Timeline of Solar System exploration explained

This is a timeline of Solar System exploration ordering events in the exploration of the Solar System by date of spacecraft launch.It includes:

It does not include:

The dates listed are launch dates, but the achievements noted may have occurred some time laterin some cases, a considerable time later (for example, Voyager 2, launched 20 August 1977, did not reach Neptune until 1989).

1950s

!Mission name!Launch date!Description!
Sputnik 14 October 1957First Earth orbiter[1] [2]
Sputnik 2 3 November 1957Earth orbiter, first animal in orbit, a dog named Laika[3] [4]
Explorer 11 February 1958Earth orbiter; discovered Van Allen radiation belts[5]
Vanguard 117 March 1958Earth orbiter; oldest spacecraft still in Earth orbit[6]
Luna 12 January 1959First lunar flyby (attempted lunar impact?); first artificial satellite in heliocentric orbit.[7] [8] [9] [10]
Pioneer 43 March 1959Lunar flyby[11] [12]
Luna 212 September 1959First extraterrestrial impact and lunar impact, First artificial object on Moon[13]
Luna 34 October 1959Lunar flyby; First images of another celestial body taken from space, most notably, the far side of Moon[14]

1960s

Mission nameLaunch dateDescription
Pioneer 511 March 1960Interplanetary space investigations[15] [16]
Venera 112 February 1961First probe to another planet; Venus flyby (contact lost before flyby)[17] [18] [19]
Vostok 112 April 1961First crewed Earth orbiter (Yuri Gagarin)[20] [21]
Ranger 123 August 1961Attempted lunar test flight (failed to leave Earth orbit)[22] [23] [24]
Ranger 218 November 1961Attempted lunar test flight (failed to leave Earth orbit)[25] [26]
Ranger 326 January 1962Attempted lunar impact (missed Moon)[27] [28]
Ranger 423 April 1962Lunar impact (but unintentionally became the first spacecraft to hit the lunar farside and returned no data)[29] [30] [31]
Mariner 227 August 1962First successful planetary encounter, First successful Venus flyby[32] [33] [34]
Ranger 518 October 1962Attempted lunar impact (missed Moon)[35] [36]
Mars 11 November 1962First probe to Mars: flyby (contact lost)[37] [38]
Luna 42 April 1963Attempted lunar lander (missed Moon)[39] [40]
Cosmos 2111 November 1963Attempted Venera test flight?[41]
Ranger 630 January 1964Lunar impact (cameras failed)[42] [43]
Zond 12 April 1964Venus flyby (contact lost)[44] [45] [46]
Ranger 728 July 1964Lunar impact (success)[47] [48] [49]
Voskhod 112 October 1964First orbiter with multimember crew[50] [51]
Mariner 35 November 1964Attempted Mars flyby (failed to attain correct trajectory)[52] [53]
Mariner 428 November 1964First successful Mars flyby[54] [55]
Zond 230 November 1964Mars flyby (contact lost)[56] [57]
Ranger 817 February 1965Lunar impact[58] [59]
Voskhod 218 March 1965First space walk, by Alexei Leonov[60]
Ranger 921 March 1965Lunar impact[61] [62]
Lincoln Calibration Sphere 16 May 1965Oldest spacecraft still in use[63]
Luna 59 May 1965Lunar impact (attempted soft landing)[64]
Luna 68 June 1965Attempted lunar lander (missed Moon)[65]
Zond 318 July 1965Lunar flyby[66] [67]
Luna 74 October 1965Lunar impact (attempted soft landing)[68]
Venera 212 November 1965Venus flyby (contact lost)[69]
Venera 316 November 1965Venus lander (contact lost) – First spacecraft to reach another planet's atmosphere and surface, First Venus impact[70]
Luna 83 December 1965Lunar impact (attempted soft landing?)[71]
Pioneer 616 December 1965"Space weather" observations[72] [73] [74]
Luna 931 January 1966First extraterrestrial lander and lunar lander[75]
Luna 1031 March 1966First extraterrestrial orbiter and first lunar orbiter[76]
Surveyor 130 May 1966Lunar lander[77] [78] [79]
Explorer 331 July 1966Attempted lunar orbiter (failed to attain lunar orbit)[80] [81]
Lunar Orbiter 110 August 1966Lunar orbiter[82] [83] [84]
Pioneer 717 August 1966"Space weather" observations[85] [86]
Luna 1124 August 1966Lunar orbiter[87]
Surveyor 220 September 1966Attempted lunar lander (crashed into Moon)[88] [89]
Luna 1222 October 1966Lunar orbiter[90]
Lunar Orbiter 26 November 1966Lunar orbiter[91] [92]
Luna 1321 December 1966Lunar lander[93]
Lunar Orbiter 35 February 1967Lunar orbiter[94] [95]
Surveyor 317 April 1967Lunar lander[96] [97]
Lunar Orbiter 44 May 1967Lunar orbiter[98] [99]
Venera 412 June 1967First functioning extraterrestrial atmospheric probe (Venus)[100]
Mariner 514 June 1967Venus flyby[101] [102]
Surveyor 414 July 1967Attempted lunar lander (crashed into Moon)[103] [104]
Explorer 35 (IMP-E)19 July 1967Lunar orbiter[105]
Lunar Orbiter 51 August 1967Lunar orbiter[106] [107]
Surveyor 58 September 1967Lunar lander[108] [109]
Surveyor 67 November 1967Lunar lander, first lift-off from an extraterrestrial body[110] [111]
Apollo 49 November 1967Lunar programme test flight in Earth orbit (uncrewed)[112]
Pioneer 813 December 1967"Space weather" observations[113] [114]
Surveyor 77 January 1968Lunar lander[115] [116]
Apollo 522 January 1968Lunar programme test flight in Earth orbit (uncrewed)[117] [118]
Zond 42 March 1968Lunar programme test flight out of Earth orbit (uncrewed)[119] [120] [121]
Luna 147 April 1968Lunar orbiter[122]
Zond 514 September 1968First lunar flyby and return to Earth, first life forms to circle the Moon[123] [124] [125] [126]
Apollo 711 October 1968Lunar programme test flight in Earth orbit (crewed)[127] [128]
Pioneer 98 November 1968"Space weather" observations[129] [130]
Zond 610 November 1968Lunar flyby and return to Earth[131] [132]
Apollo 821 December 1968First crewed spacecraft to leave Earth orbit, first crewed lunar orbiter[133] [134]
Venera 55 January 1969Venus atmospheric probe[135]
Venera 610 January 1969Venus atmospheric probe[136]
Mariner 625 February 1969Mars flyby[137] [138]
Apollo 93 March 1969Crewed lunar lander (LEM) flight test in Earth orbit[139]
Mariner 727 March 1969Mars flyby[140] [141]
Apollo 1018 May 1969Crewed lunar orbiter[142] [143]
Luna 1513 July 1969Second attempted lunar sample return[144] [145]
Apollo 1116 July 1969First crewed lunar landing and first successful sample return mission[146] [147] [148] [149] [150]
Zond 77 August 1969Lunar flyby and return to Earth[151] [152]
Apollo 1214 November 1969Crewed lunar landing[153] [154] [155]

1970s

Mission nameLaunch dateDescription
Apollo 1311 April 1970Crewed lunar flyby and return to Earth (crewed lunar landing aborted). Farthest from Earth a human has gone (401,056 km)[156] [157] [158] [159]
Venera 717 August 1970First Venus lander and the first spacecraft to "soft" land on another planet (with some data returned from the surface)[160] [161]
Luna 1612 September 1970First robotic lunar sample return[162]
Zond 820 October 1970Lunar flyby and return to Earth[163] [164]
Luna 17/Lunokhod 110 November 1970First remote controlled rover[165]
Apollo 1431 January 1971Crewed lunar landing[166] [167] [168]
Salyut 119 April 1971First space station[169] [170]
Mars 219 May 1971First Mars impact, Mars orbiter and attempted lander; First rover (Prop-M) sent to another planet (Mars)[171] [172] [173] [174] [175]
Mars 328 May 1971Mars orbiter, First Mars lander (first image taken from the surface of another planet, though the received image did not show anything); First rover (Prop-M) to be landed but not deployed on another planet (Mars)[176] [177] [178] [179] [180]
Mariner 930 May 1971First to orbit another planet (Mars)[181] [182]
Apollo 1526 July 1971Crewed lunar landing; First crewed lunar rover[183] [184] [185]
Luna 182 September 1971Attempted lunar sample return (crashed into Moon)[186] [187]
Luna 1928 September 1971Lunar orbiter[188]
Luna 2014 February 1972Lunar robotic sample return[189]
Pioneer 103 March 1972First Jupiter flyby[190] [191] [192]
Venera 827 March 1972Venus lander[193] [194]
Apollo 1616 April 1972Crewed lunar landing[195] [196] [197]
Apollo 177 December 1972Last crewed lunar landing[198] [199] [200] [201]
Luna 21/Lunokhod 28 January 1973Lunar rover[202]
Pioneer 115 April 1973Jupiter flyby and First Saturn flyby[203] [204]
Explorer 49 (RAE-B)10 June 1973Lunar orbiter/radio astronomy[205] [206]
Mars 421 July 1973Mars flyby (attempted Mars orbiter)[207] [208]
Mars 525 July 1973Mars orbiter[209] [210]
Mars 65 August 1973Mars flyby and attempted lander (failed due to damage on Mars landing)[211] [212]
Mars 79 August 1973Mars flyby and attempted lander (missed Mars)[213] [214]
Mariner 103 November 1973Lunar and Venus flybys in addition to the First Mercury flyby[215] [216] [217] [218]
Luna 2229 May 1974Lunar orbiter[219]
Luna 2328 October 1974Attempted lunar sample return (failed due to damage on lunar landing)[220]
Helios-A10 December 1974Solar observations[221] [222]
Venera 98 June 1975First Venus orbiter and lander; First successful images from the surface of another planet (Venus)[223] [224] [225]
Venera 1014 June 1975Venus orbiter and lander[226] [227] [228]
Viking 120 August 1975Mars orbiter and lander; First clear pictures from Martian surface[229] [230] [231] [232]
Viking 29 September 1975Mars orbiter and lander[233] [234] [235]
Helios-B15 January 1976Solar observations[236] [237]
Luna 249 August 1976Lunar robotic sample return[238]
Voyager 220 August 1977Jupiter/Saturn/first Uranus/first Neptune flyby[239] [240] [241]
Voyager 15 September 1977Jupiter/Saturn flyby, first to exit the heliosphere[242] [243]
Pioneer Venus 120 May 1978Venus orbiter[244] [245]
Pioneer Venus 28 August 1978Venus atmospheric probes[246] [247]
ISEE-312 August 1978Solar wind investigations; later redesignated International Cometary Explorer and performed Comet Giacobini-Zinner and Comet Halley flybys – First comet flyby[248] [249] [250]
Venera 119 September 1978Venus flyby and lander[251] [252] [253]
Venera 1214 September 1978Venus flyby and lander[254] [255] [256]

1980s

Mission nameLaunch dateDescription
Venera 1330 October 1981Venus flyby and lander. First recording of sound on another planet.[257] [258] [259]
Venera 144 November 1981Venus flyby and lander[260] [261] [262]
Venera 152 June 1983Venus orbiter[263] [264]
Venera 167 June 1983Venus orbiter[265] [266]
Vega 115 December 1984Venus flyby, lander and first extraterrestrial aircraft (aerostat balloon); continued on to Comet Halley flyby[267] [268] [269] [270] [271]
Vega 221 December 1984Venus flyby, lander and balloon; continued on to Comet Halley flyby[272] [273] [274] [275]
Sakigake8 January 1985Comet Halley flyby[276] [277]
Giotto2 July 1985First close observation of comet (distance 596 kilometers), Comet Halley flyby[278] [279] [280]
Suisei (Planet-A)18 August 1985Comet Halley flyby[281] [282]
Mir19 February 1986First modular space station (operational 1986–2000; final module added 1996)[283] [284] [285]
Phobos 17 July 1988Attempted Mars orbiter/Phobos landers (contact lost)[286] [287]
Phobos 212 July 1988Mars orbiter/attempted Phobos landers (contact lost)[288] [289]
Magellan4 May 1989Venus orbiter[290] [291]
Galileo18 October 1989Venus flyby, first Asteroid flyby (Gaspra), first Asteroid moon discovery (Dactyl), first Jupiter orbiter, first Jupiter atmospheric probe[292] [293] [294] [295]

1990s

Mission nameLaunch dateDescription
Hiten (MUSES-A)24 January 1990Lunar flyby and orbiter[296] [297]
Hubble Space Telescope24 April 1990Orbital space telescope (operational since 1990)[298] [299] [300]
Ulysses6 October 1990Solar polar orbiter[301] [302] [303]
Yohkoh (Solar-A)30 August 1991Solar observations (1991–2001)[304] [305]
Mars Observer25 September 1992Attempted Mars orbiter (contact lost)[306] [307]
Clementine25 January 1994Lunar orbiter/attempted asteroid flyby (contact lost)[308] [309] [310]
WIND1 November 1994Solar wind observations[311] [312]
SOHO2 December 1995Solar observatory (operational since 1996)[313] [314] [315]
NEAR Shoemaker17 February 1996Eros orbiter, first near-Earth asteroid flyby, first asteroid orbit and first asteroid landing[316] [317] [318]
Mars Global Surveyor7 November 1996Mars orbiter[319] [320]
Mars 9616 November 1996Attempted Mars orbiter/landers (failed to escape Earth orbit)[321] [322]
Mars Pathfinder4 December 1996Mars lander and first successful planetary rover[323] [324] [325]
ACE25 August 1997Solar wind and "space weather" observations (operational since 1998)[326] [327]
Cassini–Huygens15 October 1997First Saturn orbiter and first outer planet moon lander (on Titan)[328] [329] [330] [331] [332]
Lunar Prospector7 January 1998Lunar orbiter[333] [334]
Nozomi (Planet-B)3 July 1998Attempted Mars orbiter (failed to enter Mars orbit)[335] [336]
Deep Space 1 (DS1)24 October 1998Asteroid and comet flyby[337] [338]
ISS20 November 1998International space station[339] [340]
Mars Climate Orbiter11 December 1998Attempted Mars orbiter (orbit insertion failed; entered atmosphere and was destroyed)[341] [342]
Mars Polar Lander/Deep Space 2 (DS2)3 January 1999Attempted Mars lander/penetrators (contact lost)[343] [344] [345]
Stardust7 February 1999First comet coma sample return (returned 15 January 2006)[346] [347] [348]

2000s

Mission nameLaunch dateDescription
2001 Mars Odyssey7 April 2001Mars orbiter[349] [350]
Genesis8 August 2001First solar wind sample return[351] [352] [353] [354]
CONTOUR3 July 2002Attempted flyby of comet nuclei (Encke, Schwassmann-Wachmann-3, and optionally a third one; lost in space)[355] [356]
Hayabusa (MUSES-C)9 May 2003Asteroid lander and first sample return from asteroid[357] [358]
Mars Express/Beagle 22 June 2003Mars orbiter/attempted lander (lander failure)[359] [360] [361] [362]
Mars Exploration Rover Spirit10 June 2003Mars rover[363] [364]
Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity8 July 2003Mars rover[365] [366]
SMART-127 September 2003Lunar orbiter[367] [368]
Rosetta/Philae2 March 2004Asteroid Šteins and Lutetia flybys; first comet orbiter and lander (Landed in November 2014) [369] [370] [371] [372]
MESSENGER3 August 2004First Mercury orbiter (Achieved orbit 18 March 2011)[373] [374] [375]
Deep Impact12 January 2005Comet flyby and impact[376] [377] [378] [379]
Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter12 August 2005Mars orbiter[380] [381]
Venus Express9 November 2005Venus polar orbiter[382] [383]
New Horizons19 January 2006First Pluto/Charon flyby (on 14 July 2015); continued on to 486958 Arrokoth flyby (on 1 January 2019)[384] [385] [386] [387]
Hinode (Solar-B)22 September 2006Solar orbiter[388] [389]
STEREO26 October 2006Two spacecraft, solar orbiters[390] [391] [392]
Phoenix4 August 2007Mars polar lander (Mars landing on 25 May 2008) [393] [394]
SELENE (Kaguya)14 September 2007Lunar orbiters[395] [396] [397] [398]
Dawn27 September 2007Asteroid Ceres and Vesta orbiter (Entered orbit around Vesta on 16 July 2011 and around Ceres on 6 March 2015)[399] [400] [401]
Chang'e 124 October 2007Lunar orbiter[402] [403] [404]
Chandrayaan-122 October 2008Lunar orbiter and impactor; discovered water on the Moon[405] [406] [407]
Herschel Space Observatory14 May 2009Infrared space telescope at Sun–Earth L2 Lagrange point[408] [409]
Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter/LCROSS18 June 2009Lunar polar orbiter and lunar impactor[410] [411] [412] [413]
WISE (NEOWISE)14 December 2009Infrared survey of celestial sky (WISE mission); later Near-Earth object survey (NEOWISE mission)[414] [415] [416]

2010s

Mission nameLaunch dateDescription
Solar Dynamics Observatory11 February 2010Continuous solar monitoring[417] [418]
Akatsuki (Planet-C)20 May 2010Venus orbiter (orbit insertion failed in 2010 / successful orbit insertion on 7 December 2015)[419] [420] [421]
PICARD15 June 2010Solar monitoring[422] [423]
Chang'e 21 October 2010Lunar orbiter, asteroid 4179 Toutatis flyby[424] [425]
Juno5 August 2011Jupiter orbiter[426] [427]
GRAIL10 September 2011Two spacecraft, Lunar orbiters[428] [429] [430]
Fobos-Grunt and Yinghuo-18 November 2011Phobos orbiter, lander and sample return (Russia), Mars orbiter (China)Attempted Phobos sample return and Mars orbiter, respectively; both failed to escape Earth orbit[431] [432]
Mars Science Laboratory (Curiosity rover)26 November 2011Mars rover (landed 6 August 2012)[433] [434]
Van Allen Probes (RBSP)30 August 2012Earth Van Allen radiation belts study[435] [436] [437]
IRIS28 June 2013Solar observations[438]
LADEE7 September 2013Lunar orbiter[439] [440]
Hisaki14 September 2013Planetary atmosphere observatory[441]
Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan)5 November 2013Mars orbiter[442] [443] [444]
MAVEN18 November 2013Mars orbiter[445] [446]
Chang'e 31 December 2013Lunar lander and rover (first lander since Soviet Luna 24 in 1976)[447] [448] [449]
Chang'e 5-T123 October 2014Circumlunar mission and Earth reentry; technology demonstration to prepare for Chang'e 5 mission[450]
Hayabusa2 / MASCOT3 December 2014Asteroid lander and sample return (sample returned 5 December 2020), first asteroid rover[451] [452] [453]
PROCYON3 December 2014Comet observer and attempted asteroid flyby (engine failure)[454]
DSCOVR11 February 2015Solar observation[455] [456]
ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter and EDM lander14 March 2016Mars orbiter and attempted lander (lander failure)[457] [458]
OSIRIS-REx8 September 2016Asteroid sample return mission [459] [460]
InSight5 May 2018Mars lander[461] [462]
Queqiao20 May 2018Relay satellite for Chang'e 4 in Halo orbit around Earth–Moon L2 Lagrange point[463]
Parker Solar Probe12 August 2018Solar corona probe, closest solar approach (NaNkm (-2,147,483,648miles))[464] [465]
BepiColombo19 October 2018Two Mercury orbiters [466] [467]
Chang'e 47 December 2018Lunar lander and rover, first landing on the lunar far side[468] [469]
Beresheet22 February 2019Attempted lunar lander (crashed into Moon)[470] [471]
Chandrayaan-222 July 2019Lunar orbiter; attempted lander and rover (contact lost during final stage of descent)[472] [473]

2020s

Mission nameLaunch dateDescription
Solar Orbiter10 February 2020Sun-observing satellite[474] [475] [476]
Mars Hope19 July 2020Mars orbiter[477]
Tianwen-1 (Zhurong rover)23 July 2020Mars orbiter, lander, and rover[478]
Mars 2020 (Perseverance rover and Ingenuity helicopter)30 July 2020Mars rover and helicopter drone; first powered flight on another planet[479] [480] [481]
Chang'e 523 November 2020Lunar sample return[482]
Lucy16 October 2021Flyby of six Jupiter trojans and two main belt asteroids[483] [484]
DART / LICIACube24 November 2021Asteroid 65803 Didymos flyby, asteroid moon Dimorphos impactor[485] [486]
James Webb Space Telescope25 December 2021Infrared space telescope at Sun–Earth L2[487] [488]
CAPSTONE28 June 2022Lunar orbiter[489]
Danuri (KPLO)5 August 2022Lunar orbiter[490]
Artemis 1 and 10 cubesats16 November 2022Uncrewed lunar orbital test of Orion spacecraft and Space Launch System. The cubesats are launched as rideshares and will execute their own missions.[491]
Hakuto-R Mission 1 (Rashid rover) and Lunar Flashlight11 December 2022Lunar lander technology demonstration, lunar rover, and lunar orbiter launched together (crashed into Moon)[492] [493] [494]
JUICE14 April 2023Jupiter/Ganymede orbiter[495]
Chandrayaan-314 July 2023Lunar orbiter, lander and rover; first soft landing near the lunar South Pole[496] [497]
Luna 2510 August 2023Attempted lunar south pole lander (crashed into Moon)[498] [499]
Aditya-L12 September 2023Sun-observing spacecraft at Sun–Earth L1[500]
SLIM (LEV-1, LEV-2)6 September 2023Lunar flyby, lander and rovers[501] [502]
Psyche13 October 2023Asteroid 16 Psyche orbiter[503]
Peregrine Mission One (including Iris and Colmena rovers)8 January 2024Lunar lander and rovers (landing precluded)[504]
IM-1 Nova-C Odysseus (including EagleCam deployable camera)15 February 2024Lunar landers[505]
DRO A/B13 March 2024Lunar orbiters[506]
Queqiao-2 (including Tiandu-1 and 2)20 March 2024Lunar orbiters[507]
Chang'e 6 (including Pakistan's ICUBE-Q cubesat)3 May 2024Lunar sample return, rover and orbiters; first sample return from the lunar far side[508] [509]
Hera (3 orbiters)7 October 2024Asteroid 65803 Didymos rendezvous [510]
Europa Clipper14 October 2024Jupiter orbiter, Europa multiple flyby[511] [512] [513]

See also

External links

Notes and References

  1. Web site: Sputnik 1. nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. 2019-04-15. 8 July 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190708130337/https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1957-001B. live.
  2. Web site: Sputnik satellites. Encyclopedia Britannica. en. 2019-04-15. 14 April 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190414164253/https://www.britannica.com/technology/Sputnik. live.
  3. Web site: Sputnik 2. nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. 2019-04-15. 29 May 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190529081812/https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1957-002A. live.
  4. Web site: 60 years ago: The First Animal in Orbit. Garcia. Mark. 2017-11-06. NASA. 2019-04-15. 15 April 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190415202041/https://www.nasa.gov/feature/60-years-ago-the-first-animal-in-orbit/. live.
  5. Web site: Explorer 1. nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. 2019-04-15. 27 May 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190527180242/https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1958-001A. live.
  6. Web site: Vanguard 1. nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. 2019-04-15. 13 December 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20171213061610/https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1958-002B. live.
  7. Web site: Luna 1. nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. 2019-04-15. 2 June 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190602031816/https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1959-012A. live.
  8. Book: Cavallaro, Umberto. The Race to the Moon Chronicled in Stamps, Postcards, and Postmarks: A Story of Puffery vs. the Pragmatic. 2018-10-05. Springer. 9783319921532. 46. en.
  9. Book: Soviet Robots in the Solar System: Mission Technologies and Discoveries. JR. Wesley T. Huntress. Marov. Mikhail Ya. 2011-06-28. Springer Science & Business Media. 9781441978981. 77. en. 15 April 2019. 23 February 2024. https://web.archive.org/web/20240223220007/https://books.google.com/books?id=rgl_C0XrKTUC&pg=PA77#v=onepage&q&f=false. live.
  10. Web site: Luna space probe. Encyclopedia Britannica. en. 2019-04-15. 15 April 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190415211118/https://www.britannica.com/technology/Luna-space-probe. live.
  11. Web site: Pioneer 4. nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. 2019-04-15. 23 February 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170223035908/http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1959-013A. live.
  12. Web site: In Depth Pioneer 4. Solar System Exploration: NASA Science. 2019-04-15. 15 April 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190415220337/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/pioneer-4/in-depth/. live.
  13. Web site: Luna 2. nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. 2019-04-15. 25 August 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190825003339/https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1959-014A. live.
  14. Web site: Luna 3. nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. 2019-04-15. 4 June 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210604001110/https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1959-008A. live.
  15. Web site: Pioneer 5. nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. 2019-04-15. 3 August 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200803093004/https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1960-001A. live.
  16. Web site: In Depth Pioneer 5. Solar System Exploration: NASA Science. 2019-04-15. 15 April 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190415220335/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/pioneer-5/in-depth/. live.
  17. Web site: Venera 1. nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. 2019-04-15. 26 November 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201126124517/https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1961-003A. live.
  18. Web site: Venera Soviet space probes. Encyclopedia Britannica. en. 2019-04-15. 15 April 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190415202029/https://www.britannica.com/technology/Venera. live.
  19. Book: Wright, John. The New York Times Almanac 2002. 2006-05-23. Routledge. 9781135455866. 1649. en. 15 April 2019. 23 February 2024. https://web.archive.org/web/20240223220104/https://books.google.com/books?id=SHKPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1649#v=onepage&q&f=false. live.
  20. Web site: Vostok 1. nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. 2019-04-15. 15 April 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190415202033/https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1961-012A. live.
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