sample of college-age males who use pornography found it to be problematic. Research on internet addiction disorder indicates rates may range from 1.5 to 8.2% in Europeans and Americans.

A 2019 study found that the average frequency of use for those self-describing as addicted to porn was about ten times per year.[54] The study found this identification correlated with male gender, higher frequency of use, and belief that pornography was morally wrong (whether for religious or other reasons).[55]

A review paper about pornography consumption notes that sex addiction is correlated with narcissism.[56]

Society and culture

Support groups

Several support groups exist for people who wish to quit pornography use and/or believe themselves to be addicted to pornography. Twelve-step programs such as Sex Addicts Anonymous (SAA), Sexaholics Anonymous (SA), Sex and Love Addicts Anonymous (SLAA), Sexual Recovery Anonymous (SRA), and Sexual Compulsives Anonymous (SCA) are fellowships of men and women who share their experience, strength and hope with each other so they may overcome their common problem and help others recover from addiction or dependency by using the twelve-step program borrowed from Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) and other recovery tools.[57]

NoFap is website and community forum founded in 2011 that serves as a support group for those who wish to give up pornography and masturbation.[58] It serves as a support group for those who wish to avoid the use of pornography, masturbation, and/or sexual intercourse.[58] [59] [60] Recent peer-reviewed data highlighted considerable levels of misogyny along with a poor understanding of human sexuality and relationships within this online community.[61] Sociologist Kelsy Burke, author of The Pornography Wars, believes that this misogyny arises from blaming the female-dominated profession of pornography for men's personal problems. The Daily Dot and Der Spiegel linked NoFap to recent gender-based murders and breeding domestic terrorism.[62] [63]

Fight the New Drug, a Salt Lake City-based non-profit organization founded by members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints,[64] [65] is a non-legislative organization which claims to seek to inform and educate individuals regarding pornography usage with science and personal stories. It is aimed at the youth demographic. There is also a PornFree reddit group which focuses on giving up porn rather than masturbation.[66] [67]

Celebrate Recovery is a Christian inter-denominational twelve-step program with about 35,000 available groups and is open to any person who is struggling with life's bad habits, hurts, and hang-ups.[68] Celebrate Recovery was started in 1991 at Saddleback Church in California, and their program is based on the Beatitudes from the biblical Sermon on the Plain and the twelve-step program from Alcoholics Anonymous.[69]

Religious and political factors

See main article: Opposition to pornography and Religious views on pornography.

See also: Anti-pornography movement in the United Kingdom and Anti-pornography movement in the United States.

According to professor, a sexologist working for the Academic Medical Center, it is usually the American religious right which claims the existence of pornography addiction and such claims are rare (scarce) among sexologists.[70] A 2018 meta-analysis showed a correlation between a person being religious and perceiving themself as having a pornography addiction, possibly due to people using pornography despite their religion prohibiting it.[71] [72]

According to Addicted to Lust: Pornography in the Lives of Conservative Protestants (2019) written by Samuel L. Perry, professor of sociology at the University of Oklahoma, conservative Protestants in the United States are characterized by a "sexual exceptionalism" related to their consumption of pornography due to certain pervasive beliefs within the Conservative Protestant subculture, which entails cognitive dissonance associated with the unfounded conviction to be addicted to pornography, psychological distress, and intense feelings of guilt, shame, self-loathing, depression, and sometimes withdrawal from faith altogether.[73] [74]

Perry's book received widespread media coverage[74] [75] and his findings were criticized by Lyman Stone of the Evangelical magazine Christianity Today, which asserted that both the quantitative and qualitative statistical data collected by Perry demonstrate that the consumption of pornography in the United States is significantly lower among church-attending Protestant Christians compared to other religious groups, and declared that "Protestant men today who attend church regularly are basically the only men in America still resisting the cultural norm of regularized pornography use".[75]

The overwhelming majority of all websites and YouTube channels devoted to anti-masturbation and anti-porn addiction propaganda, channels and websites supporting NoFap included, are, according to various sources, owned by far-right Christian fundamentalists and conservative biblical inerrantists, and also are entirely political in nature.[58] [76] Various psychologists, medical doctors, and social scientists have contended that traditional Christian concerns over combating sexual thoughts, desires, and activities, including masturbation,[77] [78] [79] [80] [81] can be seen as unhealthy and unwholesome. This may also apply to secular advocacy of anti-pornography and anti-masturbation,[11] [12] including 16 U.S. states' legislatures which have declared that pornography is a "public health crisis".[11] [82]

The American Psychiatric Association had by then already dismissed such moral panic ("political stunt")[11] in DSM-5 (published in 2013),[20] and DSM-5-TR, published in March 2022, does not recognize a diagnosis of sexual addiction (which would include internet pornography viewing).[39] [40]

Emily F. Rothman, Professor of Community Health Sciences at the Boston University School of Public Health, stated in 2021 that "the professional public health community is not behind the recent push to declare pornography a public health crisis". The ideas supporting the "crisis" have been described as pseudoscientific.[83]

In many cases, sexual addiction therapy applied to gay men is akin to conversion therapy.

Mainstream media

In 2013, American actor Joseph Gordon-Levitt wrote, directed, and starred in the comedy-drama film Don Jon, in which the protagonist is addicted to pornography.[84] In an interview to promote the film, Gordon-Levitt discussed what he referred to as the "fundamental difference between a human being and an image on a screen".[85]

In 2014, American actor Terry Crews talked about his long-standing pornography addiction, which he said had seriously affected his marriage and life and which he was able to overcome only after entering rehab in 2009.[86] He now takes an active role in speaking out about pornography addiction and its impact.[87] [88] [89]

In 2015, English comedian Russell Brand appeared in videos by American anti-pornography group Fight the New Drug, in which he discussed pornography and its harmful effects.[90]

In 2016, American comedian Chris Rock and his wife, Malaak Compton, divorced after 20 years of marriage,[91] which Rock attributed to his infidelity and pornography addiction.[92] He later discussed the details of his pornography addiction in his 2018 stand-up comedy special Tamborine.[93]

See also

Further reading

External links

Notes and References

  1. Book: Gerymski . Rafał . Cisek . Aleksandra . Encyclopedia of Sexual Psychology and Behavior . 2023 . . 978-3-031-08956-5 . 1–8 . en . Pornography: Addiction . 10.1007/978-3-031-08956-5_1867-1.
  2. Web site: Compulsive sexual behavior disorder . live . 2022-03-25 . World Health Organization (ICD-11) . 2018-08-01 . https://archive.today/20180801205234/https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en%23/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/294762853#/http%253A%252F%252Fid.who.int%252Ficd%252Fentity%252F1630268048 .
  3. Book: Martinez-Gilliard, Erin . Sex, Social Justice, and Intimacy in Mental Health Practice: Incorporating Sexual Health in Approaches to Wellness . Taylor & Francis . 2023 . 978-1-000-84578-5 . 5 March 2023 . unpaginated . 'Sex addiction' is also referred to as a diagnosis or presenting problem. Sex addiction is not a diagnosis in the DSM-5-TR and identified as Compulsive Sexual Behavior in the ICD-11 rather than an issue of addiction. . 4 April 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230404230920/https://books.google.com/books?id=Y1yqEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT113 . live .
  4. Duffy. A. Dawson. DL. das Nair. R. Pornography Addiction in Adults: A Systematic Review of Definitions and Reported Impact. The Journal of Sexual Medicine. May 2016. 13. 5. 760–77. 10.1016/j.jsxm.2016.03.002. 27114191. 2019-01-27. 2018-07-19. https://web.archive.org/web/20180719131654/http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/23086/1/23086%20Duffy%20-%20Porn%20Addiction%20Review%202017%20repository.pdf. live.
  5. Grant . Jon E. . Potenza . Marc N. . Weinstein . Aviv . Gorelick . David A. . Introduction to behavioral addictions . The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse . 36 . 5 . 2010 . 1097-9891 . 20560821 . 3164585 . 10.3109/00952990.2010.491884 . 233–241.
  6. Kafka . M. P. . Hypersexual Disorder: A Proposed Diagnosis for DSM-V . 10.1007/s10508-009-9574-7 . Archives of Sexual Behavior . 39 . 2 . 377–400 . 2009 . 19937105 . 2190694 . 2016-11-30 . 2016-04-04 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160404071027/http://www.dsm5.org/Research/Documents/Kafka_Hypersexual_ASB.pdf . live .
  7. Web site: 19 April 2011 . ASAM Definition of Addiction . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20160229041605/http://www.asam.org/quality-practice/definition-of-addiction . 29 February 2016 . 7 November 2016.
  8. Kraus. Shane W.. Voon. Valerie. Potenza. Marc N.. December 2016. Should compulsive sexual behavior be considered an addiction?. Addiction. 111. 12. 2097–2106. 10.1111/add.13297. 0965-2140. 4990495. 26893127. 11261106.
  9. Gola . Mateusz . Wordecha . Małgorzata . Sescousse . Guillaume . Lew-Starowicz . Michał . Kossowski . Bartosz . Wypych . Marek . Makeig . Scott . Potenza . Marc N. . Marchewka . Artur . September 2017 . Can Pornography be Addictive? An fMRI Study of Men Seeking Treatment for Problematic Pornography Use . live . . . 42 . 10 . 2021–2031 . 10.1038/npp.2017.78 . free . 1740-634X . 0893-133X . 815994337 . 5561346 . 28409565 . 13759729 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190320222644/https://www.nature.com/articles/npp201778.pdf . 20 March 2019 . 1 August 2021.
  10. Hilton . Donald L. . 2013 . Pornography addiction – a supranormal stimulus considered in the context of neuroplasticity . Socioaffective Neuroscience & Psychology . en . 3 . 1 . 20767 . 10.3402/snp.v3i0.20767 . 2000-9011 . 3960020 . 24693354 .
  11. Nelson . Kimberly M. . Rothman . Emily F. . February 2020 . Should Public Health Professionals Consider Pornography a Public Health Crisis? . Morabia . Alfredo . Alfredo Morabia . . . 110 . 2 . 151–153 . 10.2105/AJPH.2019.305498 . free . 1541-0048 . 6951382 . 31913670 . 210121251.
  12. Book: Rothman, Emily F. . 2021 . Pornography as a US Public Health Problem . https://books.google.com/books?id=M30_EAAAQBAJ . Pornography and Public Health . 1–15 . . . 10.1093/oso/9780190075477.003.0001 . 978-0-19-007547-7 . 2021013439 . 2021-09-26 . 2023-04-19 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230419164505/https://books.google.com/books?id=M30_EAAAQBAJ . live .
  13. Book: Baird, Amee . Sex in the Brain: How Seizures, Strokes, Dementia, Tumors, and Trauma Can Change Your Sex Life . Columbia University Press . 2020 . 978-0-231-55155-7 . 7 November 2024 . unpaginated . spoke with David Ley . 10.7312/bair19590-010 . 9. PORN ON THE TRAIN (AND ON THE BRAIN).
  14. Sale, Julie "Preface" in
  15. Steele . V. . Prause . N. . Staley . C. . Fong . G. W. . Sexual Desire, not Hypersexuality, is Related to Neurophysiological Responses Elicited by Sexual Images . Socioaffective Neuroscience & Psychology . 3 . 20770 . 2013 . 10.3402/snp.v3i0.20770 . 24693355 . 3960022.
  16. Hilton . Donald L. . 'High desire', or 'merely' an addiction? A response to Steele et al . Socioaffective Neuroscience & Psychology . 21 February 2014 . 4 . 1 . 23833 . 10.3402/snp.v4.23833 . 24707350 . 3975913.
  17. Taylor . Kris . Nosology and metaphor: How pornography viewers make sense of pornography addiction . Sexualities . 609–629 . May 7, 2019 . 23 . 4 . 10.1177/1363460719842136 . 164221337 .
  18. Web site: AASECT Position on Sex Addiction. April 2018. 25 April 2019. AASECT 1) does not find sufficient empirical evidence to support the classification of sex addiction or porn addiction as a mental health disorder, and 2) does not find the sexual addiction training and treatment methods and educational pedagogies to be adequately informed by accurate human sexuality knowledge.. 28 March 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190328083008/https://www.aasect.org/position-sex-addiction. live.
  19. Book: American Psychiatric Association. 2013. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Fifth. American Psychiatric Publishing. Arlington, VA. 481, 797–798. 978-0-89042-555-8. In addition to the substance-related disorders, this chapter also includes gambling disorder, reflecting evidence that gambling behaviors activate reward systems similar to those activated by drugs of abuse and produce some behavioral symptoms that appear comparable to those produced by the substance use disorders. Other excessive behavioral patterns, such as Internet gaming, have also been described, but the research on these and other behavioral syndromes is less clear. Thus, groups of repetitive behaviors, which some term behavioral addictions, with such subcategories as "sex addiction," "exercise addiction," or "shopping addiction," are not included because at this time there is insufficient peer-reviewed evidence to establish the diagnostic criteria and course descriptions needed to identify these behaviors as mental disorders. ... Excessive use of the Internet not involving playing of online games (e.g., excessive use of social media, such as Facebook; viewing pornography online) is not considered analogous to Internet gaming disorder, and future research on other excessive uses of the Internet would need to follow similar guidelines as suggested herein. Excessive gambling online may qualify for a separate diagnosis of gambling disorder..
  20. Weir. Kirsten . Is pornography addictive? . dead. Monitor on Psychology . April 2014 . 45 . 4 . 46 . 1529-4978 . 612512821 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140405232028/http://www.apa.org/monitor/2014/04/pornography.aspx . 2014-04-05.
  21. Book: Glyn Hudson . Allez . Sexual Diversity and Sexual Offending: Research, Assessment, and Clinical Treatment in Psychosexual Therapy . https://books.google.com/books?id=MXnAAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA161 . 4 June 2014 . Karnac Books . 978-1-78181-368-3 . 161 . Chapter Ten. The pleasure, the power, and the perils of Internet pornography . 27 April 2019 . 19 April 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230419164550/https://books.google.com/books?id=MXnAAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA161 . live .
  22. Since it is neither of two behavioral addictions mentioned above.
  23. Kraus . Shane W . Voon . Valerie . Potenza . Marc N . 2015-09-22 . Neurobiology of Compulsive Sexual Behavior: Emerging Science . Neuropsychopharmacology . 41 . 1 . 385–386 . 10.1038/npp.2015.300 . 0893-133X . 4677151 . 26657963.
  24. Brand . Matthias . Young . Kimberly S. . Laier . Christian . Wölfling . Klaus . Potenza . Marc N. . 2016-12-01 . Integrating psychological and neurobiological considerations regarding the development and maintenance of specific Internet-use disorders: An Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution (I-PACE) model . Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews . 71 . 252–266 . 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.08.033 . 27590829. free .
  25. International Review of Neurobiology . Kühn . S. . Gallinat . J. . 2016-01-01 . Natalie M. . Zahr . Eric T. . Peterson . 129 . 67–83 . 10.1016/bs.irn.2016.04.002 . 27503448 . 978-0-12-803914-4. Neurobiological Basis of Hypersexuality. Imaging the Addicted Brain .
  26. Prause . Nicole . Steele . Vaughn R. . Staley . Cameron . Sabatinelli . Dean . Hajcak . Greg . 2015 . Modulation of late positive potentials by sexual images in problem users and controls inconsistent with 'porn addiction'. Biological Psychology . 109 . 192–199 . 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2015.06.005. 26095441 . 1446388 .
  27. Prause . Nicole . Janssen . Erick . Georgiadis . Janniko . Finn . Peter . Pfaus . James . 2017 . Data do not support sex as addictive . The Lancet Psychiatry . 4 . 12 . 899 . 10.1016/S2215-0366(17)30441-8. 29179928 . free .
  28. Grant . Jon E. . Atmaca . Murad . Fineberg . Naomi A. . Fontenelle . Leonardo F. . Matsunaga . Hisato . Janardhan Reddy . Y. C. . Simpson . Helen Blair . Thomsen . Per Hove . van den Heuvel . Odile A. . Veale . David . Woods . Douglas W. . Stein . Dan J. . Impulse control disorders and "behavioural addictions" in the ICD-11 . World Psychiatry. 13 . 2 . 2014 . 1723-8617 . 24890056 . 4102276 . 10.1002/wps.20115 . 125–127.
  29. Book: World Health Organisation . 2021 . ICD-11 for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics: 6C72 Compulsive sexual behaviour disorder . 4 September 2021 . 1 August 2018 . https://archive.today/20180801205234/https://icd.who.int/browse11/l-m/en%23/http://id.who.int/icd/entity/294762853#/http%3a%2f%2fid.who.int%2ficd%2fentity%2f1630268048 . live .
  30. Grubbs . Joshua B. . Perry . Samuel L. . Wilt . Joshua A. . Reid . Rory C. . Pornography Problems Due to Moral Incongruence: An Integrative Model with a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis . Archives of Sexual Behavior . Springer Science and Business Media LLC . 48 . 2 . 2018-08-03 . 0004-0002 . 10.1007/s10508-018-1248-x . 397–415. 30076491 . 51911309 .
  31. Prause . Nicole . Binnie . James . Iatrogenic effects of Reboot/NoFap on public health: A preregistered survey study . Sexualities . SAGE Publications . 2023-02-22 . 27 . 8 . 1363-4607 . 10.1177/13634607231157070 . 136346072311570. 257172274 .
  32. Grubbs . Joshua B. . Tahk . Regina . Fernandez . David P. . Fernandez . Elaine F. . Ley . David . Pornography and Pride: Antagonism drives links between narcissism and perceived addiction to pornography . Journal of Research in Personality . Elsevier BV . 2023 . 107 . 0092-6566 . 10.1016/j.jrp.2023.104419 . 104419. 260990191 .
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  34. Heather . Nick . Is the concept of compulsion useful in the explanation or description of addictive behaviour and experience? . Addictive Behaviors Reports . Elsevier BV . 6 . 2017 . 2352-8532 . 10.1016/j.abrep.2017.05.002 . 15–38. 29450234 . 5800587 .
  35. Web site: What's the difference between an addiction and a compulsion? . Go Ask Alice! . 11 June 2021 . 11 June 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210611114716/https://goaskalice.columbia.edu/answered-questions/whats-difference-between-addiction-and-compulsion/ . live .
  36. Book: Munson . C. . Knauer . S.L. . Recovering from Sexual Abuse, Addictions, and Compulsive Behaviors: "Numb" Survivors . Taylor & Francis . 2014 . 978-1-317-78868-3 . 11 June 2021 . 54 . 19 April 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230419164524/https://books.google.com/books?id=pRvHBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT54 . live .
  37. Book: American Psychiatric Association. 2013. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Fifth. American Psychiatric Publishing. Arlington, VA. 485. 978-0-89042-555-8. Note that the word addiction is not applied as a diagnostic term in this classification, although it is in common usage in many countries to describe severe problems related to compulsive and habitual use of substances..
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  39. Book: American Psychiatric Association . Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-5-TR(tm)) . American Psychiatric Association Publishing . G - Reference,Information and Interdisciplinary Subjects Series . 2022 . 978-0-89042-576-3 . Conditions for Further Study . 916 . Excessive use of the Internet not involving playing of online games (e.g., excessive use of social media, such as Facebook; viewing pornography online) is not considered analogous to Internet gaming disorder, and future research on other excessive uses of the Internet would need to follow similar guidelines as suggested herein. Excessive gambling online may qualify for a separate diagnosis of gambling disorder. . 2022-04-15 . 2023-04-19 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230419164506/https://books.google.com/books?id=PIGizgEACAAJ . live .
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