| Polabian | |
| Nativename: | Slüvensťă rec / Vensťĕ |
| Pronunciation: | pronounced as //slyˈvɛˑn.stʲɐ rɛt͡s// |
| States: | Germany |
| Extinct: | 3 October 1756 (death of Emerentz Schultze) |
| Familycolor: | Indo-European |
| Fam2: | Balto-Slavic |
| Fam3: | Slavic |
| Fam4: | West Slavic |
| Fam5: | Lechitic[1] |
| Fam6: | West Lechitic |
| Map: | Polabian Slavs.png |
| Iso3: | pox |
| Glotto: | pola1255 |
| Glottorefname: | Polabian |
| Linglist: | pox |
| Lingua: | 53-AAA-bc |
| Revived: | 21st century; ≥5 known L2 speakers[2] |
The Polabian language, also known as Drevanian–Polabian language, Drevanian language, and Lüneburg Wendish language, is a West Slavic language that was spoken by the Polabian Slavs (de|Wenden) in present-day northeastern Germany around the Elbe, from which the term Polabian comes from. It was spoken approximately until the rise to power of Prussia in the mid-18th century – when it was superseded by Low German – in the areas of Pomoré (Mecklenburg-West Pomerania), central (Mittelmark) part of Branibor (Brandenburg) and eastern Saxony-Anhalt (Wittenberg originally part of Béla Serbia), as well as in eastern parts of Wendland (Lower Saxony) and Dravänia (Schleswig-Holstein), Ostholstein and Lauenburg). Polabian was also relatively long (until the 16th century) spoken in and around the cities of Bukovéc (Lübeck), Starigard (Oldenburg) and Trava (Hamburg). The very poorly attested Slavic dialects of Rügen seemed to have had more in common with Polabian than with Pomeranian varieties.[3] In the south, it bordered on the Sorbian language area in Lusatia.
Polabian is characterized by the preservation of a number of archaic features, such as the presence of nasal vowels, a lack of metathesis of Proto-Slavic *TorT; the presence of an aorist and imperfect verb tenses, traces of the dual number, and some prosodic features, as well as by some innovations, including diphthongization of closed vowels, a shift of the vowels o to ö, ü and a to o; a softening of the consonants g, k in some positions to d', t', an occasional reduction of final vowels, and the formation of complex tenses, many which are associated with the influence of the German language. Polabian also has a large number of Middle Low German borrowings.
By the 18th century, Lechitic Polabian was in some respects markedly different from other Slavic languages, most notably in having a strong German influence. It was close to Pomeranian and Kashubian, and is attested only in a handful of manuscripts, dictionaries and various writings from the 17th and 18th centuries.
About 2800 Polabian words are known; of prose writings, only a few prayers, one wedding song and a few folktales survive. Immediately before the language became extinct, several people started to collect phrases and compile wordlists, and were engaged with folklore of the Polabian Slavs, but only one of them appears to have been a native speaker of Polabian (himself leaving only 13 pages of linguistically relevant material from a 310-page manuscript). The last native speaker of Polabian, a woman, died in 1756, and the last person who spoke limited Polabian died in 1825.
The most important monument of the language is the so-called Vocabularium Venedicum (1679–1719) by Christian Hennig.
The language left many traces to this day in toponymy; for example, Wustrow (literally 'island', Polabian: Våstrüv), Lüchow (Polabian: Ljauchüw), Sagard, Gartow, Krakow etc. It is also a likely origin of the name Berlin, from the Polabian stem berl-/birl- ('swamp').
Though unorganized language revitalization for the Polabian language is occurring in small groups. As of 2023, the language has few limited speakers, but is growing due to more resources being accessible to learn the language.
Polabian retains some archaic features from Proto-Slavic:
Polabian also has many innovations, in part due to neighboring German and in part due to being more remote:
The Proto-Slavic vowels developed thusly:
The Proto-Slavic consonants developed thusly:
For Polabian the following segments are reconstructable:[4]
| Close | pronounced as /link/ pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Close-mid | pronounced as /link/ | |||
| Open-mid | pronounced as /link/ pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ pronounced as /link/ | |
| Near-open | pronounced as /link/ | |||
| Open | pronounced as /link/ pronounced as /link/ |
| Diphthongs | pronounced as /ai/ | pronounced as /ɒi/ | pronounced as /oi/ | pronounced as /au/ | pronounced as /ɒu/ |
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| Labial | Dental | Alveolar | Palatal | Post- palatal | Velar | ||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plosives | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | align=center | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | ||||
| align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | align=center | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | |||||
| Affricates | align=center | align=center | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | align=center | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | align=center | |||||||
| align=center | align=center | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | align=center | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | align=center | ||||||||
| Fricatives | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | |||
| align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | align=center | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | align=center | ||||||
| Nasals | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | align=center | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | align=center | |||||
| Laterals | align=center | align=center | align=center | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | align=center | align=center | |||||||
| Trills | align=center | align=center | align=center | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | align=center | align=center | |||||||
| Semi-vowel | align=center | align=center | align=center | align=center | align=center | align=center | pronounced as /link/ | align=center | align=center | ||||||||
The nature of the Polabian accent remains a controversial issue. There are three theories:
Due to the poor attestation of Polabian, it is difficult to reconstruct a full morphology. Presented here is a general overview.
As in all Slavic languages, Polabian has three grammatical genders: masculine, feminine and neuter. Polabian nouns may also be animate or inanimate, and decline for six cases: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental and the prepositional; the vocative case in Polabian was lost, being replaced by the nominative. Nouns were used mainly only in combination with prepositions, not only in the prepositional case, as in most Slavic languages, but also in the instrumental. Within the inflectional endings, two paradigms exist, one of a masculine-neuter type, the other a feminine type; neither inflectional types are homogeneous.
Masculine and neuter nouns are divided into two groups: those ending in -ă in the nominative singular those ending in anything else. Nouns ending in -ă probably took a feminine declension in the singular, as in other Slavic languages, but this is difficult to assert due to the fact that such nouns are known in the documents only in the nominative singular form. The second group of nouns is divided into a number of subtypes. The dual forms of masculine and neuter nouns are not attested.
Within the singular, the following can be seen:
Within the plural, the following can be seen:
| Case | Singular | - ! style="width:150px" | Masculine ! style="width:150px" | Neuter | - ! Nominative | -Ø, -ă, -åi̯ | -ü, -i : -ĕ, -ą : -ă | - ! Genitive | -o : -ă, -au̯ : -åi̯ | -o : -ă | - ! Dative | -au̯ : -ai̯ : -ĕ | - ! Accusative | = | - ! Instrumental | -åm | - ! Prepositional | -e : -ă, -ai̯ | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Case | Plural | - ! style="width:150px" | Masculine ! style="width:150px" | Neuter | - ! Nominative | -ai̯ : -åi̯, -ĕ, -e, -üvĕ, -i | -a | - ! Genitive | -üv : -ev, -Ø | -Ø | - ! Dative | -üm | – | - ! Accusative | = | - ! Instrumental | -ĕ | – | - ! Prepositional | – | -åх | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
There are three types of declension of feminine nouns. The first includes nouns with endings -o or -ă in the nominative singular case: bobo (“woman”), zenă (“wife”, “woman”). The second ends in -åi̯, -ĕ, or -ai̯: motai̯ (“mother”), bant'åi̯ (“bench”). The third has a zero ending: vås (“louse”), t’üst (“bone”), vas (“village”).
Within the singular, the following can be seen:
Within the plural, the following can be seen:
Within the dual, the following can be seen:
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Adjectives agree in gender, case and number. A few instances of short adjectives are attested. Adjectives can also inflect for the comparative and superlative.
The following adjectival inflections are attested:
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Short forms of adjectives are formed from the stems of full adjectives and by adding gender endings in the singular. These forms agrees with the noun to which it refers in case as well:
| Gender | Ending | Examples of short adjectives | - ! Masculine | -Ø | cai̯st (“clean”), stor (“old”), krosan (“good”, “beautiful”), dolĕk (“far”), sarĕk (“wide”), glǫbĕk (“deep”) | - ! Feminine | -o | nüvo (“new”), storo (“old”) | - ! Neuter | -ü | cai̯stü (“clean”), l’ått’ü (“light”), nai̯st’ü (“low”), mükrü (“wet”), teplü (“warm”), sau̯х́ü (“dry”) |
|---|
Among the surviving masculine and neuter forms, the instrumental case (tai̯xåm (“quiet”)) and the locative case (cai̯ste (“pure”); dübre (“good”)) are attested.
The comparative of adjectives is formed with -i̯sĕ, -sĕ, and -ésĕ, and the superlative is formed from the comparative by adding na-: navoi̯sĕ (“highest”), lepsĕ (“better”), zai̯mnésǎ (“colder”), nastăresĕ (“eldest”).
Polabian has both cardinal and ordinal numerals, and a few attestations of collective numerals exist:
| !Cardinal | Ordinal !Collective | - !1 | jadån, *janĕ, janü | pară | - !2 | dåvo, dåvoi̯, dåve | törĕ | - !3 | tåri, tåroi̯ | tritĕ | - !4 | citĕr | citjortĕ | citvărü | - !5 | pąt | ṕǫtĕ | pątărü | - !6 | sist | sistĕ | sistărü | - !7 | sidĕm | sidmărü | - !8 | visĕm | våsmĕ | vismărü | - !9 | divąt | div́ǫtĕ | divątărü | - !10 | disąt | diśǫtĕ | disątărü | - !11 | jadånădist / janădist / janünăctü | - !12 | dvenăcti / dvenăcte, dvenădist | - !13 | trai̯nocte / trai̯nădist | - !14 | citĕrnocti / citĕrnocte, citĕrnădist | - !15 | pątnocti, pątnădist | - !16 | sistnocti, sistnădist | - !17 | sidĕmnocti, sidĕmnădist | - !18 | visĕmnocti, visĕmnădist | - !19 | divątnocti, divątnădist | - !20 | disątnocti | - !40 | citĕrdiśǫt | - !50 | pą(t)diśǫt | - !60 | sis(t)diśǫt | - !70 | sidĕmdiśǫt | - !80 | visĕmdiśǫt | - !90 | divątdiśǫt | - |
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The endings for -cte / -cti and -dist 11-19 originates from to Proto-Slavic *desęte (prepositional of desętе “ten”). The multiple endings are the result of different placements of stress within the numeral, which is motivated by Polabian processes of stress movement.
The numeral thirty is attested only by the construction pöl ťüpĕ, (“half a pile”), and sixty is attested only as ťüpă (“pile”).
The original word for hundred (Proto-Slavic *sъto) was not preserved; instead it was replaced by disą(t)diśǫt, literally, “ten tens,” or pąt stíďə, where stíďə is a borrowing from the Middle German stige (“twenty, two tens”). The remaining terms for hundreds are unattested. The original term for thousand (Proto-Slavic *tysǫti) was replaced by the construction disąt pątstiďə.
The following personal and reflexive pronouns are attested:
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The pronoun jai̯ was borrowed from Middle Low German jī.
There were two demonstrative pronouns in Polabian: sǫ, so, sü (“this”) and tǫ, to, tü (“that”).
The attested possessive pronouns are: müj, müjă, müji (“mine”); tüj, tüjă, tüji (“yours (singular)”); süji ("one's own (reflexive possesive pronoun"); nos ("our"); vosă (“yours” (plural)).
The interrogative pronouns are: kåtü (“who”); cü (“what”); koťĕ (“which”, “what”, “what kind”).
The determinative pronouns are: vis (“all”), visoťă (“anything”), kozdümĕ (“everyone” (dative)).
The negative pronouns are: nĕkătü (“nobody”), nic (“nothing”), nijadån (“not one, no”), niťidĕ (“nowhere”); all were formed using the prefix nĕ-/ni-, which phonetically cannot continue the Proto-Slavic *ni-, which would have developed as *nai-. K. Polański believed that nai- was supplanted by ni- under the influence of the negative particle ni (“not”).
As with other inflections, complete verb paradigms cannot be reconstructed due to a lack of attestation. Below is a general overview.
Verbs may be either perfective or imperfective in aspect, expressed by different structures of the verb stem: zarăt (imperfective) and vizrăt (perfective) (“look, see”); dvai̯zĕ (imperfective) and dvai̯gnǫt (perfective) (“to move”); våzdet-să (imperfective) and våzdevot-să (perfective) (“to dress”).
Polabian verbs may inflect for present tense, future tense and three forms of the past tense: imperfect, aorist, as well as two perfect tenses, called perfect I and perfect II.
The stress in present tense verbs always falls on the penultimate syllable, with the exception of verbs with enclitics, in which the stress goes to the last syllable. This type of stress explains the presence of conjugations formed with -ĕ-||-i- (from *-e-) and with -o-||-ă- (from *-a(je)-). The alternation in the verbs of these conjugations of full vowels and reduced vowels depends both on the presence or absence of enclitics, and on the presence of consonants or whole syllables after the vowel. The differences in the types of conjugations concern only the forms of the 1st person singular.
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The future tense is formed by adding the auxiliary verb cą (“I want”) to the infinitive of the main verb of the present tense form: ci sneg ai̯t (“it will snow”), vån ci-să sḿot (“he will laugh”). According to T. Lehr-Spławiński, A. E. Suprun and some other scholars, forms of the future tense could also be formed with the auxiliary verb met (“to have”): joz mom sijot (“I will sew”), K. Polyansky considered the verb met in these cases is a modal verb - “I must sew.”
The use of the imperfect joz tех (“I wanted”), mes (“had”), ni-băs (“I wasn’t”) and the aorist (sådĕ (“went”), våzą (“took”), påci (“fell”)) attested by a few examples.
The perfect I tense is formed by adding the past participle form with *-lъ from the main verb and the present tense form of the verb “to be”: ją plokol (“cried”), ją våi̯ai̯dål (“went out”). Not many such complex perfect forms are attested, and were replaced by forms formed by combining participial forms with their corresponding personal pronouns: joz plokol (“I cried”), joz sijol (“I sat down”), vån jedål (“he ate”). The perfect II was probably formed under the influence of the perfect of the German language (formed using the verbs haben (“to have”) or sein (“to be”): ich habe geschrieben (“I wrote”)), as in Polabian it is also formed by the combination of the auxiliary verbs met (“to have”) and båi̯t (“to be”) and the passive participle: vån mo nodenă (“he found”), ją våpodenă (“fell”), ją ai̯ḿartĕ (“died”).
The indicative and imperative moods are attested. The subjunctive mood is not found in any of the surviving texts. The imperative may be formed with a null morpheme or with -ai̯, which may be followed by an enclitic: ai̯plot (“pay”), püd (“go”), ricai̯-mĕ (“tell him”), jimai̯ jĕg (“catch him”), ai̯plotai̯- mĕ (“pay me”).
The passive voice form is formed mainly with the help of the auxiliary verb vardot, borrowed from German werden (become): kǫsonĕ vardol ("was bitten"), vårdă zazonă ("was lit"). There are several examples of forms formed by combining the passive participle with the verb båi̯t (“to be”), perhaps also being forms of the passive voice. Also, forms of the passive voice are formed using reflexive verbs with the particle să,: vinai̯ biją-să (“they are being hit”).
In Polabian, forms such as the infinitive, the active present participle, the passive participle and the gerund are attested. T. Lehr-Spławiński, based on the fact that most infinitive forms have stress on the penultimate syllable and several other forms have stress on the last syllable, did not exclude the possibility that supine could have existed in Polabian.
Infinitives are formed with -t: voi̯vist (“to bring out”), vist (“to carry”).
Active participles are formed with -ąc-: kǫ̇săjącĕ (“biting”), l'otojącă (“flying”).
Passive participles are formed from the verb stem using one of three suffixes: -tĕ (-tă), -nĕ (-nă), -enĕ (-enă): nopücǫ̇tă (“begun”), ai̯ḿortĕ (“put to death”, “killed”)
Gerunds, or verbal nouns, are formed on the basis of the passive participle and extended with -ĕ/-ă (from *-ьje), due to the reduction of the vowel in the ending in an unstressed position, it is not always possible to distinguish between a verbal noun and a passive participle. Most often in texts, the gerund appears in the form of the nominative singular, but forms are also found in other cases, in particular in the dative: strai̯zinĕ (from the verb “to cut”), zomăcenă (from the verb “to soak”), vecenĕ (from the verb “to shout”), (kå) voi̯gărnińĕ (“to stop”, from the verb “to stop”).
The word order in Polabian appeared to be as in other Slavic languages, that is, free.
| Original ortography: Nôße Wader, ta toy giß wa Nebisgáy, Sjungta woarda Tügí Geima, Tia Rîk komaj, Tia Willia ſchinyôt, kok wa Nebisgáy, tôk kak no Sime. Nôßi wißedanneisna Stgeiba doy nâm dâns, un wittedoy nâm nôße Ggrêch, kak moy wittedoyime nôßem Grêsmarim. Ni bringoy nôs ka Warſikónye, tay löſoáy nôs wit wißókak Chaudak. Amen. |
| Transcription: Nos Fader, tå tåi̯ jis wå Nĕbiśai̯, Sjǫtă vårdă Tüji Jai̯mă, Tüjă Rik komă, Tüjă viľa Šińot, kok wå Nĕbiśai̯ tok kăk na Zimĕ, Nosėj vėsĕdanesnă Sťai̯bĕ doj-nam dans, un vitĕdoj-nam nos Greχ, kăk moi̯ vitĕdojimĕ nosĕm Gresnărüm. Ni brinďoi̯ nos kă Farsükońĕ, tåi̯ lözoj nos vit vėsokăg Χ́au̯dăg. Amen. |
| Translation: English: Our Father, English: who art in heaven, English: may Thy name be holy, English: Thy kingdom come, English: Thy will to apper, English: as in heaven English: just as on earth, English: Our daily bread give us today, English: and forgive us our sin, English: as we forgive our sinners. English: Do not bring us into temptation, English: you deliver us from all evil. English: Amen. |
| Original ortography: Noos lolga, Tatta jis wannewü, geiljona wardatü jau mank, ka nom kumm tü Ritje, tü Wilje neke bung te kak, […] dak noosim. nos daaglitja Sceibe dok […] dans, […] noosin du […], kakma noos du Soneitz perdodime. ni […] noos Waversoeking, […] nom witung skef deta. [Amen.] |
| Transcription: Nos ľoľă, Tå tåi̯ jis wå {{tooltip|Nĕbü|error instead of Nĕbiśai̯ χai̯ľonă vårdă tüji jai̯mą, kå nom komă tüj Riťĕ tüjă Wiľa neχ bǫdĕ kăk, […] tok na zimĕ, Nosėj dagliťă Sťai̯bĕ doj […] dans, […] nosĕ du(ďĕ) […], kăk moi̯ nosĕ duznai̯ca perdodimĕ. Ni […] nos Wå farsökǫ […], […] nom vit {{tooltip|tǫ|error instead of tüg [Amen.] |
| Translation: English: Our father, English: who Thou art in heaven, English: hallowed by Thy name, English: Thy kingdom come to use English: may Thy will be as, English: […] English: as on earth, English: Our daily bread give […] today, English: […] our debts […], English: as we forgive our debtors. English: Do not […] us into temptation […], English: […] us from evil. English: [Amen.] |
| Transcription: nos fader, tådĕ tåi̯ jis vå tüjĕm nĕbiśau̯ sjǫtă mo vårdot tüji jai̯mą, tüj rik komă tüjă viľa mo-sa šińot vå nĕbiśau̯ kăk vėsai̯ sokvoi̯ no zimĕ, nosėj dagliťă sťai̯bĕ düj-nam dans, un vitĕdüj-năm nosĕ greχ́ĕ, kok moi̯ vitedüjimĕ nosĕm gresnărüm. Ni farförüj-năs vå farsökǫ, erlözüj-nas vit tüg χ́au̯dăg. Amen. |
| Translation: English: Our father, English: there Thou art in Thy heaven, English: may Thy name become holy, English: Thy kingdom come English: may Thy will appear, English: in heaven English: like all things on earth, English: Our daily bread give us today, English: and forgive us our sins, English: as we forgive our sinners. English: Do not lead us into temptation, English: save us from [the] evil. English: Amen. |