Philippines Explained

Conventional Long Name:	Republic of the Philippines
Common Name:	the Philippines
Flag Size:	130
Flag Type:	Flag
National Motto:	Filipino; Pilipino: [[Maka-Diyos, Maka-tao, Makakalikasan at Makabansa]]^[1] "For God, People, Nature, and Country"
National Anthem:	"Filipino; Pilipino: [[Lupang Hinirang]]" "Chosen Land"
Capital:	Manila (de jure) Metro Manila (de facto)
Largest City:	Quezon City
Recognized Regional Languages:	19 languages
Languages Type:	National sign language
Languages:	Filipino Sign Language
Languages Sub:	yes
Languages2 Type:	Other recognized languages
Languages2 Sub:	yes
Ethnic Groups Year:	2020^[2]
Demonym:	Filipino (neutral) Filipina (feminine) Pinoy (colloquial neutral) Pinay (colloquial feminine) Philippine (adjective for certain common nouns)
Government Type:	Unitary presidential republic
Leader Title1:	President
Leader Name1:	Bongbong Marcos
Leader Title2:	Vice President
Leader Name2:	Sara Duterte
Leader Title3:	Senate President
Leader Name3:	Francis Escudero
Leader Title4:	House Speaker
Leader Name4:	Martin Romualdez
Leader Title5:	Chief Justice
Leader Name5:	Alexander Gesmundo
Legislature:	Congress
Upper House:	Senate
Lower House:	House of Representatives
Sovereignty Type:	Independence
Sovereignty Note:	from Spain and the United States
Established Event1:	Declaration
Established Date1:	June 12, 1898
Established Event2:	Cession
Established Date2:	December 10, 1898
Established Event3:	Self-government
Established Date3:	November 15, 1935
Established Event4:	Recognized
Established Date4:	July 4, 1946
Established Event5:	Constitution
Established Date5:	February 2, 1987
Area Km2:	300000^[3] ^[4]
Area Link:	Geography of the Philippines
Area Label:	Total
Area Rank:	64th
Area Sq Mi:	132606
Percent Water:	0.61 (inland waters)
Area Label2:	Total land area
Area Data2:	319954km2 -->
Population Estimate:	114,163,719^[5]
Population Estimate Year:	2024
Population Estimate Rank:	12th
Population Census Year:	2020
Population Census:	109,035,343^[6]
Population Density Km2:	363.45
Population Density Rank:	37th
Gdp Ppp:	$1.392 trillion^[7]
Gdp Ppp Year:	2024
Gdp Ppp Rank:	28th
Gdp Ppp Per Capita:	$12,192
Gdp Ppp Per Capita Rank:	116th
Gdp Nominal:	$471.516 billion
Gdp Nominal Year:	2024
Gdp Nominal Rank:	32nd
Gdp Nominal Per Capita:	$4,130
Gdp Nominal Per Capita Rank:	124th
Gini:	41.2
Gini Year:	2021
Gini Change:	decrease
Gini Ref:	^[8]
Hdi:	0.710
Hdi Year:	2022
Hdi Change:	increase
Hdi Ref:	^[9]
Hdi Rank:	113th
Currency:	Philippine peso (₱)
Currency Code:	PHP
Time Zone:	PhST
Utc Offset:	+08:00
Date Format:	MM/DD/YYYY DD/MM/YYYY
Drives On:	right^[10]
Calling Code:	+63
Cctld:	.ph
Religion Year:	2020
Religion Ref:	^[11]

The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is an archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. In the western Pacific Ocean, it consists of 7,641 islands, with a total area of 300,000 square kilometers, which are broadly categorized in three main geographical divisions from north to south: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The Philippines is bounded by the South China Sea to the west, the Philippine Sea to the east, and the Celebes Sea to the south. It shares maritime borders with Taiwan to the north, Japan to the northeast, Palau to the east and southeast, Indonesia to the south, Malaysia to the southwest, Vietnam to the west, and China to the northwest. It is the world's twelfth-most-populous country, with diverse ethnicities and cultures. Manila is the country's capital, and its most populated city is Quezon City. Both are within Metro Manila.

Negritos, the archipelago's earliest inhabitants, were followed by waves of Austronesian peoples. The adoption of animism, Hinduism with Buddhist influence, and Islam established island-kingdoms ruled by datus, rajas, and sultans. Extensive overseas trade with neighbors such as the late Tang or Song empire brought Chinese people to the archipelago as well, which would also gradually settle in and intermix over the centuries. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer leading a fleet for Castile, marked the beginning of Spanish colonization. In 1543, Spanish explorer named the archipelago Spanish; Castilian: Las Islas Filipinas in honor of King Philip II of Castile. Spanish colonization via New Spain, beginning in 1565, led to the Philippines becoming ruled by the Crown of Castile, as part of the Spanish Empire, for more than 300 years. Catholic Christianity became the dominant religion, and Manila became the western hub of trans-Pacific trade. Hispanic immigrants from Latin America and Iberia would also selectively colonize. The Philippine Revolution began in 1896, and became entwined with the 1898 Spanish–American War. Spain ceded the territory to the United States, and Filipino revolutionaries declared the First Philippine Republic. The ensuing Philippine–American War ended with the United States controlling the territory until the Japanese invasion of the islands during World War II. After the United States retook the Philippines from the Japanese, the Philippines became independent in 1946. The country has had a tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a decades-long dictatorship in a nonviolent revolution.

The Philippines is an emerging market and a newly industrialized country, whose economy is transitioning from being agricultural to service- and manufacturing-centered. It is a founding member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, ASEAN, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, and the East Asia Summit; it is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement and a major non-NATO ally of the United States. Its location as an island country on the Pacific Ring of Fire and close to the equator makes it prone to earthquakes and typhoons. The Philippines has a variety of natural resources and a globally-significant level of biodiversity.

Etymology

See main article: Names of the Philippines. During his 1542 expedition, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the islands of Leyte and Samar "Spanish; Castilian: Felipinas" after the Prince of Asturias, later Philip II of Castile. Eventually, the name "Spanish; Castilian: Las Islas Filipinas" would be used for the archipelago's Spanish possessions. Other names, such as "Spanish; Castilian: Islas del Poniente" (Western Islands), "Portuguese: Islas del Oriente" (Eastern Islands), Ferdinand Magellan's name, and "Spanish; Castilian: San Lázaro" (Islands of St. Lazarus), were used by the Spanish to refer to islands in the region before Spanish rule was established.^{[12] [13] [14]}

During the Philippine Revolution, the Malolos Congress proclaimed it the Spanish; Castilian: República Filipina (the Philippine Republic). American colonial authorities referred to the country as the Philippine Islands (a translation of the Spanish name).^[15] The United States began changing its nomenclature from "the Philippine Islands" to "the Philippines" in the Philippine Autonomy Act and the Jones Law. The official title "Republic of the Philippines" was included in the 1935 constitution as the name of the future independent state, and in all succeeding constitutional revisions.

History

See main article: History of the Philippines.

Prehistory (pre–900)

See main article: Prehistory of the Philippines. There is evidence of early hominins living in what is now the Philippines as early as 709,000 years ago.^[16] A small number of bones from Callao Cave potentially represent an otherwise unknown species, Homo luzonensis, who lived 50,000 to 67,000 years ago. The oldest modern human remains on the islands are from the Tabon Caves of Palawan, U/Th-dated to 47,000 ± 11–10,000 years ago.^[17] Tabon Man is presumably a Negrito, among the archipelago's earliest inhabitants descended from the first human migrations out of Africa via the coastal route along southern Asia to the now-sunken landmasses of Sundaland and Sahul.^[18]

The first Austronesians reached the Philippines from Taiwan around 2200 BC, settling the Batanes Islands (where they built stone fortresses known as ijangs)^[19] and northern Luzon. Jade artifacts have been dated to 2000 BC,^{[20] [21]} with lingling-o jade items made in Luzon with raw materials from Taiwan.^[22] By 1000 BC, the inhabitants of the archipelago had developed into four societies: hunter-gatherer tribes, warrior societies, highland plutocracies, and port principalities.^[23]

Early states (900–1565)

See main article: History of the Philippines (900–1565). The earliest known surviving written record in the Philippines is the early-10th-century AD Laguna Copperplate Inscription, which was written in Old Malay using the early Kawi script with a number of technical Sanskrit words and Old Javanese or Old Tagalog honorifics.^[24] By the 14th century, several large coastal settlements emerged as trading centers and became the focus of societal changes.^[25] Some polities had exchanges with other states throughout Asia.^{[26] [27]} Trade with China is believed to have begun during the late Tang dynasty,^[28] and expanded during the Song dynasty.^[29] Throughout the second millennium AD, some polities were also part of the tributary system of China.^[30] With extensive trade and diplomacy, this also brought Southern Chinese merchants and migrants from Southern Fujian, historically known in Tagalog as "Langlang"^[31] and "Sangley" in later years,^{[32] [33]} which, over the centuries, would gradually settle and intermix in the Philippines. Indian cultural traits such as linguistic terms and religious practices began to spread in the Philippines during the 14th century, via the Indianized Hindu Majapahit Empire.^{[34] [35]} By the 15th century, Islam was established in the Sulu Archipelago and spread from there.

Polities founded in the Philippines between the 10th and 16th centuries include Maynila,^[36] Tondo, Namayan, Pangasinan, Cebu, Butuan, Maguindanao, Lanao, Sulu, and Ma-i.^[37] The early polities typically had a three-tier social structure: nobility, freemen, and dependent debtor-bondsmen.^[38] Among the nobility were leaders known as datus, who were responsible for ruling autonomous groups (barangays or dulohan).^[39] When the barangays banded together to form a larger settlement or a geographically looser alliance,^[40] their more-esteemed members would be recognized as a "paramount datu",^[41] rajah or sultan,^[42] and would rule the community.^[43] Population density is thought to have been low during the 14th to 16th centuries due to the frequency of typhoons and the Philippines' location on the Pacific Ring of Fire.^[44] Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan arrived in 1521, claimed the islands for Spain, and was killed by Lapulapu's men in the Battle of Mactan.^{[45] [46]}

Spanish and American colonial rule (1565–1934)

See main article: History of the Philippines (1565–1898) and History of the Philippines (1898–1946).

Unification and colonization by the Crown of Castile began when Spanish explorer Miguel López de Legazpi arrived from New Spain (Spanish: Nueva España) in 1565.^{[47] [48] [49]} Many Filipinos were brought to New Spain as slaves and forced crew.^[50] Whereas many Latin Americans were brought to the Philippines as sodliers and colonists. Spanish Manila became the capital of the Captaincy General of the Philippines and the Spanish East Indies in 1571,^{[51] [52]} Spanish territories in Asia and the Pacific.^[53] The Spanish invaded local states using the principle of divide and conquer, bringing most of what is the present-day Philippines under one unified administration.^{[54] [55]} Disparate barangays were deliberately consolidated into towns, where Catholic missionaries could more easily convert their inhabitants to Christianity,^{[56] [57]} which was initially Syncretist.^[58] Christianization by the Spanish friars occurred mostly across the settled lowlands over the course of time. From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was governed as a territory of the Mexico City-based Viceroyalty of New Spain; it was then administered from Madrid after the Mexican War of Independence.^[59] Manila became the western hub of trans-Pacific trade^[60] by Manila galleons built in Bicol and Cavite.^{[61] [62]}

During its rule, Spain nearly bankrupted its treasury quelling indigenous revolts and defending against external military attacks,^{[63] [64]} including Moro piracy,^[65] a 17th-century war against the Dutch, 18th-century British occupation of Manila, and conflict with Muslims in the south.^[66]

Administration of the Philippines was considered a drain on the economy of New Spain, and abandoning it or trading it for other territory was debated. This course of action was opposed because of the islands' economic potential, security, and the desire to continue religious conversion in the region.^[67] The colony survived on an annual subsidy from the Spanish crown averaging 250,000 pesos, usually paid as 75 tons of silver bullion from the Americas.^[68] British forces occupied Manila from 1762 to 1764 during the Seven Years' War, and Spanish rule was restored with the 1763 Treaty of Paris. The Spanish considered their war with the Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of the Reconquista.^{[69] [70]} The Spanish–Moro conflict lasted for several hundred years; Spain conquered portions of Mindanao and Jolo during the last quarter of the 19th century,^[71] and the Muslim Moro in the Sultanate of Sulu acknowledged Spanish sovereignty.^{[72] [73]}

Philippine ports opened to world trade during the 19th century, and Filipino society began to change.^{[74] [75]} Social identity changed, with the term Filipino encompassing all residents of the archipelago instead of solely referring to Spaniards born in the Philippines.^{[76] [77]}

Revolutionary sentiment grew in 1872 after 200 locally recruited colonial troops and laborers alongside three activist Catholic priests were executed on questionable grounds.^{[78] [79]} This inspired the Propaganda Movement, organized by Marcelo H. del Pilar, José Rizal, Graciano López Jaena, and Mariano Ponce, which advocated political reform in the Philippines.^[80] Rizal was executed on December 30, 1896, for rebellion, and his death radicalized many who had been loyal to Spain.^[81] Attempts at reform met with resistance; Andrés Bonifacio founded the Katipunan secret society, which sought independence from Spain through armed revolt, in 1892.

The Katipunan Cry of Pugad Lawin began the Philippine Revolution in 1896.^[82] Internal disputes led to the Tejeros Convention, at which Bonifacio lost his position and Emilio Aguinaldo was elected the new leader of the revolution.^[83] The 1897 Pact of Biak-na-Bato resulted in the Hong Kong Junta government in exile. The Spanish–American War began the following year, and reached the Philippines; Aguinaldo returned, resumed the revolution, and declared independence from Spain on June 12, 1898.^[84] In December 1898, the islands were ceded by Spain to the United States with Puerto Rico and Guam after the Spanish–American War.^{[85] [86]}

The First Philippine Republic was promulgated on January 21, 1899.^[87] Lack of recognition by the United States led to an outbreak of hostilities that, after refusal by the U.S. on-scene military commander of a cease-fire proposal and a declaration of war by the nascent Republic, escalated into the Philippine–American War.^{[88] [89] [90]}

The war resulted in the deaths of 250,000 to 1 million civilians, primarily due to famine and disease.^[91] Many Filipinos were transported by the Americans to concentration camps, where thousands died.^{[92] [93]} After the fall of the First Philippine Republic in 1902, an American civilian government was established with the Philippine Organic Act.^[94] American forces continued to secure and extend their control of the islands, suppressing an attempted extension of the Philippine Republic, securing the Sultanate of Sulu,^{[95] [96]} establishing control of interior mountainous areas which had resisted Spanish conquest,^[97] and encouraging large-scale resettlement of Christians in once-predominantly-Muslim Mindanao.^{[98] [99]}

Commonwealth and World War II (1935–1946)

Cultural developments in the Philippines strengthened a national identity,^{[100] [101]} and Tagalog began to take precedence over other local languages. Governmental functions were gradually given to Filipinos by the Taft Commission; the 1934 Tydings–McDuffie Act granted a ten-year transition to independence through the creation of the Commonwealth of the Philippines the following year,^[102] with Manuel Quezon president and Sergio Osmeña vice president.^[103] Quezon's priorities were defence, social justice, inequality, economic diversification, and national character. Filipino (a standardized variety of Tagalog) became the national language,^[104] women's suffrage was introduced, and land reform was considered.^{[105] [106] [107]} The Empire of Japan invaded the Philippines in December 1941 during World War II,^[108] and the Second Philippine Republic was established as a puppet state governed by Jose P. Laurel.^{[109] [110]} Beginning in 1942, the Japanese occupation of the Philippines was opposed by large-scale underground guerrilla activity.^{[111] [112]} Atrocities and war crimes were committed during the war, including the Bataan Death March and the Manila massacre.^{[113] [114]} The Philippine resistance and Allied troops defeated the Japanese in 1944 and 1945. Over one million Filipinos were estimated to have died by the end of the war.^{[115] [116]} On October 11, 1945, the Philippines became a founding member of the United Nations.^[117] On July 4, 1946, during the presidency of Manuel Roxas, the country's independence was recognized by the United States with the Treaty of Manila.^[118]

Independence (1946–present)

See main article: History of the Philippines (1946–1965), History of the Philippines (1965–1986) and History of the Philippines (1986–present).

Efforts at post-war reconstruction and ending the Hukbalahap Rebellion succeeded during Ramon Magsaysay's presidency,^[119] but sporadic communist insurgency continued to flare up long afterward.^[120] Under Magsaysay's successor, Carlos P. Garcia, the government initiated a Filipino First policy which promoted Filipino-owned businesses. Succeeding Garcia, Diosdado Macapagal moved Independence Day from July 4 to June 12—the date of Emilio Aguinaldo's declaration— and pursued a claim on eastern North Borneo.^{[121] [122]} In 1965, Macapagal lost the presidential election to Ferdinand Marcos. Early in his presidency, Marcos began infrastructure projects funded mostly by foreign loans; this improved the economy, and contributed to his reelection in 1969.^{[123] [124]} Near the end of his last constitutionally-permitted term, Marcos declared martial law on September 21, 1972 using the specter of communism^{[125] [126] [127]} and began to rule by decree;^[128] the period was characterized by political repression, censorship, and human rights violations.^{[129] [130]} Monopolies controlled by Marcos' cronies were established in key industries,^{[131] [132] [133]} including logging^[134] and broadcasting; a sugar monopoly led to a famine on the island of Negros. With his wife, Imelda, Marcos was accused of corruption and embezzling billions of dollars of public funds.^{[135] [136]} Marcos' heavy borrowing early in his presidency resulted in economic crashes, exacerbated by an early 1980s recession where the economy contracted by 7.3 percent annually in 1984 and 1985.^{[137] [138]}

On August 21, 1983, opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr. (Marcos' chief rival) was assassinated on the tarmac at Manila International Airport. Marcos called a snap presidential election in 1986^[139] which proclaimed him the winner, but the results were widely regarded as fraudulent.^[140] The resulting protests led to the People Power Revolution, which forced Marcos and his allies to flee to Hawaii. Aquino's widow, Corazon, was installed as president.

The return of democracy and government reforms which began in 1986 were hampered by national debt, government corruption, and coup attempts.^[141] A communist insurgency^{[142] [143]} and military conflict with Moro separatists persisted; the administration also faced a series of disasters, including the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in June 1991. Aquino was succeeded by Fidel V. Ramos, who liberalized the national economy with privatization and deregulation.^{[144] [145]} Ramos' economic gains were overshadowed by the onset of the 1997 Asian financial crisis.^[146] His successor, Joseph Estrada, prioritized public housing^[147] but faced corruption allegations^[148] which led to his overthrow by the 2001 EDSA Revolution and the succession of Vice President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo on January 20, 2001. Arroyo's nine-year administration was marked by economic growth, but was tainted by corruption and political scandals,^[149] including electoral fraud allegations during the 2004 presidential election.^[150] Economic growth continued during Benigno Aquino III's administration, which advocated good governance and transparency.^[151] Aquino III signed a peace agreement with the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) resulting in the Bangsamoro Organic Law establishing an autonomous Bangsamoro region, but a shootout with MILF rebels in Mamasapano delayed passage of the law.^[152]

Rodrigo Duterte, elected president in 2016, launched an infrastructure program and an anti-drug campaign which reduced drug proliferation but has also led to extrajudicial killings. The Bangsamoro Organic Law was enacted in 2018. In early 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic reached the Philippines; its gross domestic product shrank by 9.5 percent, the country's worst annual economic performance since 1947. Marcos' son, Bongbong Marcos, won the 2022 presidential election; Duterte's daughter, Sara, became vice president.

Geography

See main article: Geography of the Philippines and List of islands of the Philippines.

The Philippines is an archipelago of about 7,641 islands, covering a total area (including inland bodies of water) of about 300000sp=usNaNsp=us.^{[153] [154]} Stretching 1850km (1,150miles) north to south, from the South China Sea to the Celebes Sea,^[155] the Philippines is bordered by the Philippine Sea to the east,^{[156] [157]} and the Sulu Sea to the southwest. The country's 11 largest islands are Luzon, Mindanao, Samar, Negros, Palawan, Panay, Mindoro, Leyte, Cebu, Bohol and Masbate, about 95 percent of its total land area.^[158] The Philippines' coastline measures 36289km (22,549miles), the world's fifth-longest, and the country's exclusive economic zone covers 2263816abbr=onNaNabbr=on.

Its highest mountain is Mount Apo on Mindanao, with an altitude of 2954m (9,692feet) above sea level. The Philippines' longest river is the Cagayan River in northern Luzon, which flows for about 520abbr=NaNabbr=.^[159] Manila Bay, on which is the capital city of Manila,^[160] is connected to Laguna de Bay (the country's largest lake) by the Pasig River.

On the western fringes of the Pacific Ring of Fire, the Philippines has frequent seismic and volcanic activity.^[161] The region is seismically active, and has been constructed by plates converging towards each other from multiple directions.^{[162] [163]} About five earthquakes are recorded daily, although most are too weak to be felt.^[164] The last major earthquakes were in 1976 in the Moro Gulf and in 1990 on Luzon.^[165] The Philippines has 23 active volcanoes; of them, Mayon, Taal, Canlaon, and Bulusan have the largest number of recorded eruptions.

The country has valuable mineral deposits as a result of its complex geologic structure and high level of seismic activity.^{[166] [167]} It is thought to have the world's second-largest gold deposits (after South Africa), large copper deposits, and the world's largest deposits of palladium. Other minerals include chromium, nickel, molybdenum, platinum, and zinc.^[168] However, poor management and law enforcement, opposition from indigenous communities, and past environmental damage have left these resources largely untapped.

Biodiversity

See main article: Wildlife of the Philippines.

See also: List of threatened species of the Philippines.

The Philippines is a megadiverse country,^{[169] [170]} with some of the world's highest rates of discovery and endemism (67 percent).^{[171] [172]} With an estimated 13,500 plant species in the country (3,500 of which are endemic),^[173] Philippine rain forests have an array of flora: about 3,500 species of trees,^[174] 8,000 flowering plant species, 1,100 ferns, and 998 orchid species^[175] have been identified.^[176] The Philippines has 167 terrestrial mammals (102 endemic species), 235 reptiles (160 endemic species), 99 amphibians (74 endemic species), 686 birds (224 endemic species),^[177] and over 20,000 insect species.

As an important part of the Coral Triangle ecoregion,^[178] Philippine waters have unique, diverse marine life and the world's greatest diversity of shore-fish species.^[179] The country has over 3,200 fish species (121 endemic). Philippine waters sustain the cultivation of fish, crustaceans, oysters, and seaweeds.^[180]

Eight major types of forests are distributed throughout the Philippines: dipterocarp, beach forest,^[181] pine forest, molave forest, lower montane forest, upper montane (or mossy forest), mangroves, and ultrabasic forest.^[182] According to official estimates, the Philippines had 7000000ha of forest cover in 2023. Logging had been systemized during the American colonial period^[183] and deforestation continued after independence, accelerating during the Marcos presidency due to unregulated logging concessions.^{[184] [185]} Forest cover declined from 70 percent of the Philippines' total land area in 1900 to about 18.3 percent in 1999.^[186] Rehabilitation efforts have had marginal success.^[187]

The Philippines is a priority hotspot for biodiversity conservation; it has more than 200 protected areas, which was expanded to 7790000ha . Three sites in the Philippines have been included on the UNESCO World Heritage List: the Tubbataha Reef in the Sulu Sea, the Puerto Princesa Subterranean River, and the Mount Hamiguitan Wildlife Sanctuary.

Climate

See main article: Climate of the Philippines.

The Philippines has a tropical maritime climate which is usually hot and humid. There are three seasons: a hot dry season from March to May, a rainy season from June to November, and a cool dry season from December to February. The southwest monsoon (known as the Filipino; Pilipino: habagat) lasts from May to October, and the northeast monsoon (Filipino; Pilipino: [[amihan]]) lasts from November to April.^[188] The coolest month is January, and the warmest is May. Temperatures at sea level across the Philippines tend to be in the same range, regardless of latitude; average annual temperature is around 26.6C but is 18.3C in Baguio, 1500m (4,900feet) above sea level. The country's average humidity is 82 percent. Annual rainfall is as high as 5000mm on the mountainous east coast, but less than 1000mm in some sheltered valleys.

The Philippine Area of Responsibility has 19 typhoons in a typical year,^[189] usually from July to October; eight or nine of them make landfall.^[190] The wettest recorded typhoon to hit the Philippines dropped 2210mm in Baguio from July 14 to 18, 1911.^[191] The country is among the world's ten most vulnerable to climate change.^{[192] [193]}

Government and politics

See main article: Politics of the Philippines and Government of the Philippines.

See also: Political history of the Philippines.

The Philippines has a democratic government, a constitutional republic with a presidential system.^[194] The president is head of state and head of government, and is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The president is elected through direct election by the citizens of the Philippines for a six-year term.^[195] The president appoints and presides over the cabinet and officials of various national government agencies and institutions.^[196] The bicameral Congress is composed of the Senate (the upper house, with members elected to a six-year term) and the House of Representatives, the lower house, with members elected to a three-year term.^[197]

Senators are elected at-large, and representatives are elected from legislative districts and party lists. Judicial authority is vested in the Supreme Court, composed of a chief justice and fourteen associate justices,^[198] who are appointed by the president from nominations submitted by the Judicial and Bar Council.

Attempts to change the government to a federal, unicameral, or parliamentary government have been made since the Ramos administration.^[199] Philippine politics tends to be dominated by well-known families, such as political dynasties or celebrities,^{[200] [201]} and party switching is widely practiced.^[202] Corruption is significant,^{[203] [204] [205]} attributed by some historians to the Spanish colonial period's padrino system.^{[206] [207]} The Roman Catholic church exerts considerable but waning influence in political affairs, although a constitutional provision for the separation of Church and State exists.^[208]

Foreign relations

See main article: Foreign relations of the Philippines.

A founding and active member of the United Nations, the Philippines has been a non-permanent member of the Security Council. The country participates in peacekeeping missions, particularly in East Timor. The Philippines is a founding and active member of ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations)^[209] and a member of the East Asia Summit, the Group of 24, and the Non-Aligned Movement. The country has sought to obtain observer status in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation since 2003, and was a member of SEATO.^{[210] [211]} Over 10 million Filipinos live and work in 200 countries,^{[212] [213]} giving the Philippines soft power.

During the 1990s, the Philippines began to seek economic liberalization and free trade^[214] to help spur foreign direct investment. It is a member of the World Trade Organization and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. The Philippines entered into the ASEAN Trade in Goods Agreement in 2010^[215] and the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership free trade agreement (FTA) in 2023. Through ASEAN, the Philippines has signed FTAs with China, India, Japan, South Korea, Australia and New Zealand. The country has bilateral FTAs with Japan, South Korea, and four European states: Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland.The Philippines has a long relationship with the United States, involving economics, security, and interpersonal relations. The Philippines' location serves an important role in the United States' island chain strategy in the West Pacific;^{[216] [217]} a Mutual Defense Treaty between the two countries was signed in 1951, and was supplemented with the 1999 Visiting Forces Agreement and the 2016 Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement.^[218] The country supported American policies during the Cold War and participated in the Korean and Vietnam wars.^{[219] [220]} In 2003, the Philippines was designated a major non-NATO ally. Under President Duterte, ties with the United States weakened in favor of improved relations with China and Russia.^[221] The Philippines relies heavily on the United States for its external defense; the U.S. has made regular assurances to defend the Philippines, including the South China Sea.

Since 1975, the Philippines has valued its relations with China^[222] —its top trading partner, and cooperates significantly with the country.^[223] Japan is the biggest bilateral contributor of official development assistance to the Philippines;^[224] although some tension exists because of World War II, much animosity has faded. Historical and cultural ties continue to affect relations with Spain. Relations with Middle Eastern countries are shaped by the high number of Filipinos working in those countries, and by issues related to the Muslim minority in the Philippines;^[225] concerns have been raised about domestic abuse and war affecting the approximately 2.5 million overseas Filipino workers in the region.^[226]

The Philippines has claims in the Spratly Islands which overlap with claims by China, Malaysia, Taiwan, and Vietnam.^[227] The largest of its controlled islands is Thitu Island, which contains the Philippines' smallest town. The 2012 Scarborough Shoal standoff, after China seized the shoal from the Philippines, led to an international arbitration case^[228] which the Philippines eventually won; China rejected the result, and made the shoal a prominent symbol of the broader dispute.

Military

See main article: Armed Forces of the Philippines.

The volunteer Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) consist of three branches: the Philippine Air Force, the Philippine Army, and the Philippine Navy.^[229] Civilian security is handled by the Philippine National Police under the Department of the Interior and Local Government.^[230] The AFP had a total manpower of around 280,000, of which 130,000 were active military personnel, 100,000 were reserves, and 50,000 were paramilitaries.

In 2021, $4,090,500,000 (1.04 percent of GDP) was spent on the Philippine military. Most of the country's defense spending is on the Philippine Army, which leads operations against internal threats such as communist and Muslim separatist insurgencies; its preoccupation with internal security contributed to the decline of Philippine naval capability which began during the 1970s.^[231] A military modernization program began in 1995^[232] and expanded in 2012 to build a more capable defense system.

The Philippines has long struggled against local insurgencies, separatism, and terrorism.^{[233] [234]} Bangsamoro's largest separatist organizations, the Moro National Liberation Front and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front, signed final peace agreements with the government in 1996 and 2014 respectively. Other, more-militant groups such as Abu Sayyaf and Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters^[235] have kidnapped foreigners for ransom, particularly in the Sulu Archipelago^{[236] [237]} and Maguindanao, but their presence has been reduced.^[238] The Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP) and its military wing, the New People's Army (NPA), have been waging guerrilla warfare against the government since the 1970s and have engaged in ambushes, bombings, and assassinations of government officials and security forces;^[239] although shrinking militarily and politically after the return of democracy in 1986,^[240] the CPP-NPA, through the National Democratic Front of the Philippines, continues to gather public support in urban areas by setting up communist fronts, infiltrating sectoral organizations, and rallying public discontent and increased militancy against the government.^[241] The Philippines ranked 104th out of 163 countries in the 2024 Global Peace Index.^[242]

Administrative divisions

See main article: Administrative divisions of the Philippines.

The Philippines is divided into 18 regions, 82 provinces, 146 cities, 1,488 municipalities, and 42,036 barangays. Regions other than Bangsamoro are divided for administrative convenience.^[243] Calabarzon was the region with the greatest population, and the National Capital Region (NCR) was the most densely populated.^[244]

The Philippines is a unitary state, with the exception of the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM),^[245] although there have been steps towards decentralization;^{[246] [247]} a 1991 law devolved some powers to local governments.^[248]

Demographics

See also: List of cities in the Philippines.

As of May 1, 2020, the Philippines had a population of 109,035,343.^[249] More than 60 percent of the country's population live in the coastal zone^[250] and in 2020, 54 percent lived in urban areas.^[251] Manila, its capital, and Quezon City (the country's most populous city) are in Metro Manila. About 13.48 million people (percent of the Philippines' population) live in Metro Manila, the country's most populous metropolitan area^[252] and the world's fifth most populous.^[253] Between 1948 and 2010, the population of the Philippines increased almost fivefold from 19 million to 92 million.

The country's median age is 25.3, and 63.9 percent of its population is between 15 and 64 years old.^[254] The Philippines' average annual population growth rate is decreasing,^[255] although government attempts to further reduce population growth have been contentious. The country reduced its poverty rate from 49.2 percent in 1985^[256] to 18.1 percent in 2021,^[257] and its income inequality began to decline in 2012.

Ethnicity

See main article: Ethnic groups in the Philippines.

See also: Filipinos and Pinoy.

The country has substantial ethnic diversity, due to foreign influence and the archipelago's division by water and topography.^[258] According to the 2020 census, the Philippines' largest ethnic groups were Tagalog (26.0 percent), Visayans [excluding the [[Cebuano people|Cebuano]], Hiligaynon and Waray] (14.3 percent), Ilocano and Cebuano (both eight percent), Hiligaynon (7.9 percent), Bikol (6.5 percent), and Waray (3.8 percent). The country's indigenous peoples consisted of 110 enthnolinguistic groups,^[259] with a combined population of 15.56 million, in 2020; they include the Igorot, Lumad, Mangyan, and the indigenous peoples of Palawan.^[260]

Negritos are thought to be among the islands' earliest inhabitants. These minority aboriginal settlers are an Australoid group, a remnant of the first human migration from Africa to Australia who were probably displaced by later waves of migration.^[261] Some Philippine Negritos have a Denisovan admixture in their genome.^[262] Ethnic Filipinos generally belong to several Southeast Asian ethnic groups, classified linguistically as Austronesians speaking Malayo-Polynesian languages. The Austronesian population's origin is uncertain, but relatives of Taiwanese aborigines probably brought their language and mixed with the region's existing population.^{[263] [264]} The Lumad and Sama-Bajau ethnic groups have an ancestral affinity with the Austroasiatic- and Mlabri-speaking Htin peoples of mainland Southeast Asia. Westward expansion from Papua New Guinea to eastern Indonesia and Mindanao has been detected in the Blaan people and the Sangir language.^[265]

Immigrants arrived in the Philippines from elsewhere in the Spanish Empire, especially from the Spanish Americas.^{[266] [267] [268]} A 2016 National Geographic project concluded that people living in the Philippine archipelago carried genetic markers in the following percentages: 53 percent Southeast Asia and Oceania, 36 percent Eastern Asia, five percent Southern Europe, three percent Southern Asia, and two percent Native American (from Latin America).

Descendants of mixed-race couples are known as Mestizos or Filipino; Pilipino: tisoy,^[269] which during the Spanish colonial times, were mostly composed of Chinese mestizos (Spanish; Castilian: Mestizos de Sangley), Spanish mestizos (Spanish; Castilian: Mestizos de Español) and the mix thereof (Spanish; Castilian: [[Torna atrás|tornatrás]]).^{[270] [271]} The modern Chinese Filipinos are well-integrated into Filipino society.^[272] Primarily the descendants of immigrants from Fujian,^[273] the pure ethnic Chinese Filipinos during the American colonial era (early 1900s) purportedly numbered about 1.35 million; while an estimated 22.8 million (around 20 percent) of Filipinos have half or partial Chinese ancestry from precolonial, colonial, and 20th century Chinese migrants.^[274] During the Hispanic era (late 1700s), the tribute-census showed mixed Spanish Filipinos made up a moderate ratio (around 5 percent) of all citizens.^{[275] [276]} Meanwhile, a smaller proportion (2.33 percent) of the population were Mexican Filipinos. Almost 300,000 American citizens live in the country, and up to 250,000 Amerasians are scattered across the cities of Angeles, Manila, and Olongapo.^[277] Other significant non-indigenous minorities include Indians^[278] and Arabs.^[279] Japanese Filipinos include escaped Christians (Kirishitan) who fled persecutions by Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu.^[280]

Languages

See main article: Languages of the Philippines.

Ethnologue lists 186 languages for the Philippines, 182 of which are living languages; the other four no longer have any known speakers. Most native languages are part of the Philippine branch of the Malayo-Polynesian languages, which is a branch of the Austronesian language family. Spanish-based creole varieties, collectively known as Chavacano, are also spoken.^[281] Many Philippine Negrito languages have unique vocabularies which survived Austronesian acculturation.^[282]

Filipino and English are the country's official languages. Filipino, a standardized version of Tagalog, is spoken primarily in Metro Manila.^[283] Filipino and English are used in government, education, print, broadcast media, and business, often with a third local language;^[284] code-switching between English and other local languages, notably Tagalog, is common.^[285] The Philippine constitution provides for Spanish and Arabic on a voluntary, optional basis.^[286] Spanish, a widely used lingua franca during the late nineteenth century, has declined greatly in use,^[287] although Spanish loanwords are still present in Philippine languages.^{[288] [289] [290]} Arabic is primarily taught in Mindanao Islamic schools.^[291]

The top languages generally spoken at home are Tagalog, Binisaya, Hiligaynon, Ilocano, Cebuano, and Bikol.^[292] Nineteen regional languages are auxiliary official languages as media of instruction:

• Aklanon
• Bikol
• Cebuano
• Chavacano
• Hiligaynon
• Ibanag
• Ilocano
• Ivatan
• Kapampangan
• Kinaray-a
• Maguindanao
• Maranao
• Pangasinan
• Sambal
• Surigaonon
• Tagalog
• Tausug
• Waray
• Yakan

Other indigenous languages, including Cuyonon, Ifugao, Itbayat, Kalinga, Kamayo, Kankanaey, Masbateño, Romblomanon, Manobo, and several Visayan languages, are used in their respective provinces. Filipino Sign Language is the national sign language, and the language of deaf education.

Religion

See main article: Religion in the Philippines.

Although the Philippines is a secular state with freedom of religion, an overwhelming majority of Filipinos consider religion very important^[293] and irreligion is very low.^{[294] [295] [296]} Christianity is the dominant religion,^{[297] [298]} followed by about 89 percent of the population.^[299] The country had the world's third-largest Roman Catholic population, and was Asia's largest Christian nation.^[300] Census data from 2020 found that 78.8 percent of the population professed Roman Catholicism; other Christian denominations include Tagalog: [[Iglesia ni Cristo]]|italic=no, the Philippine Independent Church, and Seventh-day Adventistism.^[301] Protestants made up about 5% to 7% of the population in 2010.^[302] The Philippines sends many Christian missionaries around the world, and is a training center for foreign priests and nuns.^[303]

Islam is the country's second-largest religion, with 6.4 percent of the population in the 2020 census. Most Muslims live in Mindanao and nearby islands, and most adhere to the Shafi'i school of Sunni Islam.^[304]

About 0.2 percent of the population follow indigenous religions, whose practices and folk beliefs are often syncretized with Christianity and Islam.^[305] Buddhism is practiced by about 0.04% of the population, primarily by Filipinos of Chinese descent.^[306]

Health

See main article: Health in the Philippines.

Health care in the Philippines is provided by the national and local governments, although private payments account for most healthcare spending.^[307] Per-capita health expenditure in 2022 was and health expenditures were 5.5 percent of the country's GDP.^[308] The 2023 budget allocation for healthcare was . The 2019 enactment of the Universal Health Care Act by President Duterte facilitated the automatic enrollment of all Filipinos in the national health insurance program. Since 2018, Malasakit Centers (one-stop shops) have been set up in several government-operated hospitals to provide medical and financial assistance to indigent patients.

Average life expectancy in the Philippines is 70.48 years (66.97 years for males, and 74.15 years for females). Access to medicine has improved due to increasing Filipino acceptance of generic drugs. The country's leading causes of death in 2021 were ischaemic heart diseases, cerebrovascular diseases, COVID-19, neoplasms, and diabetes.^[309] Communicable diseases are correlated with natural disasters, primarily floods.^[310]

The Philippines has 1,387 hospitals, 33 percent of which are government-run; 23,281 barangay health stations, 2,592 rural health units, 2,411 birthing homes, and 659 infirmaries provide primary care throughout the country.^[311] Since 1967, the Philippines had become the largest global supplier of nurses;^[312] seventy percent of nursing graduates go overseas to work, causing problems in retaining skilled practitioners.^[313]

Education

See main article: Education in the Philippines.

Primary and secondary schooling in the Philippines consists of six years of elementary period, four years of junior high school, and two years of senior high school. Public education, provided by the government, is free at the elementary and secondary levels and at most public higher-education institutions.^[314] Science high schools for talented students were established in 1963.^[315] The government provides technical-vocational training and development through the Technical Education and Skills Development Authority.^[316] In 2004, the government began offering alternative education to out-of-school children, youth, and adults to improve literacy;^{[317] [318]} madaris were mainstreamed in 16 regions that year, primarily in Mindanao Muslim areas under the Department of Education. Catholic schools, which number more than 1,500,^[319] and higher education institutions are an integral part of the educational system.^[320]

The Philippines has 1,975 higher education institutions, of which 246 are public and 1,729 are private.^[321] Public universities are non-sectarian, and are primarily classified as state-administered or local government-funded.^{[322] [323]} The national university is the eight-school University of the Philippines (UP) system.^[324] The country's top-ranked universities are the University of the Philippines Diliman, Ateneo de Manila University, De La Salle University, and University of Santo Tomas.^[325]

, the Philippines had a basic literacy rate of 93.8 percent of those five years old or older, and a functional literacy rate of 91.6 percent of those aged 10 to 64. Education, a significant proportion of the national budget, was allocated from the 2023 budget., the country has 1,640 public libraries affiliated with the National Library of the Philippines.

Economy

See main article: Economy of the Philippines.

The Philippine economy is the world's 34th largest, with an estimated nominal gross domestic product of .^[7] As a newly industrialized country,^[326] the Philippine economy has been transitioning from an agricultural base to one with more emphasis on services and manufacturing.^{[327] [328]} The country's labor force was around 50 million, and its unemployment rate was 3.1 percent.^[329] Gross international reserves totaled . Debt-to-GDP ratio decreased to 60.2 percent at the end of 2023 from a 17-year high 63.7 percent at the end of the third quarter of that year, and indicated resiliency during the COVID-19 pandemic. The country's unit of currency is the Philippine peso (₱ or PHP).^[330]

The Philippines is a net importer, and a debtor nation., the country's main export markets were China, the United States, Japan, Hong Kong, and Singapore; primary exports included integrated circuits, office machinery and parts, electrical transformers, insulated wiring, and semiconductors. Its primary import markets that year were China, Japan, South Korea, the United States, and Indonesia. Major export crops include coconuts, bananas, and pineapples; it is the world's largest producer of abaca, and was the world's second biggest exporter of nickel ore in 2022, as well as the biggest exporter of gold-clad metals and the biggest importer of copra in 2020.

With an average annual growth rate of six to seven percent since around 2010, the Philippines has emerged as one of the world's fastest-growing economies, driven primarily by its increasing reliance on the service sector.^[331] Regional development is uneven, however, with Manila (in particular) gaining most of the new economic growth.^[332] Remittances from overseas Filipinos contribute significantly to the country's economy;^[333] they reached a record in 2023, accounting for 8.5 percent of GDP. The Philippines is the world's primary business process outsourcing (BPO) center.^[334] About 1.3 million Filipinos work in the BPO sector, primarily in customer service.^[335]

Science and technology

See main article: Science and technology in the Philippines and Philippine space program.

The Philippines has one of the largest agricultural-research systems in Asia, despite relatively low spending on agricultural research and development.^{[336] [337]} The country has developed new varieties of crops, including rice,^{[338] [339]} coconuts,^[340] and bananas.^[341] Research organizations include the Philippine Rice Research Institute and the International Rice Research Institute.

The Philippine Space Agency maintains the country's space program,^{[342] [343]} and the country bought its first satellite in 1996. Diwata-1, its first micro-satellite, was launched on the United States' Cygnus spacecraft in 2016.

The Philippines has a high concentration of cellular-phone users,^[344] and a high level of mobile commerce. Text messaging is a popular form of communication, and the nation sent an average of one billion SMS messages per day in 2007. The Philippine telecommunications industry had been dominated by the PLDT-Globe Telecom duopoly for more than two decades, and the 2021 entry of Dito Telecommunity improved the country's telecommunications service.

Tourism

See main article: Tourism in the Philippines. The Philippines is a popular retirement destination for foreigners because of its climate and low cost of living. The country's main tourist attractions are its numerous beaches;^[345] the Philippines is also a top destination for diving enthusiasts.^[346] Tourist spots include Boracay, called the best island in the world by Travel + Leisure in 2012; Coron and El Nido in Palawan; Cebu; Siargao, and Bohol.

Tourism contributed 5.2 percent to the Philippine GDP in 2021 (lower than 12.7 percent in 2019, before the COVID-19 pandemic), and provided 5.7 million jobs in 2019. The Philippines attracted 5.45 million international visitors in 2023, 30 percent lower than the 8.26 million record in pre-pandemic 2019; most tourists came from South Korea (26.4 percent), United States (16.5 percent), Japan (5.6 percent), Australia (4.89 percent), and China (4.84 percent).

Infrastructure

Transportation

Transportation in the Philippines is by road, air, rail and water. Roads are the dominant form of transport, carrying 98 percent of people and 58 percent of cargo.^[347] In December 2018, there were 210528km (130,816miles) of roads in the country.^[348] The backbone of land-based transportation in the country is the Pan-Philippine Highway, which connects the islands of Luzon, Samar, Leyte, and Mindanao.^[349] Inter-island transport is by the 919adj=onNaNadj=on Strong Republic Nautical Highway, an integrated set of highways and ferry routes linking 17 cities.^{[350] [351]} Jeepneys are a popular, iconic public utility vehicle; other public land transport includes buses, UV Express,, Filcab, taxis, and tricycles.^{[352] [353]} Traffic is a significant issue in Manila and on arterial roads to the capital.^{[354] [355]}

Despite wider historical use,^[356] rail transportation in the Philippines is limited to transporting passengers within Metro Manila and the provinces of Laguna and Quezon, with a short track in the Bicol Region. The country had a railway footprint of only 79km (49miles), which it planned to expand to 244km (152miles). A revival of freight rail is planned to reduce road congestion.

The Philippines had 90 national government-owned airports, of which eight are international.^[357] Ninoy Aquino International Airport, formerly known as Manila International Airport, has the greatest number of passengers. The 2017 air domestic market was dominated by Philippine Airlines, the country's flag carrier and Asia's oldest commercial airline,^{[358] [359]} and Cebu Pacific (the country's leading low-cost carrier).^{[360] [361]}

A variety of boats are used throughout the Philippines; most are double-outrigger vessels known as banca^[362] or Filipino; Pilipino: [[Bangka (boat)|bangka]].^[363] Modern ships use plywood instead of logs, and motor engines instead of sails; they are used for fishing and inter-island travel. The Philippines has over 1,800 seaports; of these, the principal seaports of Manila (the country's chief, and busiest, port),^[364] Batangas, Subic Bay, Cebu, Iloilo, Davao, Cagayan de Oro, General Santos, and Zamboanga are part of the ASEAN Transport Network.^{[365] [366]}

Energy

See main article: Energy in the Philippines.

The Philippines had a total installed power capacity of 26,882 MW in 2021; 43 percent was generated from coal, 14 percent from oil, 14 percent hydropower, 12 percent from natural gas, and seven percent from geothermal sources.^[367] It is the world's third-biggest geothermal-energy producer, behind the United States and Indonesia.^[368] The country's largest dam is the 1.2km (00.7miles) San Roque Dam on the Agno River in Pangasinan.^[369] The Malampaya gas field, discovered in the early 1990s off the coast of Palawan, reduced the Philippines' reliance on imported oil; it provides about 40 percent of Luzon's energy requirements, and 30 percent of the country's energy needs.^[370]

The Philippines has three electrical grids, one each for Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The National Grid Corporation of the Philippines manages the country's power grid since 2009 and provides overhead transmission lines across the country's islands. Electric distribution to consumers is provided by privately owned distribution utilities and government-owned electric cooperatives. As of end-2021, the Philippines' household electrification level was about 95.41%.^[371]

Plans to harness nuclear energy began during the early 1970s during the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos in response to the 1973 oil crisis. The Philippines completed Southeast Asia's first nuclear power plant in Bataan in 1984.^[372] Political issues following Marcos' ouster and safety concerns after the 1986 Chernobyl disaster prevented the plant from being commissioned,^[373] and plans to operate it remain controversial.

Water supply and sanitation

See main article: Water supply and sanitation in the Philippines.

Water supply and sanitation outside Metro Manila is provided by the government through local water districts in cities or towns.^{[374] [375] [376]} Metro Manila is served by Manila Water and Maynilad Water Services. Except for shallow wells for domestic use, groundwater users are required to obtain a permit from the National Water Resources Board. In 2022, the total water withdrawals increased to 91e9m3 from 89e9m3 in 2021 and the total expenditures on water were amounted to ₱ billion.^[377]

Most sewage in the Philippines flows into septic tanks. In 2015, the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation noted that 74 percent of the Philippine population had access to improved sanitation and "good progress" had been made between 1990 and 2015.^[378] Ninety-six percent of Filipino households had an improved source of drinking water and 92 percent of households had sanitary toilet facilities ; connections of toilet facilities to appropriate sewerage systems remain largely insufficient, however, especially in rural and urban poor communities.

Culture

The Philippines has significant cultural diversity, reinforced by the country's fragmented geography.^[379] Spanish and American cultures profoundly influenced Filipino culture as a result of long colonization.^{[380] [258]} The cultures of Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago developed distinctly, since they had limited Spanish influence and more influence from nearby Islamic regions. Indigenous groups such as the Igorots have preserved their precolonial customs and traditions by resisting the Spanish.^{[381] [382]} A national identity emerged during the 19th century, however, with shared national symbols and cultural and historical touchstones.

Hispanic legacies include the dominance of Catholicism and the prevalence of Spanish names and surnames, which resulted from an 1849 edict ordering the systematic distribution of family names and the implementation of Spanish naming customs; the names of many locations also have Spanish origins.^[383] American influence on modern Filipino culture^[258] is evident in the use of English^[384] and Filipino consumption of fast food and American films and music.

Public holidays in the Philippines are classified as regular or special.^[385] Festivals are primarily religious, and most towns and villages have such a festival (usually to honor a patron saint).^{[386] [387]} Better-known festivals include Ati-Atihan, Dinagyang,^[388] Moriones, Sinulog, and Flores de Mayo—a month-long devotion to the Virgin Mary held in May.^[389] The country's Christmas season begins as early as September 1,^[390] and Holy Week is a solemn religious observance for its Christian population.^[391]

Values

Filipino values are rooted primarily in personal alliances based in kinship, obligation, friendship, religion (particularly Christianity), and commerce. They center around social harmony through Filipino; Pilipino: [[pakikisama]],^[392] motivated primarily by the desire for acceptance by a group.^[393] Reciprocity through Filipino; Pilipino: [[utang na loob]] (a debt of gratitude) is a significant Filipino cultural trait, and an internalized debt can never be fully repaid.^[394] The main sanction for divergence from these values are the concepts of Filipino; Pilipino: hiya (shame)^[395] and loss of Spanish; Castilian: amor propio (self-esteem).^[396]

The family is central to Philippine society; norms such as loyalty, maintaining close relationships and care for elderly parents are ingrained in Philippine society.^{[397] [398]} Respect for authority and the elderly is valued, and is shown with gestures such as Filipino; Pilipino: mano and the honorifics Filipino; Pilipino: po and Filipino; Pilipino: opo and Filipino; Pilipino: kuya (older brother) or Filipino; Pilipino: ate (older sister).^{[399] [400]} Other Filipino values are optimism about the future, pessimism about the present, concern about other people, friendship and friendliness, hospitality, religiosity, respect for oneself and others (particularly women), and integrity.^[401]

Art and architecture

See main article: Arts in the Philippines and Architecture of the Philippines.

Philippine art combines indigenous folk art and foreign influences, primarily Spain and the United States.^{[402] [403]} During the Spanish colonial period, art was used to spread Catholicism and support the concept of racially-superior groups. Classical paintings were mainly religious; prominent artists during Spanish colonial rule included Juan Luna and Félix Resurrección Hidalgo, whose works drew attention to the Philippines. Modernism was introduced to the Philippines during the 1920s and 1930s by Victorio Edades and popular pastoral scenes by Fernando Amorsolo.^[404]

Traditional Philippine architecture has two main models: the indigenous Filipino; Pilipino: [[bahay kubo]] and the Filipino; Pilipino: [[bahay na bato]], which developed under Spanish rule. Some regions, such as Batanes, differ slightly due to climate; limestone was used as a building material, and houses were built to withstand typhoons.^{[405] [406]}

Spanish architecture left an imprint in town designs around a central square or Spanish; Castilian: plaza mayor, but many of its buildings were damaged or destroyed during World War II.^[407] Several Philippine churches adapted baroque architecture to withstand earthquakes, leading to the development of Earthquake Baroque;^{[408] [409]} four baroque churches have been listed as a collective UNESCO World Heritage Site. Spanish colonial fortifications (Spanish; Castilian: fuerzas) in several parts of the Philippines were primarily designed by missionary architects and built by Filipino stonemasons.^[410] Vigan, in Ilocos Sur, is known for its Hispanic-style houses and buildings.^[411]

American rule introduced new architectural styles in the construction of government buildings and Art Deco theaters. During the American period, construction of Gabaldon school buildings began,^[412] and some city planning using architectural designs and master plans by Daniel Burnham was done in portions of Manila and Baguio.^{[413] [414]} Part of the Burnham plan was the construction of government buildings reminiscent of Greek or Neoclassical architecture. Buildings from the Spanish and American periods can be seen in Iloilo, especially in Calle Real.

Music and dance

See main article: Music of the Philippines and Dance in the Philippines.

There are two types of Philippine folk dance, stemming from traditional indigenous influences and Spanish influence. Although native dances had become less popular,^[415] folk dancing began to revive during the 1920s. The Cariñosa, a Hispanic Filipino dance, is unofficially considered the country's national dance.^[416] Popular indigenous dances include the Tinikling and Singkil, which include the rhythmic clapping of bamboo poles.^{[417] [418]} Present-day dances vary from delicate ballet^[419] to street-oriented breakdancing.

Rondalya music, with traditional mandolin-type instruments, was popular during the Spanish era. Spanish-influenced musicians are primarily bandurria-based bands with 14-string guitars.^[420] Kundiman developed during the 1920s and 1930s.^[421] The American colonial period exposed many Filipinos to U.S. culture and popular music. Rock music was introduced to Filipinos during the 1960s and developed into Filipino rock (or Pinoy rock), a term encompassing pop rock, alternative rock, heavy metal, punk, new wave, ska, and reggae. Martial law in the 1970s produced Filipino folk rock bands and artists who were at the forefront of political demonstrations.^[422] The decade also saw the birth of the Manila sound and Original Pilipino Music (OPM).^[423] Filipino hip-hop, which originated in 1979, entered the mainstream in 1990.^[424] Karaoke is also popular.^[425] From 2010 to 2020, Pinoy pop (P-pop) was influenced by K-pop and J-pop.

Locally produced theatrical drama became established during the late 1870s. Spanish influence around that time introduced Spanish; Castilian: [[zarzuela]] plays (with music)^[426] and Spanish; Castilian: [[Comedia (play)|comedia]]s, with dance. The plays became popular throughout the country, and were written in a number of local languages. American influence introduced vaudeville and ballet. Realistic theatre became dominant during the 20th century, with plays focusing on contemporary political and social issues.

Literature

See main article: Philippine literature.

Philippine literature consists of works usually written in Filipino, Spanish, or English. Some of the earliest well-known works were created from the 17th to the 19th centuries.^[427] They include Filipino; Pilipino: [[Ibong Adarna]], an epic about an eponymous magical bird,^[428] and Filipino; Pilipino: [[Florante at Laura]] by Tagalog author Francisco Balagtas.^{[429] [430]} José Rizal wrote the novels Spanish; Castilian: [[Noli Me Tángere (novel)|Noli Me Tángere]] (Social Cancer) and Spanish; Castilian: [[El filibusterismo]] (The Reign of Greed),^[431] both of which depict the injustices of Spanish colonial rule.^[432]

Folk literature was relatively unaffected by colonial influence until the 19th century due to Spanish indifference. Most printed literary works during Spanish colonial rule were religious in nature, although Filipino elites who later learned Spanish wrote nationalistic literature. The American arrival began Filipino literary use of English and influenced the development of the Philippine comics industry that flourished from the 1920s through the 1970s.^{[433] [434]} In the late 1960s, during the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos, Philippine literature was influenced by political activism; many poets began using Tagalog, in keeping with the country's oral traditions.

Philippine mythology has been handed down primarily through oral tradition;^[435] popular figures are Maria Makiling,^[436] Lam-ang,^[437] and the Sarimanok.^[438] The country has a number of folk epics.^[439] Wealthy families could preserve transcriptions of the epics as family heirlooms, particularly in Mindanao; the Maranao-language Darangen is an example.^[440]

Media

See main article: Mass media in the Philippines and Cinema of the Philippines.

Philippine media primarily uses Filipino and English, although broadcasting has shifted to Filipino. Television shows, commercials, and films are regulated by the Movie and Television Review and Classification Board.^{[441] [442]} Most Filipinos obtain news and information from television, the Internet, and social media. The country's flagship state-owned broadcast-television network is the People's Television Network (PTV). ABS-CBN and GMA, both free-to-air, were the dominant TV networks; before the May 2020 expiration of ABS-CBN's franchise, it was the country's largest network. Philippine television dramas, known as Filipino; Pilipino: teleseryes and mainly produced by ABS-CBN and GMA, are also seen in several other countries.^[443]

Local film-making began in 1919 with the release of the first Filipino-produced feature film: Filipino; Pilipino: [[Dalagang Bukid]] (A Girl from the Country), directed by Jose Nepomuceno. Production companies remained small during the silent film era, but sound films and larger productions emerged in 1933. The postwar 1940s to the early 1960s are considered a high point for Philippine cinema. The 1962–1971 decade saw a decline in quality films, although the commercial film industry expanded until the 1980s. Critically acclaimed Philippine films include Filipino; Pilipino: [[Himala]] (Miracle) and Spanish; Castilian: [[Oro, Plata, Mata]] (Gold, Silver, Death), both released in 1982. Since the turn of the 21st century, the country's film industry has struggled to compete with larger-budget foreign films (particularly Hollywood films). Art films have thrived, however, and several indie films have been successful domestically and abroad.^[444]

The Philippines has a large number of radio stations and newspapers. English broadsheets are popular among executives, professionals and students. Less-expensive Tagalog tabloids, which grew during the 1990s, are popular (particularly in Manila);^[445] however, overall newspaper readership is declining in favor of online news. The top three newspapers, by nationwide readership and credibility, are the Philippine Daily Inquirer, Manila Bulletin, and The Philippine Star.^{[446] [447]} Although freedom of the press is protected by the constitution, the country was listed as the seventh-most-dangerous country for journalists in 2022 by the Committee to Protect Journalists due to 13 unsolved murders of journalists.

The Philippine population are the world's top Internet users. In early 2021, 67 percent of Filipinos (73.91 million) had Internet access; the overwhelming majority used smartphones. The Philippines ranked 56th on the Global Innovation Index in 2023,^[448] up from its 2014 ranking of 100th.

Cuisine

See main article: Filipino cuisine.

From its Malayo-Polynesian origins, traditional Philippine cuisine has evolved since the 16th century. It was primarily influenced by Hispanic, Chinese, and American cuisines, which were adapted to the Filipino palate.^{[449] [450]} Filipinos tend to prefer robust flavors,^[451] centered on sweet, salty, and sour combinations.^[452] Regional variations exist throughout the country; rice is the general staple starch^[453] but cassava is more common in parts of Mindanao.^{[454] [455]} Adobo is the unofficial national dish.^[456] Other popular dishes include lechón, kare-kare, sinigang, pancit, lumpia, and arroz caldo.^{[457] [458] [459]} Traditional desserts are Filipino; Pilipino: kakanin (rice cakes), which include puto, suman, and bibingka.^{[460] [461]} Ingredients such as calamansi,^[462] ube,^[463] and pili are used in Filipino desserts.^[464] The generous use of condiments such as patis, bagoong, and toyo impart a distinctive Philippine flavor.

Unlike other East or Southeast Asian countries, most Filipinos do not eat with chopsticks; they use spoons and forks.^[465] Traditional eating with the fingers (known as Filipino; Pilipino: [[kamayan]]) had been used in less urbanized areas,^[466] but has been popularized with the introduction of Filipino food to foreigners and city residents.^{[467] [468]}

Sports and recreation

See main article: Sports in the Philippines and Traditional games in the Philippines.

Basketball, played at the amateur and professional levels, is considered the country's most popular sport.^{[469] [470]} Other popular sports include boxing and billiards, boosted by the achievements of Manny Pacquiao and Efren Reyes. The national martial art is Arnis.^[471] Filipino; Pilipino: Sabong (cockfighting) is popular entertainment, especially among Filipino men, and was documented by the Magellan expedition.^[472] Video gaming and esports are emerging pastimes,^[473] with the popularity of indigenous games such as patintero, tumbang preso, luksong tinik, and piko declining among young people;^[474] several bills have been filed to preserve and promote traditional games.

The men's national football team has participated in one Asian Cup. The women's national football team qualified for the 2023 FIFA Women's World Cup, their first World Cup, in January 2022. The Philippines has participated in every Summer Olympic Games since 1924, except when they supported the American-led boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics.^{[475] [476]} It was the first tropical nation to compete at the Winter Olympic Games, debuting in 1972.^[477] In 2021, the Philippines received its first-ever Olympic gold medal with weightlifter Hidilyn Diaz's victory in Tokyo.

See also

• Outline of the Philippines

Notes

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6. Mapa. Dennis S.. Dennis Mapa. July 7, 2021. 2020 Census of Population and Housing (2020 CPH) Population Counts Declared Official by the President. https://web.archive.org/web/20210707104119/https://psa.gov.ph/content/2020-census-population-and-housing-2020-cph-population-counts-declared-official-president. July 7, 2021 . Philippine Statistics Authority.
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21. Book: Ness, Immanuel . Bellwood . Peter . The Global Prehistory of Human Migration . 2014 . . 978-1-118-97059-1 . Chichester, West Sussex, England . 289 . Immanuel Ness . Peter Bellwood . September 2, 2020 . February 3, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240203072922/https://books.google.com/books?id=2HMTBwAAQBAJ . live .
22. Hung . Hsiao-Chun . Iizuka . Yoshiyuki . Bellwood . Peter . Nguyen . Kim Dung . Bellina . Bérénice . Silapanth . Praon . Dizon . Eusebio . Santiago . Rey . Datan . Ipoi . Manton . Jonathan H. . December 11, 2007 . Ancient jades map 3,000 years of prehistoric exchange in Southeast Asia . . . 104 . 50 . 19745–19750 . 10.1073/pnas.0707304104 . 2148369 . 18048347 . free.
23. Legarda . Benito Jr. . Benito J. Legarda . 2001 . Cultural Landmarks and their Interactions with Economic Factors in the Second Millennium in the Philippines . Kinaadman (Wisdom): A Journal of the Southern Philippines . . 23 . 40.
24. Postma . Antoon . Antoon Postma . 1992 . The Laguna Copper-Plate Inscription: Text and Commentary . . Quezon City, Philippines . . 40 . 2 . 182–203 . 0031-7837 . https://web.archive.org/web/20151208053836/http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/1033/1018 . December 8, 2015.
25. Book: de Graaf . Hermanus Johannes . Geschichte: Lieferung 2 . Kennedy . Joseph . Scott . William Henry . 1977 . . 978-90-04-04859-1 . Leiden, Switzerland . 198 . en . William Henry Scott (historian) . February 18, 2023 . March 6, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230306102637/https://books.google.com/books?id=RYQeAAAAIAAJ . live .
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27. Book: Nadeau, Kathleen M. . Liberation Theology in the Philippines: Faith in a Revolution . 2002 . . 978-0-275-97198-4 . Westport, Conn. . 8 . en . February 18, 2023 . March 17, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230317084801/https://books.google.com/books?id=kAINJWo4IJ4C . live .
28. Book: Fox, Robert B. . Robert Bradford Fox . More Tsinoy Than We Admit: Chinese-Filipino Interactions Over the Centuries . Vibal Foundation, Inc. . 2015 . 9789719706823 . Chu . Richard T. . Quezon City . 10–13 . The Archaeological Record of Chinese Influences in the Philippines.
29. Book: Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to History . 2004 . . 978-0-415-29777-6 . Glover . Ian . London, England . 267 . Peter Bellwood . Bellwood . Peter.
30. Book: Scott, William Henry . Barangay: Sixteenth-century Philippine Culture and Society . . 1994 . 978-971-550-135-4 . Quezon City, Philippines . William Henry Scott (historian) . October 18, 2015 . February 3, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240203072920/https://books.google.com/books?id=15KZU-yMuisC . live .
31. Book: San Buena Ventura, Fr. Pedro de . Vocabulario de lengua tagala: El romance castellano puesto primero . La Noble Villa de Pila . 1613 . de Silva . Juan (Don.) . 545 . . Sangley) Langlang (pc) anſi llamauan los viejos deſtos [a los] ſangleyes cuando venian [a tratar] con ellos . Sangley) Langlang (pc) this is what the elderlies called [the] Sangleyes when they came [to deal] with them.
32. Book: San Buena Ventura, Fr. Pedro de . Vocabulario de lengua tagala: El romance castellano puesto primero . La Noble Villa de Pila . 1613 . de Silva . Juan (Don.) . 170 . Tagalog & Early Modern Spanish.
33. Book: Boxer Codex (Manila Manuscript) . . 1590s . Manila . 415 [PDF] / 204 [As Written] . . . March 24, 2024 . March 24, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240324113344/https://webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/metsnav/common/navigate.do?pn=1&size=large&oid=VAB8326 . live .
34. Encyclopedia: Philippines . Concise Encyclopedia of World History . . New Delhi, India . Ramirez-Faria . Carlos . 2007 . 560 . 978-81-269-0775-5 . February 18, 2023 . January 17, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230117131629/https://books.google.com/books?id=gGKsS-9h4BYC . live .
35. Evangelista . Alfredo E. . 1965 . Identifying Some Intrusive Archaeological Materials Found in Philippine Proto-historic Sites . Asian Studies: Journal of Critical Perspectives on Asia . . 3 . 1 . 87–88 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230429072742/https://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-03-01-1965/Evangelista.pdf . April 29, 2023 . April 29, 2023.
36. Book: Ring . Trudy . International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania . Salkin . Robert M. . La Boda . Sharon . . 1996 . 978-1-884964-04-6 . Chicago, Ill. . 565–569 . amp . August 22, 2020 . February 3, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240203072922/https://books.google.com/books?id=vWLRxJEU49EC . live .
37. Book: Historical Atlas of the Republic . 2016 . . 978-971-95551-6-2 . Quezon . Manuel L. III . Manolo Quezon . Manila, Philippines . 64 . Goitia . Pocholo.
38. Book: Wernstedt . Frederick L. . The Philippine Island World: A Physical, Cultural, and Regional Geography . Spencer . Joseph Earle . January 1967 . . Berkeley, Calif. . 978-0-520-03513-3 . August 22, 2020 . February 3, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240203072939/https://books.google.com/books?id=6Pn0Pfh1Cl0C . live .
39. Book: Arcilla, José S. . An Introduction to Philippine History . 1998 . Fourth enlarged . . Quezon City, Philippines . 978-971-550-261-0 . 15.
40. Book: Decasa, George C. . The Qur'anic Concept of Umma and Its Function in Philippine Muslim Society . Interreligious and Intercultural Investigations . 1 . 1999 . . Rome, Italy . 978-88-7652-812-5 . 328 . en . February 18, 2023 . February 3, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240203074637/https://books.google.com/books?id=hYNqz-1ayssC . live .
41. Book: Newson, Linda A. . Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines . April 16, 2009 . . Honolulu, Hawaii . 978-0-8248-6197-1 . February 5, 2021 . March 8, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230308195926/https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ . live .
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44. Book: Bankoff . Greg . Boomgaard . Peter . A World of Water: Rain, Rivers and Seas in Southeast Asian Histories . Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde . 240 . . Leiden, Netherlands . 978-90-04-25401-5 . January 1, 2007 . 153–184 . Storms of history: Water, hazard and society in the Philippines: 1565-1930 . 10.1163/j.ctt1w76vd0.9 . free.
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51. Book: Beaule . Christine . The Global Spanish Empire: Five Hundred Years of Place Making and Pluralism . Douglass . John G. . April 21, 2020 . . Tucson, Ariz. . 978-0-8165-4084-6 . 204 . en . March 21, 2023 . March 21, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230321081230/https://books.google.com/books?id=1cfcDwAAQBAJ . live .
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55. Acabado . Stephen . March 1, 2017 . The Archaeology of Pericolonialism: Responses of the "Unconquered" to Spanish Conquest and Colonialism in Ifugao, Philippines . . . 21 . 1 . 1–26 . 10.1007/s10761-016-0342-9 . 254541436 . https://web.archive.org/web/20201106150313/https://escholarship.org/content/qt3tp1p8m3/qt3tp1p8m3.pdf?t=qa7wdn . November 6, 2020 . Springer Link.
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57. Book: Constantino . Renato . A History of the Philippines: From the Spanish Colonization to the Second World War . Constantino . Letizia R. . . New York, N.Y. . 1975 . 978-0-85345-394-9 . 58–59 . Renato Constantino . January 19, 2021 . February 3, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073504/https://books.google.com/books?id=kdhWCgAAQBAJ . live .
58. Schumacher . John N. . Syncretism in Philippine Catholicism: Its Historical Causes . . 32 . 3 . . Quezon City, Philippines . 1984 . 254 . 2244-1093 . 6015358201 . 42632710 . John N. Schumacher . October 5, 2023 . October 6, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231006144446/http://philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/view/3833/4054 . live .
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60. Book: Kane, Herb Kawainui . Hawaiʻ Chronicles: Island History from the Pages of Honolulu Magazine . . Honolulu, Hawaii . 1996 . 978-0-8248-1829-6 . Bob Dye . I . 25–32 . The Manila Galleons . Herb Kawainui Kane.
61. Conference proceeding . Bolunia . Mary Jane Louise A. . Astilleros: the Spanish shipyards of Sorsogon . http://www.themua.org/collections/files/original/34a74c76efdb951655b9bde1213812dc.pdf . Proceedings of the 2014 Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Conference; Session 5: Early Modern Colonialism in the Asia-Pacific Region . https://web.archive.org/web/20150413233643/http://www.themua.org/collections/files/original/34a74c76efdb951655b9bde1213812dc.pdf . April 13, 2015 . October 26, 2015 . Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Planning Committee . 1 . Honolulu, Hawaii . 892536655 . The Museum of Underwater Archaeology.
62. McCarthy . William J. . December 1, 1995 . The Yards at Cavite: Shipbuilding in the Early Colonial Philippines . . . 7 . 2 . 149–162 . 10.1177/084387149500700208 . 163709949.
63. Book: Ooi . Keat Gin . Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor . 2004 . . Santa Barbara, Calif. . 978-1-57607-770-2 . January 29, 2021 . January 16, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230116094029/https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC . live .
64. Book: Closmann . Charles Edwin . War and the Environment: Military Destruction in the Modern Age . 2009 . . College Station, Tex. . 978-1-60344-380-7 . 36 . en . February 18, 2023 . March 6, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230306102727/https://books.google.com/books?id=alK4QtqHpyAC&pg=PA36 . live .
65. Book: Klein . Bernhard . Mackenthun . Gesa . Sea Changes: Historicizing the Ocean . August 21, 2012 . . New York, N.Y. . 978-1-135-94046-1 . 63–66 . August 11, 2023 . en . August 11, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230811080240/https://books.google.com/books?id=kbntzV53vZAC . live .
66. Book: 1991 . Dolan . Ronald E. . Philippines . Country Studies/Area Handbook Series . https://web.archive.org/web/20051109092341/http://countrystudies.us/philippines/ . November 9, 2005 . February 13, 2023 . Country Studies . . Washington, D.C..
67. Book: Crossley, John Newsome . Hernando de los Ríos Coronel and the Spanish Philippines in the Golden Age . July 28, 2013 . . London, England . 978-1-4094-8242-0 . 168–169 . January 13, 2021 . February 11, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230211124615/https://books.google.com/books?id=jQmiAgAAQBAJ . live .
68. Book: Cole, Jeffrey A. . The Potosí Mita, 1573–1700: Compulsory Indian Labor in the Andes . . Stanford, Calif. . 1985 . 978-0-8047-1256-9 . 20.
69. Book: Hoadley . Stephen . Asian Security Reassessed . Ruland . Jurgen . 2006 . . Singapore . 978-981-230-400-1 . 215 . en . March 19, 2023 . March 19, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230319192304/https://books.google.com/books?id=5P9bgGxfYKUC . live .
70. Book: Hefner . Robert W. . Islam in an Era of Nation-States: Politics and Religious Renewal in Muslim Southeast Asia . Horvatich . Patricia . September 1, 1997 . . Honolulu, Hawaii . 978-0-8248-1957-6 . 43–44 . en . March 19, 2023 . March 19, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230319192304/https://books.google.com/books?id=_kQ4yo-GIWUC . live .
71. United States War Department . Annual Report of the Secretary of War . III . 1903 . . Washington, D.C. . 379–398 . United States Department of War.
72. Book: Warren, James Francis . The Sulu Zone, 1768–1898: The Dynamics of External Trade, Slavery, and Ethnicity in the Transformation of a Southeast Asian Maritime State . 2007 . Second . . Singapore . 978-9971-69-386-2 . 124 . August 22, 2020 . February 3, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073403/https://books.google.com/books?id=VUZq93ydrrwC . live .
73. Book: Ramón de Dalmau y de Olivart . Colección de los Tratados, Convenios y Documentos Internacionales Celebrados por Nuestros Gobiernos Con los Estados Extranjeros Desde el Reinado de Doña Isabel II Hasta Nuestros Días, Vol. 4: Acompañados de Notas Historico-Criticas Sobre Su Negociación y Complimiento y Cotejados Con los Textos Originales, Publicada de Real Orden . 1893 . El Progreso Editorial . Madrid, Spain . 120–123 . es . June 27, 2020 . February 11, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230211124613/https://books.google.com/books?id=l0gMAQAAMAAJ . live .
74. Castro . Amado A. . 1982 . Foreign Trade and Economic Welfare in the Last Half-Century of Spanish Rule . Philippine Review of Economics . . 19 . 1 & 2 . 97–98 . 1655-1516 . February 11, 2023 . Amado Castro . https://web.archive.org/web/20230211184927/https://econ.upd.edu.ph/pre/index.php/pre/article/download/361/274 . February 11, 2023.
75. Book: Romero . Ma. Corona S. . Rizal & the Development of National Consciousness . Sta. Romana . Julita R. . Santos . Lourdes Y. . 2006 . Second . Katha Publishing Co. . Quezon City, Philippines . 978-971-574-103-3 . 25 . en . February 12, 2023 . February 17, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144209/https://books.google.com/books?id=ngonYm_SDSIC . live .
76. Book: Hedman . Eva-Lotta . Philippine Politics and Society in the Twentieth Century: Colonial Legacies, Post-Colonial Trajectories . Politics in Asia . Sidel . John . Leifer . Michael . 2005 . . London, England . 978-1-134-75421-2 . 71 . John Sidel.
77. Book: Steinberg, David Joel . The Philippines: A Singular and a Plural Place . 2018 . Nations of the Modern World: Asia . . Boulder, Colo. . 978-0-8133-3755-5 . Fourth . The New Filipinos . Chapter 3: A Singular and a Plural Folk . 10.4324/9780429494383 . September 30, 2020 . February 18, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230218075805/https://books.google.com/books?id=6NFMDwAAQBAJ . live .
78. Book: Schumacher, John N. . The Propaganda Movement, 1880–1895: The Creation of a Filipino Consciousness, the Making of the Revolution . 1997 . Revised . . Manila, Philippines . 978-971-550-209-2 . 8–9 . John N. Schumacher . January 15, 2021 . February 3, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073519/https://books.google.com/books?id=6GU_Tzxu5qoC . live .
79. Book: Schumacher, John N. . Revolutionary Clergy: The Filipino Clergy and the Nationalist Movement, 1850–1903 . 1998 . . Quezon City, Philippines . 978-971-550-121-7 . 23–30 . John N. Schumacher . January 15, 2021 . February 3, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073446/https://books.google.com/books?id=aaLh8W6_84cC . live .
80. Book: Acibo . Libert Amorganda . Jose P. Rizal: His Life, Works, and Role in the Philippine Revolution . Galicano-Adanza . Estela . 1995 . . Manila, Philippines . 978-971-23-1837-5 . 46–47 . en . February 12, 2023 . February 17, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144211/https://books.google.com/books?id=r8PCT9AB_REC . live .
81. Book: Owen . Norman G. . The Emergence of Modern Southeast Asia: A New History . January 1, 2005 . . Honolulu, Hawaii . 978-0-8248-2841-7 . 156 . en.
82. Book: Borromeo-Buehler, Soledad . The Cry of Balintawak: A Contrived Controversy: A Textual Analysis with Appended Documents . 1998 . . Quezon City, Philippines . 978-971-550-278-8 . 7 . January 16, 2021 . February 3, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073342/https://books.google.com/books?id=RJnMSmXLvr4C . live .
83. Book: Duka, Cecilio D. . Struggle for Freedom: A Textbook on Philippine History . 2008 . . Manila, Philippines . 978-971-23-5045-0 . January 16, 2021 . September 23, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230923144103/https://books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC . live .
84. Book: Abinales, Patricio N. . Modern Philippines . Understanding Modern Nations . July 8, 2022 . . Santa Barbara, Calif. . 978-1-4408-6005-8 . en . February 12, 2023 . February 17, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144210/https://books.google.com/books?id=0Hd3EAAAQBAJ . live .
85. Book: Draper, Andrew Sloan . The Rescue of Cuba: An Episode in the Growth of Free Government . 1899 . . New York . 170–172 . . 9764656 . Andrew S. Draper . February 10, 2021 . February 11, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230211172545/https://books.google.com/books?id=MD8OAAAAIAAJ . live .
86. Book: Fantina, Robert . Desertion and the American Soldier, 1776–2006 . 2006 . Algora Publishing . New York . 978-0-87586-454-9 . 83.
87. Book: Starr . J. Barton . The United States Constitution: Its Birth, Growth, and Influence in Asia . September 1988 . . Hong Kong, China . 978-962-209-201-3 . 260 . January 19, 2021 . February 11, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230211124609/https://books.google.com/books?id=NTPxAQAAQBAJ . live .
88. The week. The Nation. 68. 1766. 323. May 4, 1899.
89. Book: Linn, Brian McAllister . The Philippine War, 1899–1902 . . 2000 . Lawrence, Kans. . 978-0-7006-1225-3 . 75–76 . Brian McAllister Linn . December 25, 2018 . February 3, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073827/https://books.google.com/books?id=PSJGPgAACAAJ . live .
90. Book: Kalaw, Maximo Manguiat. The Development of Philippine politics (1872–1920). Oriental Commercial Company, Inc.. Manila. 1927. 199–200. December 3, 2023. December 14, 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20191214233312/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/AFJ2233.0001.001?rgn=main;view=fulltext. live.
91. Encyclopedia: Tucker . Spencer . Philippine-American War . The Encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History . May 20, 2009 . Illustrated . I: A–L . . Santa Barbara, Calif. . 978-1-85109-951-1 . 478 . en . Spencer C. Tucker . July 25, 2021 . September 23, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230923151624/https://books.google.com/books?id=8V3vZxOmHssC . live .
92. Book: Briley, Ron . Talking American History: An Informal Narrative History of the United States . Sunstone Press . 2020 . Santa Fe, N.M. . 978-1-63293-288-4 . 247 . December 27, 2022 . February 11, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230211172542/https://books.google.com/books?id=7TbvDwAAQBAJ . live .
93. Encyclopedia: Cocks . Catherine . Philippine-American War (1899–1902) . Historical Dictionary of the Progressive Era . Historical Dictionaries of U.S. Historical Eras . 12 . Holloran . Peter C. . Lessoff . Alan . March 13, 2009 . . Lanham, Md. . 978-0-8108-6293-7 . 332 . December 27, 2022 . February 11, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230211172543/https://books.google.com/books?id=pvxD_LjXVRMC . live .
94. Book: Gates, John M. . The U.S. Army and Irregular Warfare . November 2002 . Chapter 3: The Pacification of the Philippines . February 20, 2010 . http://www3.wooster.edu/history/jgates/book-ch3.html . https://web.archive.org/web/20100805061319/http://www3.wooster.edu/history/jgates/book-ch3.html . August 5, 2010 . . 49327571.
95. Book: Abanes, Menandro Sarion . Ethno-religious Identification and Intergroup Contact Avoidance: An Empirical Study on Christian-Muslim Relations in the Philippines . Nijmegen Studies in Development and Cultural Change . 2014 . . Zürich, Switzerland . 978-3-643-90580-2 . 36 . en . February 11, 2023 . February 17, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144209/https://books.google.com/books?id=ir8vBQAAQBAJ . live .
96. Book: Federspiel, Howard M. . Sultans, Shamans, and Saints: Islam and Muslims in Southeast Asia . January 31, 2007 . . Honolulu, Hawaii . 978-0-8248-3052-6 . 120 . en . February 12, 2023 . February 3, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073948/https://books.google.com/books?id=5Qf39DpguysC . live .
97. Aguilar-Cariño . Ma. Luisa . 1994 . The Igorot as Other: Four Discourses from the Colonial Period . . . 42 . 2 . 0031-7837 . 194–209 . 42633435.
98. Book: Wolff . Stefan . Özkanca . Oya Dursun- . External Interventions in Civil Wars: The Role and Impact of Regional and International Organisations . March 16, 2016 . . London, England . 978-1-134-91142-4 . 103 . en . Stefan Wolff . March 23, 2023 . March 23, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230323163243/https://books.google.com/books?id=WNu_CwAAQBAJ . live .
99. Book: Rogers . Mark M. . Bamat . Tom . Ideh . Julie . Pursuing Just Peace: An Overview and Case Studies for Faith-Based Peacebuilders . March 24, 2008 . . Baltimore, Md. . 978-1-61492-030-4 . 119 . April 25, 2023 . en . https://web.archive.org/web/20090208080127/https://www.crs.org/publications/showpdf.cfm?pdf_id=56 . February 8, 2009.
100. Book: Armes, Roy . Third World Film Making and the West . July 29, 1987 . . Berkeley, Calif. . 978-0-520-90801-7 . 152 . en . October 18, 2015 . February 3, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073829/https://books.google.com/books?id=qFDnqIwdr8EC . live .
101. Tofighian . Nadi . 2006 . The role of Jose Nepomuceno in the Philippine society: What language did his silent films speak? . https://web.archive.org/web/20120309052902/http://su.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:200615/FULLTEXT01 . March 9, 2012 . February 9, 2023 . . . 1235074310.
102. Book: Nadeau . Kathleen . The History of the Philippines . The Greenwood Histories of the Modern Nations . April 3, 2020 . . Santa Barbara, Calif. . 978-1-4408-7359-1 . 76 . Second . October 12, 2023 . en . October 19, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231019084900/https://books.google.com/books?id=_ErEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 . live .
103. Book: Lai To . Lee . Regional Community Building in East Asia: Countries in Focus . Politics in Asia . Othman . Zarina . September 1, 2016 . . New York, N.Y. . 978-1-317-26556-6 . 145 . January 29, 2021 . February 11, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230211172544/https://books.google.com/books?id=WCwlDwAAQBAJ . live .
104. Book: Thompson, Roger M. . Filipino English and Taglish: Language Switching From Multiple Perspectives . Varieties of English Around the World . October 16, 2003 . . Amsterdam, Netherlands . 978-90-272-9607-8 . September 28, 2020 . November 18, 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20201118092514/https://books.google.com/books?id=1VI9AAAAQBAJ . live .
105. Book: Kwiatkowski, Lynn . Struggling With Development: The Politics of Hunger and Gender in the Philippines . May 20, 2019 . . Boulder, Colo. . 978-0-429-96562-3 . 41 . January 29, 2021 . February 3, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073947/https://books.google.com/books?id=I__EDwAAQBAJ . live .
106. Book: Holden . William N. . Mining and Natural Hazard Vulnerability in the Philippines: Digging to Development or Digging to Disaster? . Anthem Environmental Studies . Jacobson . R. Daniel . February 15, 2012 . Anthem Press . London, England . 978-1-84331-396-0 . 229 . en . February 12, 2023 . February 17, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144208/https://books.google.com/books?id=kcA1DgAAQBAJ . live .
107. Book: Riedinger, Jeffrey M. . Agrarian Reform in the Philippines: Democratic Transitions and Redistributive Reform . 1995 . . Stanford, Calif. . 978-0-8047-2530-9 . 87 . en . February 12, 2023 . April 22, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230422235850/https://books.google.com/books?id=FlasRfravpEC . live .
108. Book: Chamberlain, Sharon W. . A Reckoning: Philippine Trials of Japanese War Criminals . New Perspectives in Southeast Asian Studies . March 5, 2019 . . Madison, Wis. . 978-0-299-31860-4 . 11 . February 16, 2021 . February 3, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073830/https://books.google.com/books?id=JByIDwAAQBAJ . live .
109. Rankin . Karl L. . Karl L. Rankin . November 25, 1943 . Document 984 . Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers, 1943, The British Commonwealth, Eastern Europe, the Far East . III . Introduction . https://web.archive.org/web/20170629000417/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1943v03/d984 . June 29, 2017 . February 16, 2021 . Office of the Historian.
110. Book: Abinales . Patricio N. . State and Society in the Philippines . Amoroso . Donna J. . July 6, 2017 . . Lanham, Md. . 978-1-5381-0395-1 . Second . 160 . February 16, 2021 . February 3, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073954/https://books.google.com/books?id=TwglDwAAQBAJ . live .
111. Minor . Colin . March 4, 2019 . Filipino Guerilla Resistance to Japanese Invasion in World War II . Legacy . 15 . 1 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200320025106/https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1044&context=legacy . March 20, 2020 . February 11, 2023 . Southern Illinois University Carbondale.
112. Encyclopedia: Sandler . Stanley . Philippines, Anti-Japanese Guerrillas in . World War II in the Pacific: An Encyclopedia . 2001 . . New York, N.Y. . 978-0-8153-1883-5 . 819–825 . February 18, 2021 . February 3, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073835/https://books.google.com/books?id=K-027Yrx12UC . live .
113. Book: Jones, Jeffrey Frank . Japanese War Crimes and Related Topics: A Guide to Records at the National Archives . . Washington, D.C. . 1031–1037 . https://web.archive.org/web/20100414092157/http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/Japan/Japanese-War-Crimes-Guide.pdf . April 14, 2010 . ibiblio.
114. Book: Li . Peter . Japanese War Crimes: The Search for Justice . . New Brunswick, N.J. . 978-1-4128-2683-9 . 250 . https://web.archive.org/web/20201002122006/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Japanese_War_Crimes/2J0ZqRZw-QQC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22japanese+atrocities&pg=PA250 . October 2, 2020.
115. Book: Rottman, Gordon L. . World War II Pacific Island Guide: A Geo-Military Study . . Westport, Conn. . 2002 . 978-0-313-31395-0 . Gordon L. Rottman . 318 . October 18, 2015 . October 12, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231012205757/https://books.google.com/books?id=ChyilRml0hcC . live .
116. Book: Del Gallego, John A. . The Liberation of Manila: 28 Days of Carnage, February–March 1945 . July 17, 2020 . . Jefferson, N.C. . 978-1-4766-3597-2 . 84 . en . February 12, 2023 . February 17, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144212/https://books.google.com/books?id=983xDwAAQBAJ . live .
117. Book: Bühler, Konrad G. . State Succession and Membership in International Organizations: Legal Theories versus Political Pragmatism . Legal Aspects of International Organization . February 8, 2001 . . The Hague, Netherlands . 978-90-411-1553-9 . August 22, 2020 . April 5, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230405131023/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ty7NAG1Jl-8C . live .
118. Book: Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States of America; 1776–1949 . . United States . II . 1974 . 3–6 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210824161243/https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/lltreaties//lltreaties-ustbv011/lltreaties-ustbv011.pdf . August 24, 2021.
119. Book: Goodwin, Jeff . No Other Way Out: States and Revolutionary Movements, 1945–1991 . Cambridge Studies in Comparative Politics . 2001 . . Cambridge, England . 978-0-521-62069-7 . 118 . Jeff Goodwin.
120. Encyclopedia: Tucker . Spencer C. . Hukbalahap Rebellion . Encyclopedia of Insurgency and Counterinsurgency: A New Era of Modern Warfare . October 29, 2013 . . Santa Barbara, Calif. . 978-1-61069-280-9 . 244 . en . Spencer C. Tucker.
121. Book: Dobbs, Charles M. . Trade and Security: The United States and East Asia, 1961–1969 . February 19, 2010 . . Newcastle upon Tyne, England . 978-1-4438-1995-4 . 222 . en . February 18, 2023 . March 6, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103527/https://books.google.com/books?id=wkMaBwAAQBAJ . live .
122. Book: Weatherbee . Donald E. . International Relations in Southeast Asia: The Struggle for Autonomy . Emmers . Ralf . Pangestu . Mari . Sebastian . Leonard C. . . Lanham, Md. . 2005 . 978-0-7425-2842-0 . 68–69 . October 18, 2015 . June 4, 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200604143037/https://books.google.com/books?id=4wqEC4jHl9wC . live .
123. Book: Timberman, David G. . A Changeless Land: Continuity and Change in Philippine Politics . . Armonk, N.Y. . 1991 . 978-981-3035-86-7 . September 28, 2020 . February 18, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230218094758/https://books.google.com/books?id=NkBO2RhI4NUC . live .
124. Book: Fernandes, Clinton . Hot Spot: Asia and Oceania . June 30, 2008 . . Westport, Conn. . 978-0-313-35413-7 . 188 . en . Clinton Fernandes . February 18, 2023 . February 3, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073832/https://books.google.com/books?id=6mrU4FBGqCAC . live .
125. Encyclopedia: Hastedt . Glenn P. . Philippines . Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy . January 1, 2004 . . New York, N.Y. . 978-1-4381-0989-3 . 392 . en . March 17, 2023 . May 10, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230510063237/https://books.google.com/books?id=9HpR1b5zZxwC . live .
126. Encyclopedia: Martin . Gus . New People's Army . The SAGE Encyclopedia of Terrorism . Second . June 15, 2011 . . Thousand Oaks, Calif. . 978-1-4522-6638-1 . 427 . en . C. Augustus Martin . March 17, 2023 . April 20, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230420100924/https://books.google.com/books?id=ClN2AwAAQBAJ . live .
127. van der Kroef . Justus M. . Asian Communism in the Crucible . Problems of Communism . 1975 . . March–April 1975 . XXIV . 59 . September 28, 2020 . February 12, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230212090208/https://books.google.com/books?id=6XBafuPyHq8C . live .
128. Book: The Europa World Year: Kazakhstan – Zimbabwe . 2004 . . London, England . 45th . II . 978-1-85743-255-8 . 3408 . en . March 22, 2023 . January 14, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230114164345/https://books.google.com/books?id=gP_-8rXzQs8C . live .
129. Leary . Virginia A. . The Philippines: Human Rights After Martial Law: Report of a Mission . Ellis . A. A. . Madlener . Kurt . 1984 . . 978-92-9037-023-9 . Geneva, Switzerland . Chapter 1: An Overview of Human Rights . February 12, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140329103100/https://www.icj.org/wp-content/uploads/1984/01/Philippines-human-rights-mission-report-1984-eng.pdf . March 29, 2014.
130. Book: van Erven, Eugène . The Playful Revolution: Theatre and Liberation in Asia . 1992 . . Bloomington, Ind. . 978-0-253-20729-6 . 35 . en . February 18, 2023 . March 6, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103527/https://books.google.com/books?id=mWe8mLteIigC . live .
131. Book: Kang . David C. . Crony Capitalism: Corruption and Development in South Korea and the Philippines . January 24, 2002 . . Cambridge, England . 978-0-521-00408-4 . 140 . en . David C. Kang . February 18, 2023 . March 6, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103527/https://books.google.com/books?id=im465FAopWMC . live .
132. Book: White, Lynn T. III . Philippine Politics: Possibilities and Problems in a Localist Democracy . Routledge Contemporary Southeast Asia Series . December 17, 2014 . . London, England . 978-1-317-57422-4 . 74 . en . February 18, 2023 . February 3, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240203074430/https://books.google.com/books?id=4mvfBQAAQBAJ . live .
133. Book: Salazar, Lorraine Carlos . Getting a Dial Tone: Telecommunications Liberalisation in Malaysia and the Philippines . 2007 . . Singapore . 978-981-230-382-0 . 12–13 . en . February 18, 2023 . March 6, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103527/https://books.google.com/books?id=wA2P9HBcr2YC . live .
134. Book: Inoue . M. . People and Forest — Policy and Local Reality in Southeast Asia, the Russian Far East, and Japan . Isozaki . H. . November 11, 2013 . . Dordrecht, Netherlands . 978-94-017-2554-5 . 142 . en . February 18, 2023 . March 6, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103527/https://books.google.com/books?id=nwTuCAAAQBAJ . live .
135. Book: SarDesai, D. R. . Southeast Asia: Past and Present . December 4, 2012 . 7th . . 978-0-8133-4838-4 . en . February 18, 2023 . March 6, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103527/https://books.google.com/books?id=yjNWDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT206 . live .
136. Book: Vogl, Frank . Waging War on Corruption: Inside the Movement Fighting the Abuse of Power . September 2016 . . Boulder, Colo. . 978-1-4422-1853-6 . 60 . en . February 18, 2023 . March 6, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103527/https://books.google.com/books?id=hBCMTGiVBYMC . live .
137. Book: Thompson . Mark R. . Routledge Handbook of the Contemporary Philippines . Routledge Handbooks . Batalla . Eric Vincent C. . February 19, 2018 . . London, England . 978-1-317-48526-1 . en . Mark R. Thompson . February 18, 2023 . March 6, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103526/https://books.google.com/books?id=DmkPEAAAQBAJ . live .
138. Book: Raquiza, Antoinette R. . State Structure, Policy Formation, and Economic Development in Southeast Asia: The Political Economy of Thailand and the Philippines . Routledge Studies in the Growth Economies of Asia . June 17, 2013 . . London, England . 978-1-136-50502-7 . 40–41 . en . February 18, 2023 . February 3, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240203074317/https://books.google.com/books?id=g5bkhjFAzyMC . live .
139. Book: Hermida, Ranilo Balaguer . Imagining Modern Democracy: A Habermasian Assessment of the Philippine Experiment . November 19, 2014 . . Albany, N.Y. . 978-1-4384-5387-3 . 12 . en . February 18, 2023 . March 6, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103526/https://books.google.com/books?id=VASXBQAAQBAJ . live .
140. A Path to Democratic Renewal . Atwood . J. Brian . Schuette . Keith E. . 350 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140512220659/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK494.pdf . May 12, 2014 . . J. Brian Atwood.
141. Book: Kingsbury, Damien . Politics in Contemporary Southeast Asia: Authority, Democracy and Political Change . September 13, 2016 . . London, England . 978-1-317-49628-1 . 132 . Damien Kingsbury . September 28, 2020 . February 12, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230212193225/https://books.google.com/books?id=8CQlDwAAQBAJ . live .
142. Book: Tan . Andrew T. H. . A Handbook of Terrorism and Insurgency in Southeast Asia . January 2009 . . Cheltenham, England . 978-1-84720-718-0 . 405.
143. February 14, 2011 . The Communist Insurgency in the Philippines: Tactics and Talks . Asia Report N°202 . . 5–7 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200806030349/https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/4d5a310e2.pdf . August 6, 2020 . September 2, 2020 . 905388916 . Refworld.
144. Book: Pecotich . Anthony . Shultz . Clifford J. . Handbook of Markets and Economies: East Asia, Southeast Asia, Australia, New Zealand: East Asia, Southeast Asia, Australia, New Zealand . July 22, 2016 . . Armonk, N.Y. . 978-1-315-49875-1 . en . March 22, 2023 . March 22, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230322171259/https://books.google.com/books?id=ySe3DAAAQBAJ&pg=PT546 . live .
145. Book: Ortega . Arnisson Andre . Neoliberalizing Spaces in the Philippines: Suburbanization, Transnational Migration, and Dispossession . September 9, 2016 . . Lanham, Md. . 978-1-4985-3052-1 . 51–52 . en . March 22, 2023 . March 22, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230322171253/https://books.google.com/books?id=wDTVDAAAQBAJ . live .
146. Book: Pempel . T. J. . The Politics of the Asian Economic Crisis . . Ithaca, N.Y. . 1999 . 978-0-8014-8634-0 . 163 . T. J. Pempel . March 28, 2016 . February 3, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240203074317/https://books.google.com/books?id=sTAuUXE_ANsC . live .
147. Rebullida . Ma. Lourdes G. . December 2003 . The Politics of Urban Poor Housing: State and Civil Society Dynamics . Philippine Political Science Journal . Philippine Political Science Association . 24 . 47 . 56 . 10.1080/01154451.2003.9754247 . 154441392 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210511215251/https://www.pssc.org.ph/wp-content/pssc-archives/Philippine%20Political%20Science%20Journal/2003/06_The%20Political%20of%20Urban%20Poor%20Housing_%20State%20and%20Civil%20Society%20Dynamics.pdf . May 11, 2021 . February 12, 2023.
148. Book: Bhargava . Vinay Kumar . Bolongaita . Emil P. . Challenging Corruption in Asia: Case Studies and a Framework for Action . Directions in Development . 2004 . . Washington, D.C. . 978-0-8213-5683-8 . 78 . en . March 22, 2023 . March 22, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230322171257/https://books.google.com/books?id=gHS1bTsu2IUC . live .
149. Hutchcroft . Paul D. (Paul David) . The Arroyo Imbroglio in the Philippines . . 2008 . 19 . 1 . 141–155 . 10.1353/jod.2008.0001 . 1086-3214 . June 16, 2023 . . 144031968 . . subscription.
150. Book: McCoy . Alfred W. . Alfred W. McCoy . Policing America's Empire: The United States, the Philippines, and the Rise of the Surveillance State . October 15, 2009 . . Madison, Wis. . 978-0-299-23413-3 . 498 . October 21, 2023 . en.
151. Lum . Thomas . Dolven . Ben . May 15, 2014 . The Republic of the Philippines and U.S. Interests—2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220417070815/https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R43498/7 . April 17, 2022 . September 14, 2020 . . . 1121453557.
152. Book: Buendia . Rizal G. . The Politics of the Bangsamoro Basic Law . January 2015 . 10.13140/RG.2.1.3954.9205/1 . free . May 10, 2024 . . Manila, Philippines . 3–5 . ResearchGate.
153. December 1991 . Land Use and Land Classification of the Philippines . Infomapper . . 1 . 2 . 10 . 0117-1674 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210122012339/http://www.namria.gov.ph/jdownloads/Info_Mapper/00a_im_dec911.pdf . January 22, 2021.
154. Book: Boquet, Yves. The Philippine Archipelago. Springer. 2017. 978-3-319-51926-5. Springer Geography. Cham, Switzerland. April 25, 2023. February 3, 2024. https://web.archive.org/web/20240203074433/https://books.google.com/books?id=90C4DgAAQBAJ. live.
155. Encyclopedia: Hogan . C. Michael . . August 19, 2011 . Celebes Sea . https://archive.today/20120729042251/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Celebes_Sea?topic=49523 . July 29, 2012 . February 5, 2023.
156. Encyclopedia: . Philippine Sea . https://web.archive.org/web/20090820123304/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761580288/Philippine_Sea.html . August 20, 2009. on August 20, 2009).
157. Encyclopedia: . Philippine Sea . https://web.archive.org/web/20150714194604/https://www.britannica.com/place/Philippine-Sea . July 14, 2015 . February 9, 2021.
158. Book: Chaffee . Frederic H. . Aurell . George E. . Barth . Helen A. . Betters . Elinor C. . Cort . Ann S. . Dombrowski . John H. . Fasano . Vincent J. . Weaver . John O. . Area Handbook for the Philippines . February 1969 . . . Washington, D.C. . 6 . en . 19734 . March 9, 2023 . April 7, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230407033448/https://books.google.com/books?id=83UsAAAAYAAJ . live .
159. . Climate-Responsive Integrated Master Plan for Cagayan River Basin; Volume I – Executive Summary . https://web.archive.org/web/20200730173552/https://riverbasin.denr.gov.ph/masterplans/cagayanexecutivesummary.pdf . July 30, 2020 . July 30, 2020 . River Basin Control Office . . 5.
160. Book: Wolanski . Eric . The Environment in Asia Pacific Harbours . 2006 . . Dordrecht, Netherlands . 309–328 . Chapter 19: Manila Bay: Environmental Challenges and Opportunities . 978-1-4020-3654-5 . March 21, 2023 . March 21, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230321055842/https://books.google.com/books?id=udK-kt3cQCsC . live .
161. Book: Rodell, Paul A. . Culture and Customs of the Philippines . Culture and Customs of Asia . 2002 . . Westport, Conn. . 978-0-313-30415-6 . August 22, 2020 . February 3, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240203074324/https://books.google.com/books?id=y1CVR74_KHQC . live .
162. Book: Berckhemer . H. . Alpine-Mediterranean Geodynamics . Geodynamics Series . 7 . Hsü . K. . 1982 . . Washington, D.C. . 978-978-087-590-9 . 31 . en . March 11, 2022 . February 12, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230212195929/https://books.google.com/books?id=4jQavSJCro4C . live .
163. Book: Frohlich, Cliff . Deep Earthquakes . May 4, 2006 . . Cambridge, England . 978-0-521-82869-7 . 421 . March 11, 2022 . February 12, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230212195927/https://books.google.com/books?id=-lZGdmBwSPkC . live .
164. Book: Rantucci . Giovanni . Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology . Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology . 1994 . Geological Disasters in the Philippines; The July 1990 Earthquake and the June 1991 Eruption of Mount Pinatubo; Description, Effects, and Lessons Learned . Chapter 2: Overview of Past and Recent Disasters in the Philippines . Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri, Dipt. per l'Informazione e l'Editoria . Rome, Italy . 978-1-4752-3936-2 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120530050031/https://www.eird.org/estrategias/pdf/eng/doc13258/doc13258-2.pdf . May 30, 2012 . February 25, 2022 . . 24.
165. Encyclopedia: Rinard Hinga . Bethany D. . Philippines . Ring of Fire: An Encyclopedia of the Pacific Rim's Earthquakes, Tsunamis, and Volcanoes . March 17, 2015 . . Santa Barbara, Calif. . 978-1-61069-297-7 . 249.
166. Bryner . Leonid . September 1, 1969 . Ore Deposits of the Philippines Their Geology . . Economic Geology Publishing Company . 64 . 6 . 645–647 . 10.1.1.875.7878 . 10.2113/gsecongeo.64.6.644.
167. Book: Santos, Gabriel Jr. . Metallogenetische und Geochemische Provinzen / Metallogenetic and Geochemical Provinces . Mineral Distribution and Geological Features of the Philippines . 1974 . . 1 . 89 . 10.1007/978-3-7091-4065-9_8 . 978-3-211-81249-5.
168. Book: Ramos . Socorro B. . Quiniquini . Salvador M. . The Philippines: a Handbook of Economic Facts and General Information . 1966 . Department of Commerce and Industry, Research and Information Division . . Manila, Philippines . 51 . en . 63394 . April 7, 2023 . April 18, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230418081259/https://books.google.com/books?id=vjmxAAAAIAAJ . live .
169. Berba . Carmela Maria P. . Matias . Ambrocio Melvin A. . State of biodiversity documentation in the Philippines: Metadata gaps, taxonomic biases, and spatial biases in the DNA barcode data of animal and plant taxa in the context of species occurrence data . . March 21, 2022 . 10 . 10.7717/peerj.13146 . 35341040 . Introduction . 8944339 . free.
170. Williams . Jann . Biodiversity Theme Report: The Meaning, Significance and Implications of Biodiversity (continued) . Read . Cassia . Norton . Tony . Dovers . Steve . Burgman . Mark . Proctor . Wendy . Anderson . Heather . . 2001 . Collingwood, Victoria, Australia . 978-0-643-06749-3 . November 6, 2009 . https://web.archive.org/web/20070514125559/http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/2001/publications/theme-reports/biodiversity/biodiversity01-3.html . May 14, 2007 . amp.
171. Book: OECD Food and Agricultural Reviews Agricultural Policies in the Philippines . April 7, 2017 . . Paris, France . 978-92-64-26908-8 . 10.1787/9789264269088-en . 78 . en . March 9, 2023 . May 9, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230509130815/https://books.google.com/books?id=E6-gDgAAQBAJ . live .
172. Encyclopedia: . January 10, 2008 . Biological diversity in the Philippines . https://web.archive.org/web/20080218154050/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Biological_diversity_in_the_Philippines . February 18, 2008 . May 4, 2013 . McGinley . Mark.
173. Clemen-Pascual . Lydia M. . Macahig . Rene Angelo S. . Rojas . Nina Rosario L. . Comparative toxicity, phytochemistry, and use of 53 Philippine medicinal plants . Toxicology Reports . Elsevier Scientific Publishers Ireland. 2022 . 9 . 22–35 . 10.1016/j.toxrep.2021.12.002 . 34976744 . 8685920 . 2214-7500 . free. 2022ToxR....9...22C .
174. Book: Schulte . Andreas . Schöne . Dieter Hans-Friedrich . Dipterocarp Forest Ecosystems: Towards Sustainable Management . 1996 . . Singapore . 978-981-02-2729-6 . 494 . en.
175. Agoo . Esperanza Maribel G. . June 2007 . Status of Orchid Taxonomy Research in the Philippines . Philippine Journal of Systematic Biology . Association of Systematic Biologists of the Philippines . 1 . 1 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200407154939/https://asbp.org.ph/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/907-3032-2-PB.pdf . April 7, 2020 . July 23, 2020.
176. Book: Sajise . Percy E. . Moving Forward: Southeast Asian Perspectives on Climate Change and Biodiversity . Ticsay . Mariliza V. . Saguiguit . Gil Jr. C. . February 10, 2010 . . Singapore . 978-981-230-978-5 . 147 . en . February 18, 2023 . March 6, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103904/https://books.google.com/books?id=orX6zp38uwAC . live .
177. Book: Conference proceeding . Nishizaki . Shin-ya . Theory and Practice of Computation: Proceedings of the Workshop on Computation: Theory and Practice (WCTP 2018), September 17–18, 2018, Manila, The Philippines . Numao . Masayuki . Caro . Jaime . Suarez . Merlin Teodosia . 2019 . . Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, England . 978-0-429-53694-6 . 94 . en . March 9, 2023 . April 7, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230407131327/https://books.google.com/books?id=hdCwDwAAQBAJ . live .
178. Green . Alison L. . Mous . Peter J. . Delineating the Coral Triangle, its Ecoregions and Functional Seascapes: Version 5.0 . TNC Coral Triangle Program . Report No. 1/08 . Conservation Gateway . . May 28, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190518123930/https://www.conservationgateway.org/Documents/Green%20and%20Mous%202008%20CT%20Delineation%20v5%200.pdf . May 18, 2019 . vii–viii, 1, 4, 6–7 . September 2008.
179. Carpenter . Kent E. . Springer . Victor G. . amp . April 2005 . The center of the center of marine shore fish biodiversity: the Philippine Islands . . . 74 . 2 . 467–480 . 10.1007/s10641-004-3154-4 . 2005EnvBF..72..467C . 8280012 . Kent E. Carpenter . Victor G. Springer.
180. Rural Aquaculture in the Philippines . RAP Publication . 1999/20 . Yap . Wilfredo G. . 1999 . Background . https://web.archive.org/web/20210921005507/https://www.fao.org/3/x6943e/x6943e.pdf . September 21, 2021 . April 17, 2023 . Food and Agriculture Organization.
181. Book: Primavera . J. H. . Montilijao . C. L. . Field Guide to Philippine Beach Forest Species . 2017 . Zoological Society of London – CMRP Philippines . Iloilo City, Philippines . 978-621-95325-1-8 . April 12, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230225115902/https://cms.zsl.org/sites/default/files/2023-02/12%20Field%20guide%20-%20Philippine%20Beach%20Forest%20Species.pdf . February 25, 2023.
182. Book: Wikramanayake . Eric D. . Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: A Conservation Assessment . Dinerstein . Eric . Loucks . Colby J. . 2002 . . Washington, D.C. . 978-1-55963-923-1 . 480 . Eric Wikramanayake.
183. Book: Dauvergne . Peter . Shadows in the Forest: Japan and the Politics of Timber in Southeast Asia . 1997 . . Cambridge, Mass. . 978-0-262-54087-2 . 157 . August 30, 2023 . en . August 30, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230830215429/https://books.google.com/books?id=wyXMKFa7kCcC . live .
184. Book: Kahl . Colin H. . States, Scarcity, and Civil Strife in the Developing World . 2006 . . Princeton, N.J. . 978-0-691-12406-3 . 85–86 . January 22, 2021 . en . August 30, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230830213647/https://books.google.com/books?id=ltWfu4quplgC . live .
185. Book: The Japan Environmental Council . The State of the Environment in Asia: 2002/2003 . December 6, 2012 . . Tokyo, Japan . 978-4-431-70345-7 . 106–107 . January 22, 2021 . en . August 30, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230830213647/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZPGPBAAAQBAJ . live .
186. Conference proceeding . Peralta . Eleno O. . Proceedings of the workshop: Forests for Poverty Reduction: Changing Role for Research, Development and Training Institutions, 17–18 June 2003, Dehradun, India . RAP Publication . 2005/19 . 2005 . Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific . 978-974-7946-76-5 . Bangkok, Thailand . Chapter 21: Forests for poverty alleviation: the response of academic institutions in the Philippines . February 12, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20071018084729/http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/af349e/af349e0n.htm . October 18, 2007 . Sim . H. C. . Appanah . S. . Hooda . N..
187. December 2019 . National Greening Program (PAO-2019-01); Reforestation Remains an Urgent Concern but Fast-Tracking its Process Without Adequate Preparation and Support by and Among Stakeholders Led to Waste of Resources . https://web.archive.org/web/20210502140810/https://www.intosai.org/fileadmin/downloads/focus_areas/SDG_atlas_reports/Philippines/Philippines_2019_E_15_FuRep_NGP.pdf . May 2, 2021 . February 22, 2023 . . 26.
188. Book: Carating . Rodelio B. . Galanta . Raymundo G. . Bacatio . Clarita D. . The Soils of the Philippines . World Soils Book Series . April 23, 2014 . . Dordrecht, Netherlands . 978-94-017-8682-9 . en . March 20, 2023 . March 20, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230320145709/https://books.google.com/books?id=sY7EBAAAQBAJ . live .
189. Book: Chong . Kee-Chai . Economics of the Philippine Milkfish Resource System . Smith . Ian R. . Lizarondo . Maura S. . . February 1982 . Tokyo, Japan . 978-92-808-0346-4 . Chapter III: The transformation sub-system: cultivation to market size in fishponds . July 4, 2020 . http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80346e/80346E06.htm . https://web.archive.org/web/20110719181709/http://archive.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80346e/80346E00.htm . July 19, 2011 . amp.
190. Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) . January 2009 . Member Report to the ESCAP/WMO Typhoon Committee, 41st Session . https://web.archive.org/web/20090320001056/http://www.typhooncommittee.org/41st/docs/TC2_MemberReport2008_PHILIPPINES1.pdf . March 20, 2009 . December 17, 2009 . . 4.
191. Book: Manual on Estimation of Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP) . 2009 . . 978-92-63-11045-9 . Geneva, Switzerland . 223 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160802160749/http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/hwrp/publications/PMP/WMO%201045%20en.pdf . August 2, 2016.
192. Øverland . Indra . Vakulchuk . Roman . et al . Impact of Climate Change on ASEAN International Affairs: Risk and Opportunity Multiplier . 2017 . 11250/2465067 .
193. Book: Kapucu . Naim . Disaster and Development: Examining Global Issues and Cases . Environmental Hazards . Liou . Kuotsai Tom . April 11, 2014 . . New York . 978-3-319-04468-2 . 292 . en . February 22, 2023 . March 6, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230306104213/https://books.google.com/books?id=PFW6BAAAQBAJ . live .
194. Rose-Ackerman . Susan . Desierto . Diane A. . Volosin . Natalia . 2011 . Hyper-Presidentialism: Separation of Powers without Checks and Balances in Argentina and Philippines . . . 29 . 8092527577 . 246–333 . Susan Rose-Ackerman . https://web.archive.org/web/20220126072232/https://openyls.law.yale.edu/bitstream/handle/20.500.13051/3618/29BerkeleyJIntlL246.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y . January 26, 2022.
195. Teehankee . Julio C. . Julio C. Teehankee . Thompson . Mark R. . October 2016 . The Vote in the Philippines: Electing A Strongman . . . 27 . 4 . 1086-3214 . 124–134 . 10.1353/jod.2016.0068 . Mark R. Thompson . December 30, 2020 . January 17, 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210117011258/https://www.journalofdemocracy.org/articles/the-vote-in-the-philippines-electing-a-strongman/ . live .
196. Book: Lazo, Ricardo S. Jr. . Philippine Governance and the 1987 Constitution . 2009 . . Manila, Philippines . 978-971-23-4546-3 . 2006 . December 30, 2020 . February 3, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240203074324/https://books.google.com/books?id=fMszAErMRKYC . live .
197. Carter Center Limited Mission to the May 2010 Elections in the Philippines Final Report . https://web.archive.org/web/20120323212046/https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/news/peace_publications/election_reports/philippines-may%202010-elections-finalrpt.pdf . March 23, 2012 . . Atlanta, Ga. . 733049273.
198. Book: March 2001 . Pangalangan . Raul C. . The Philippine Judicial System . Asian Law Series . . Chiba, Japan . 862953657 . 6, 39 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210305185845/https://aboutphilippines.org/doc-pdf-ppt-etc/05_Philippine-Judicial-System.pdf . March 5, 2021 . Raul Pangalangan.
199. Book: He . Baogang . Federalism in Asia . Galligan . Brian . Inoguchi . Takashi . January 2009 . . Cheltenham, England . 978-1-84720-702-9 . 176 . September 28, 2020 . February 12, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230212201623/https://books.google.com/books?id=nXf9C2xbKsYC . live .
200. David . Clarissa C. . Atun . Jenna Mae L. . Celebrity Politics: Correlates of Voting for Celebrities in Philippine Presidential Elections . Social Science Diliman . December 2015 . 11 . 2 . 1–2, 16–17 . May 10, 2023 . . en . 1655-1524 . 8539228072 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170925043652/http://journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/socialsciencediliman/article/download/4796/4328 . September 25, 2017.
201. David . Clarissa C. . San Pascual . Ma. Rosel S. . December 21, 2016 . Predicting vote choice for celebrity and political dynasty candidates in Philippine national elections . Philippine Political Science Journal . Philippine Political Science Association . 37 . 2 . 82–93 . 10.1080/01154451.2016.1198076 . 156251503 . January 1, 2021 . April 17, 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210417044320/https://brill.com/view/journals/ppsj/37/2/article-p82_1.xml . live .
202. Book: Hicken . Allen . Kuhonta . Erik Martinez . Party System Institutionalization in Asia: Democracies, Autocracies, and the Shadows of the Past . 2015 . . New York, N.Y. . 978-1-107-04157-8 . 316 . August 15, 2024 . en.
203. Robles . Alan C. . July–August 2008 . Civil service reform: Whose service? . . 49 . 285–289 . https://web.archive.org/web/20081202113453/http://www.inwent.org/ez/articles/077943/index.en.shtml . December 2, 2008 . July 18, 2020.
204. May 2020 . The Philippines Corruption Report . https://web.archive.org/web/20220812233543/https://www.ganintegrity.com/portal/country-profiles/the-philippines/ . August 12, 2022 . August 7, 2020 . GAN Integrity.
205. Batalla . Eric V. C. . June 10, 2020 . Grand corruption scandals in the Philippines . Public Administration and Policy . . 23 . 1 . 73–86 . 10.1108/PAP-11-2019-0036 . 2517-679X . free.
206. Book: Sriwarakuel . Warayuth . Cultural Traditions and Contemporary Challenges in Southeast Asia: Hindu and Buddhist . Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change. Series IIID, South East Asia . 3 . 2005 . Council for Research in Values and Philosophy . Washington, D.C. . 978-1-56518-213-4 . 294 . Dy . Manuel B. . Haryatmoko . J. . Chuan . Nguyen Trong . Yiheang . Chhay . en . March 18, 2023 . March 18, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230318171623/https://books.google.com/books?id=BnxpmvgAwcQC . live .
207. Book: Quah, Jon S. T. . Curbing Corruption in Asian Countries: An Impossible Dream? . Research in Public Policy Analysis and Management . 20 . 2011 . . Bingley, West Yorkshire, England . 978-0-85724-820-6 . 115–117 . September 28, 2020 . February 3, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240203074650/https://books.google.com/books?id=7qV6un8vKNUC . live .
208. Batalla . Eric . Baring . Rito . Church-State Separation and Challenging Issues Concerning Religion . . March 15, 2019 . 10 . 3 . 10.3390/rel10030197 . Chapter 3: The Secular State and Church-State Separation, Chapter 4: Changing Church-State Relations . . en . 2077-1444 . free.
209. Book: Keyuan . Zou . Routledge Handbook of the South China Sea . 2021 . . Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, England . 978-1-000-39613-3 . 337 . en . March 9, 2023 . April 7, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230407033455/https://books.google.com/books?id=iWBCEAAAQBAJ . live .
210. Encyclopedia: Tucker . Spencer C. . The Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: A Political, Social, and Military History . Second . I: A–G . Philippines . May 20, 2011 . . Santa Barbara, Calif. . 978-1-85109-961-0 . 907 . en . Spencer C. Tucker . March 19, 2023 . July 31, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230731183806/https://books.google.com/books?id=qh5lffww-KsC . live .
211. Encyclopedia: Liow . Joseph Chinyong . Dictionary of the Modern Politics of Southeast Asia . Fourth . SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) 1955–77 . November 20, 2014 . . Abingdon, Oxon, England . 978-1-317-62233-8 . 334 . en . March 19, 2023 . March 19, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230319184926/https://books.google.com/books?id=G5KLBQAAQBAJ . live .
212. Book: Sahoo . Ajaya K. . Routledge Handbook of Asian Diaspora and Development . Routledge Handbooks . March 30, 2021 . . Abingdon, Oxon, England . 978-1-000-36686-0 . 255 . en . March 18, 2023 . March 18, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230318185509/https://books.google.com/books?id=7xsfEAAAQBAJ . live .
213. Stock Estimate of Filipinos Overseas As of December 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170207092932/http://www.cfo.gov.ph/images/stories/pdf/StockEstimate2013.pdf . February 7, 2017 . July 6, 2020 . Philippine Overseas Employment Administration.
214. The Impact of Trade on Employment in the Philippines: Country Report . April 2019 . . Makati, Philippines . 978-92-2-133021-9 . March 28, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220124055119/https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/documents/publication/wcms_742567.pdf . January 24, 2022.
215. Book: Impact of the ASEAN Trade in Goods Agreement (ATIGA) on Intra-ASEAN Trade . August 2021 . . Jakarta, Indonesia . 978-602-5460-19-7 . June 19, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210824114701/https://www.eria.org/uploads/media/Books/2021-Impact-of-the-ATIGA-on-Intra-ASEAN-Trade/Impact-of-the-ATIGA-on-Intra-ASEAN-Trade.pdf . August 24, 2021 . Chapter 2: Background and Objectives.
216. Book: . Foreign Relations of the United States: 1950 . VI: East Asia and the Pacific . 1976 . . . Washington, D.C. . 1516 . en . 7165200 . April 14, 2023 . May 4, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230504064117/https://books.google.com/books?id=DeUtAAAAYAAJ . live .
217. Cronin . Patrick M. . Rethinking Asian Alliances . Joint Force Quarterly: JFQ . September 1993 . 2 . . 121 . April 14, 2023 . en . https://web.archive.org/web/20140410212247/https://ndupress.ndu.edu/portals/68/Documents/jfq/jfq-2.pdf . April 10, 2014.
218. Advincula-Lopez . Leslie V. . Challenges and Gains in Military Relations between the Philippines and the United States . Asia Pacific Bulletin . June 13, 2022 . 586 . . https://web.archive.org/web/20230430123136/https://www.eastwestcenter.org/sites/default/files/private/586.1030-al-pdf.pdf . April 30, 2023.
219. Jagel . Matthew . "Showing Its Flag": The United States, The Philippines, and the Vietnam War . Past Tense: Graduate Review of History . July 11, 2013 . 1 . 2 . 18, 28–38 . May 9, 2023 . . en-ca . https://web.archive.org/web/20200731043832/https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/91307/1/showing%20its%20flag_19836-Article%20Text-46661-1-10-20130711.pdf . July 31, 2020.
220. Book: Sanders, Vivienne . The Cold War in Asia 1945–93 . Second . Access to History . 2015 . . London, England . 978-1-4718-3880-4.
221. De Castro . Renato Cruz . Caught Between Appeasement and Limited Hard Balancing: The Philippines' Changing Relations With the Eagle and the Dragon . . August 2022 . 41 . 2 . 262–272 . 10.1177/18681034221081143 . 1868-1034 . free.
222. Book: Banlaoi . Rommel C. . Rommel Banlaoi . Security Aspects of Philippines-China Relations: Bilateral Issues and Concerns in the Age of Global Terrorism . 2007 . . Manila, Philippines . 978-971-23-4929-4 . 53–55 . en.
223. Book: Storey . Ian . Southeast Asia and the Rise of China: The Search for Security . Routledge Security in Asia Series . August 21, 2013 . . London, England . 978-1-136-72297-4 . 251 . en.
224. Sigit . Lo . Shyntia . Setiawan . Theofilus Jose . Japanese Official Development Assistance as International Bribery for the Comfort Woman Issue in the Philippines . Thai Journal of East Asian Studies . June 30, 2022 . 26 . 1 . 89–95 . May 16, 2023 . . https://web.archive.org/web/20221207191123/https://so02.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/easttu/article/view/251724/172850 . December 7, 2022.
225. Sevilla . Henelito A. Jr. . June 2011 . Middle East Security Issues and Implications for the Philippines . Indian Journal of Asian Affairs . 24 . 1/2 . 0970-6402 . 49–61 . 41950511.
226. Jabar . Melvin . Jesperson . Sasha . Analysis of labour migrants' vulnerabilities to trafficking in persons and labour exploitation in the Philippines . Trafficking in persons and labour exploitation: A political economy analysis . March 2024 . . London, England . 37–38,46,51 . August 14, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240330213250/https://odi.cdn.ngo/media/documents/Analysis_of_labour_migrants_vulnerabilities_to_TIP_and_labour_exploitation_in__rVyk7Ub.pdf . March 30, 2024.
227. Joyner . Christopher C. . Singh . Ranjeet K. . Investigating Confidence-Building Measures in the Asia-Pacific Region . 1999 . . 56 . The Spratly Islands Dispute in the South China Sea: Problems, Policies, and Prospects for Diplomatic Accommodation . Christopher C. Joyner . resrep10935.8 . free.
228. De Castro . Renato Cruz . The Limits of Intergovernmentalism: The Philippines' Changing Strategy in the South China Sea Dispute and Its Impact on the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) . . December 2020 . 39 . 3 . 338–346 . 10.1177/1868103420935562 . . free.
229. Book: Casey-Maslen . Stuart . The War Report: Armed Conflict in 2013 . 2014 . . Oxford, England . 978-0-19-103764-1 . 180.
230. Department of the Interior and Local Government Act of 1990 . RA . 6975 . December 13, 1990 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170829090530/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1990/12/13/republic-act-no-6975/ . August 29, 2017 . February 3, 2023 . . Metro Manila, Philippines.
231. Book: Till . Geoffrey . Naval Modernisation in South-East Asia: Nature, Causes and Consequences . Cass Series: Naval Policy and History . Chan . Jane . August 15, 2013 . . Oxfordshire, England . 978-1-135-95394-2 . 150 . en . Geoffrey Till.
232. Book: Wu . Shicun . Securing the Safety of Navigation in East Asia: Legal and Political Dimensions . Chandos Asian Studies Series . Zou . Keyuan . November 21, 2013 . . Oxford, England . 978-1-78242-160-3 . 35 . en.
233. Book: Arnold, Guy . Wars in the Third World Since 1945 . History and Politics in the 20th Century: Conflict: Bloomsbury Academic Collections . 2016 . . London, England . 978-1-4742-9101-9 . 497 . en . Guy Arnold.
234. Book: Croissant . Aurel . Comparative Politics of Southeast Asia: An Introduction to Governments and Political Regimes . Lorenz . Philip . 2017 . . Cham, Switzerland . 978-3-319-68182-5 . 243 . Aurel S. Croissant.
235. Chalk . Peter . The Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters: The Newest Obstacles to Peace in the Southern Philippines? . CTC Sentinel . November 2013 . 6 . 11–12 . 15–17 . June 18, 2023 . . 872740536 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230619003423/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA590315.pdf . June 19, 2023 . Defense Technical Information Center.
236. Book: . Armed Conflict Survey 2021 . September 20, 2021 . . Abingdon, Oxon, England . 978-1-000-54558-6 . en.
237. Encyclopedia: Ciment . James . Encyclopedia of Conflicts Since World War II . Philippines: War on Islamic Militants Since 1990 . March 27, 2015 . . Abingdon, Oxon, England . 2nd . One–Four . 978-1-317-47186-8 . 662 .
238. Book: Schiavo-Campo . Salvatore . Judd . Mary . February 2005 . The Mindanao Conflict in the Philippines: Roots, Costs, and Potential Peace Dividend . Working Papers Series . . Paper No. 24 . Washington, D.C. . . 992235323 . https://web.archive.org/web/20091007105619/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTCPR/214578-1111996036679/20482477/WP24_Web.pdf . October 7, 2009 . February 3, 2023.
239. Book: Central Intelligence Agency . CIA World Factbook 2022–2023 . June 21, 2022 . . New York, N.Y. . 978-1-5107-7119-2 . en . Central Intelligence Agency.
240. Book: White, Jonathan R. . Seventh . Terrorism and Homeland Security . 2011 . . Belmont, Calif. . 978-0-495-91336-8 . 363.
241. Book: Gibert . Stephen P. . Security In Northeast Asia: Approaching The Pacific Century . 2019 . . New York, N.Y. . 978-1-000-31112-9 . The Nature of the Internal Crisis . August 11, 2024 . en.
242. Global Peace Index 2024: Measuring Peace in a Complex World . June 2024 . . Sydney, Australia . 978-0-646-87920-8 . 9 . August 19, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240611125528/https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/GPI-2024-web.pdf . June 11, 2024.
243. Tusalem . Rollin F . April 9, 2019 . Imperial Manila: How institutions and political geography disadvantage Philippine provinces . Asian Journal of Comparative Politics . 5 . 3 . 8–9, 11–12 . 10.1177/2057891119841441 . SAGE Publications Ltd. 159099808.
244. Mapa . Dennis S. . Dennis Mapa . July 23, 2021 . Highlights of the Population Density of the Philippines 2020 Census of Population and Housing (2020 CPH) . https://web.archive.org/web/20210726073127/https://psa.gov.ph/content/highlights-population-density-philippines-2020-census-population-and-housing-2020-cph . July 26, 2021 . February 12, 2023 . Philippine Statistics Authority.
245. de Villiers . Bertus . 2015 . Special regional autonomy in a unitary system – preliminary observations on the case of the Bangsomoro homeland in the Philippines . Verfassung und Recht in Übersee / Law and Politics in Africa, Asia and Latin America . . 48 . 2 . 205–226 . 10.5771/0506-7286-2015-2-205 . 0506-7286 . 26160114.
246. Buendia . Rizal G. . April 1989 . The Prospects of Federalism in the Philippines: A Challenge to Political Decentralization of the Unitary State . Philippine Journal of Public Administration . . 33 . 2 . 121–122 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210917050906/https://www.pssc.org.ph/wp-content/pssc-archives/Philippine%20Journal%20of%20Public%20Administration/1989/Num%202/06_The%20Prospects%20of%20Federalism%20in%20the%20Philippines.pdf . September 17, 2021 . April 2, 2023.
247. Tigno . Jorge V. . 2017 . Beg Your Pardon? The Philippines is Already Federalized in All but Name . Philippine Journal of Public Policy: Interdisciplinary Development Perspectives . 16 and 17 . 1–14 . . https://web.archive.org/web/20210116032627/https://cids.up.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/ppj-16-17-tigno-2017.pdf . January 16, 2021 . August 8, 2020.
248. Atienza . Maria Ela L. . Constitutional Performance Assessment of the 1987 Philippine Constitution: Summary of Findings . Arugay . Aries A. . Dee . Francis Joseph A. . Encinas-Franco . Jean . Go . Jan Robert R. . Panao . Rogelio Alicor L. . Jimenez . Alinia Jesam D. . 2020 . International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance. Stockholm, Sweden and Quezon City, Philippines . 978-91-7671-299-3 . 10.31752/idea.2020.2 . Atienza . Maria Ela L. . 37 . December 1, 2020 . Cats-Baril . Amanda . https://web.archive.org/web/20210328053237/https://www.idea.int/sites/default/files/publications/constitutional-performance-assessment-1987-philippine-constitution.pdf . March 28, 2021.
249. Mapa. Dennis S.. Dennis Mapa. July 7, 2021. 2020 Census of Population and Housing (2020 CPH) Population Counts Declared Official by the President. https://web.archive.org/web/20210707104119/https://psa.gov.ph/content/2020-census-population-and-housing-2020-cph-population-counts-declared-official-president. July 7, 2021 . Philippine Statistics Authority.
250. Book: Department of Environment and Natural Resources . Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources of the Department of Agriculture . Department of the Interior and Local Government . Department of Environment and Natural Resources . Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources . Department of the Interior and Local Government . Coastal Management Orientation and Overview . Philippine Coastal Management Guidebook Series . 1 . Foreign-Assisted and Special Projects Service (FASPS) eLibrary . . August 7, 2024 . Cebu City, Philippines . 2001 . 978-971-92289-0-5 . 4,9 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180712173748/https://faspselib.denr.gov.ph/sites/default/files/Publication%20Files/crmguidebook1.pdf . July 12, 2018.
251. Mapa . Dennis S. . Dennis Mapa . Urban Population of the Philippines (2020 Census of Population and Housing) . . May 20, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220705104809/https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/attachments/hsd/pressrelease/1_PR_Urban%20Population_RML_063022_ONS-signed.pdf . July 5, 2022 . July 4, 2022.
252. 2017 . Philippine Development Plan, 2017–2022 . Chapter 3: Overlay of Economic Growth, Demographic Trends, and Physical Characteristics . http://pdp.neda.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Chapter-03.pdf . . Pasig, Philippines . 2243-7576 . 31, 34–35 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200226035525/https://pdp.neda.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/PDP-2017-2022-10-03-2017.pdf . February 26, 2020 . April 23, 2023.
253. Demographia World Urban Areas . July 2022 . . 18th Annual . 23 . February 8, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230203065121/http://www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf . February 3, 2023.
254. Mapa . Dennis S. . Dennis Mapa . Age and Sex Distribution in the Philippine Population (2020 Census of Population and Housing) . May 19, 2023 . . August 12, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220812232228/https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/attachments/hsd/pressrelease/1_Press%20Release%20on_Age%20Sex_RML_18July22_rev_mpe_RRDH_CRD-signed.pdf . August 12, 2022.
255. June 2018 . 2015 Census of Population . Census Facts and Figures . Quezon City, Philippines . . 11 . 0117-1453 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220814193607/https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/_2015_Census%20Facts%20and%20Figures_Philippines_MERGE.pdf . August 14, 2022 . July 25, 2020.
256. Overcoming Poverty and Inequality in the Philippines; Past, Present, and Prospects for the Future . . April 2, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221206083125/https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099325011232224571/pdf/P17486101e29310810abaf0e8e336aed85a.pdf . December 6, 2022 . 3.
257. Mapa . Claire Dennis S. . Dennis Mapa . August 15, 2022 . Proportion of Poor Filipinos was Recorded at 18.1 Percent in 2021 . . November 8, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220816035933/https://psa.gov.ph/poverty-press-releases/nid/167972 . August 16, 2022.
258. Book: Banlaoi, Rommel . Philippine Security in the Age of Terror: National, Regional, and Global Challenges in the Post-9/11 World . 2009 . . Boca Raton, Fla. . 978-1-4398-1551-9 . 31–32 . Rommel Banlaoi.
259. February 2010 . Fast Facts: Indigenous Peoples in the Philippines . https://web.archive.org/web/20230225201804/https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/migration/ph/fastFacts6---Indigenous-Peoples-in-the-Philippines-rev-1.5.pdf . February 25, 2023 . February 25, 2023 . United Nations Development Programme.
260. Cariño . Jacqueline K. . November 2012 . Country Technical Note on Indigenous Peoples' Issues; Republic of the Philippines . https://web.archive.org/web/20210809025044/https://www.ifad.org/documents/38714170/40224860/philippines_ctn.pdf/ae0faa4a-2b65-4026-8d42-219db776c50d . August 9, 2021 . November 11, 2022 . . 3–5, 31–47.
261. Book: Flannery, Tim . The Future Eaters: An Ecological History of the Australasian Lands and People . 2002 . . New York, N.Y. . 978-0-8021-3943-6 . 147 . Tim Flannery.
262. Reich . David . Patterson . Nick . Kircher . Martin . Delfin . Frederick . Nandineni . Madhusudan R. . Pugach . Irina . Ko . Albert Min-Shan . Ko . Ying-Chin . Jinam . Timothy A. . Phipps . Maude E. . Saitou . Naruya . Wollstein . Andreas . Kayser . Manfred . Pääbo . Svante . Stoneking . Mark . October 2011 . Denisova Admixture and the First Modern Human Dispersals into Southeast Asia and Oceania . . 89 . 4 . 516–528 . 10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.09.005 . 3188841 . 21944045 . free.
263. Capelli . Christian . Wilson . James F. . Richards . Martin . Stumpf . Michael P.H. . Gratrix . Fiona . Oppenheimer . Stephen . Underhill . Peter . Ko . Tsang-Ming . 2001 . A Predominantly Indigenous Paternal Heritage for the Austronesian-Speaking Peoples of Insular South Asia and Oceania . . 68 . 2 . 432–443 . 10.1086/318205 . 1235276 . 11170891 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110511201051/http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2001_v68_p432.pdf . May 11, 2011 . December 18, 2009 . free.
264. Soares . Pedro A. . Trejaut . Jean A. . Rito . Teresa . Cavadas . Bruno . Hill . Catherine . Eng . Ken Khong . Mormina . Maru . Brandão . Andreia . Fraser . Ross M. . Wang . Tse-Yi . Loo . Jun-Hun . Snell . Christopher . Ko . Tsang-Ming . Amorim . António . Pala . Maria . Macaulay . Vincent . Bulbeck . David . Wilson . James F. . Gusmão . Leonor . Pereira . Luísa . Oppenheimer . Stephen . Lin . Marie . Richards . Martin B. . Resolving the ancestry of Austronesian-speaking populations . . . March 2016 . 135 . 3 . 309–326 . 10.1007/s00439-015-1620-z . 4757630 . 26781090 . free.
265. Larena . Maximilian . Sanchez-Quinto . Federico . Sjödin . Per . McKenna . James . Ebeo . Carlo . Reyes . Rebecca . Casel . Ophelia . Huang . Jin-Yuan . Hagada . Kim Pullupul . Guilay . Dennis . Reyes . Jennelyn . March 30, 2021 . Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years . . . 118 . 13 . e2026132118 . 2021PNAS..11826132L . 10.1073/pnas.2026132118 . 0027-8424 . 8020671 . 33753512 . free.
266. Mawson . Stephanie J. . June 15, 2016 . Convicts or Conquistadores? Spanish Soldiers in the Seventeenth-Century Pacific . . . 232 . 87–125 . 10.1093/pastj/gtw008 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180603111934/https://academic.oup.com/past/article/232/1/87/1752419 . June 3, 2018 . July 28, 2020 . free.
267. Book: Mehl, Eva Maria . Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World: From Mexico to the Philippines, 1765–1811 . 2016 . . Cambridge, England . 978-1-316-48012-0 . 10.1017/CBO9781316480120.
268. Book: Park, Paula C. . Intercolonial Intimacies: Relinking Latin/o America to the Philippines, 1898–1964 . 2022 . . Pittsburgh, Pa. . 978-0-8229-8873-1 . en . 3: On the Globality of Mexico and the Manila Galleon.
269. Book: McFerson . Hazel M. . Mixed Blessing: The Impact of the American Colonial Experience on Politics and Society in the Philippines . Contributions in Comparative Colonial Studies . 2002 . . Westport, Conn. . 978-0-313-30791-1 . 23.
270. PhD . Villaraza . Lily Ann B. . Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow: A Study of Aurelio Tolentino's Articulation of Nationalism and Identity through Theatre in the Philippines during the American Colonial Period . Huskie Commons . . July 24, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230724162046/https://huskiecommons.lib.niu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=7758&context=allgraduate-thesesdissertations . July 24, 2023 . 52–54 . January 1, 2017 . 1257957511.
271. Book: Chu, Richard T. . Chinese and Chinese Mestizos of Manila: Family, Identity, and Culture, 1860s–1930s . January 25, 2010 . . Leiden, Netherlands . 978-90-474-2685-1 . 240 . en.
272. Carter . Lauren Louise . April 1995 . M.A. thesis . The ethnic Chinese variable in domestic and foreign policies in Malaysia and Indonesia . https://web.archive.org/web/20181101131721/http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/6689/b1744892x.pdf . November 1, 2018 . July 16, 2020 . Summit Research Repository . . 5, 96.
273. Book: Wong, Kwok-Chu . The Chinese in the Philippine Economy, 1898–1941 . 1999 . . Quezon City, Philippines . 978-971-550-323-5 . 15–16.
274. Senate declares Chinese New Year as special working holiday . January 21, 2013 . PRIB, Office of the Senate Secretary, Senate of the Philippines . Macrohon . Pilar . https://web.archive.org/web/20210516035425/http://legacy.senate.gov.ph/press_release/2013/0121_prib1.asp . May 16, 2021.
275. Book: de Zúñiga . Joaquín Martínez . Retana . Wenceslao Emilio . Estadismo de las Islas Filipinas: Ó, Mis Viajes Por Este País; Tomo Primero . December 1893 . Imp. de la Viuda de M. Minuesa de los Ríos . Madrid, Spain . Spanish . https://web.archive.org/web/20150721063037/http://www.xeniaeditrice.it/zu%C3%B1igaIocrpdf.pdf . July 21, 2015 . es.
276. Book: de Zúñiga . Joaquín Martínez . Retana . Wenceslao Emilio . Estadismo de las Islas Filipinas: Ó, Mis Viajes Por Este País; Tomo Segundo . December 1893 . Imp. de la Viuda de M. Minuesa de los Ríos . Madrid, Spain . Spanish . es.
277. 200,000–250,000 or More Military Filipino Amerasians Alive Today in Republic of the Philippines according to USA-RP Joint Research Paper Finding . November 5, 2012 . July 11, 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20131101212827/http://amerasianresearch.org/releases/amerasianresearch-2012-09.pdf . November 1, 2013 . Amerasian Research Network, Ltd..
278. Book: Daboo . Jerri . Sinthuphan . Jirayudh . Mapping Migration: Culture and Identity in the Indian Diasporas of Southeast Asia and the UK . October 1, 2018 . . Newcastle upon Tyne, England . 978-1-5275-1775-2 . 4 . en.
279. Sevilla . Henelito Jr. . West Asian Communities in the Philippines: An Exploratory Study of Migrant Iranians, Jews, Arabs, and Turkish . Asian Studies: Journal of Critical Perspectives on Asia . . 2015 . 51 . 1 . 98, 100 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150911231845/https://www.asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-51-1-2015/West%20Asian%20Communities%20in%20the%20Philippines%20-%20Migrant%20Iranians%20Jews%20Arabs%20and%20Turkish.pdf . September 11, 2015 . April 18, 2023.
280. Book: Terpstra . Nicholas . Global Reformations: Transforming Early Modern Religions, Societies, and Cultures . 2019 . . London, England . 978-0-429-67825-7.
281. Book: Asher . R. E. . Moseley . Christopher . Atlas of the World's Languages . Second . April 19, 2018 . . Florence, Ky. . 978-1-317-85108-0 . en.
282. Reid . Lawrence A. . June 1, 1994 . Possible Non-Austronesian Lexical Elements in Philippine Negrito Languages . . Honolulu, Hawaii . . 33 . 1 . 37–72 . 10.2307/3623000 . 3623000 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220711143411/https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f88d1c43-3ab9-4d31-b1ab-d717149582e8/content . July 11, 2022 . February 18, 2023 . . Lawrence A. Reid. 10125/32986 . free .
283. Book: Takacs, Sarolta . The Modern World: Civilizations of Africa, Civilizations of Europe, Civilizations of the Americas, Civilizations of the Middle East and Southwest Asia, Civilizations of Asia and the Pacific . 2015 . . London, England . 978-1-317-45572-1 . 659.
284. Book: Brown . Michael Edward . Fighting Words: Language Policy and Ethnic Relations in Asia . BCSIA Studies in International Security . Ganguly . Sumit . 2003 . . Cambridge, Mass. . 978-0-262-52333-2 . 323–325 . Sumit Ganguly.
285. Bautista . Maria Lourdes S. . Tagalog-English Code Switching as a Mode of Discourse . Asia Pacific Education Review . June 2004 . 5 . 2 . 226–231 . 10.1007/BF03024960 . July 3, 2023 . . 1598-1037 . 425894528 . 145684166.
286. XIV . 7 . the Philippines . 1987 . https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-1987-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines/the-1987-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines-article-xiv/ . https://web.archive.org/web/20170609073807/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-1987-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines/the-1987-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines-article-xiv/ . June 9, 2017 . February 11, 2023 . Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines.
287. Book: Stewart, Miranda . The Spanish Language Today . 2012 . . London, England . 978-1-134-76548-5 . 9.
288. Book: Conference proceeding . Pidginization and Creolization of Languages; Proceedings of a Conference Held at the University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica, April 1968 . 1971 . . Cambridge, England . 978-0-521-09888-5 . Hymes . Dell . 223 . Dell Hymes.
289. Book: Aspillera . Paraluman S. . Basic Tagalog for Foreigners and Non-Tagalogs (with Online Audio) . Revised Third . Hernandez . Yolanda Canseco . July 1, 2014 . . North Clarendon, Vt. . 978-1-4629-0166-1 . 9 . en.
290. Book: Allan . Keith . Dynamics of Language Changes: Looking Within and Across Languages . August 31, 2020 . . Singapore . 978-981-15-6430-7 . 204 . en.
291. Samid . Amina . Islamic Education and the Development of Madrasah Schools in the Philippines . International Journal of Political Studies . August 31, 2022 . 8 . 2 . 37,41–44 . 10.25272/icps.1139650 . August 14, 2024 . 2528-9969 . DergiPark Akademik.
292. Mapa . Dennis S. . Dennis Mapa . Tagalog is the Most Widely Spoken Language at Home (2020 Census of Population and Housing) . . January 8, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240108195246/https://psa.gov.ph/statistics/population-and-housing/node/1684041577 . January 8, 2024 . March 7, 2023.
293. Tamir . Christine . Connaughton . Aidan . Salazar . Ariana Monique . July 20, 2020 . The Global God Divide . https://web.archive.org/web/20200722193955/https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2020/07/20/the-global-god-divide/ . July 22, 2020 . February 18, 2023 . Pew Research Center.
294. Book: Bullivant . Stephen . The Oxford Handbook of Atheism . Ruse . Michael . November 21, 2013 . . Oxford, England . 978-0-19-166739-8 . 563.
295. Book: Martin . Michael . The Cambridge Companion to Atheism . October 30, 2006 . . Cambridge, England . 978-1-139-82739-3 . 61 . en . Michael Ruse.
296. . 2015 Census of Population, Report No. 2 – Demographic and Socioeconomic Characteristics Philippines . June 2017 . Table 8: Total Population by Religious Affiliation and Sex: 2015 . 0117-1453 . August 6, 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221009143047/http://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/2015%20CPH_REPORT%20NO.%202_PHILIPPINES.pdf . October 9, 2022 . live.
297. July 28, 2014 . 2013 International Religious Freedom Report . https://web.archive.org/web/20190526202948/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2013/eap/222161.htm . May 26, 2019 . July 15, 2020 . United States Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor.
298. 2014 . Philippines 2015 International Religious Freedom Report . https://web.archive.org/web/20170121020127/https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/256347.pdf . January 21, 2017 . April 11, 2023 . . 1–2.
299. June 2, 2022 . 2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Philippines . https://web.archive.org/web/20221209100417/https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/philippines/ . December 9, 2022 . February 7, 2023 . . . Section I. Religious Demography.
300. February 13, 2013 . The Global Catholic Population . https://web.archive.org/web/20130928103612/https://www.pewforum.org/2013/02/13/the-global-catholic-population/ . September 28, 2013 . . Which countries have the most Catholics now?.
301. Mapa . Dennis S. . Dennis Mapa . February 22, 2023 . Religious Affiliation in the Philippines (2020 Census of Population and Housing) . https://web.archive.org/web/20230310184554/https://psa.gov.ph/content/religious-affiliation-philippines-2020-census-population-and-housing . March 10, 2023 . March 12, 2023 . Philippine Statistics Authority.
302. Jones . Arun W. . Local Agency and the Reception of Protestantism in the Philippines . Journal of Asian/North American Theological Educators . 2016 . 2 . 1 . 61 . May 16, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181109154652/http://janate.org/index.php/janate/article/download/1319/2198 . November 9, 2018.
303. Book: Kim . Sebastian . Christianity as a World Religion: An Introduction . Second . Kim . Kirsteen . November 3, 2016 . . London, England . 978-1-4725-6936-3 . 70 . en . Sebastian Kim . Kirsteen Kim.
304. Book: An-Na'im . Abdullahi . Islamic Family Law in a Changing World: A Global Resource Book . October 11, 2002 . . London, England . 978-1-84277-093-1 . 5.
305. Book: Min . Pyong Gap . Religions in Asian America: Building Faith Communities . Kim . Jung Ha . 2001 . . Walnut Creek, Calif. . 978-1-4616-4762-1 . 144 . Pyong Gap Min.
306. Book: Yu, Jose Vidamor B. . Inculturation of Filipino-Chinese Culture Mentality . Interreligious and Intercultural Investigations . 3 . 2000 . . Rome, Italy . 978-88-7652-848-4 . 87–88.
307. 2018 . National Objectives for Health Philippines, 2017–2022 . National Objectives for Health . Manila, Philippines . . 1908-6768 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200913150355/https://www.doh.gov.ph/sites/default/files/health_magazine/NOH-2017-2022-030619-1%281%29_0.pdf . September 13, 2020 . September 13, 2020.
308. The Country's Total Health Spending Contributes 5.5 Percent to the Economy in 2022 . August 30, 2023 . . https://web.archive.org/web/20230901100356/https://psa.gov.ph/content/countrys-total-health-spending-contributes-55-percent-economy-2022 . September 1, 2023 . live.
309. Mapa . Dennis S. . Dennis Mapa . Registered Deaths in the Philippines, 2021 . . May 20, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230324134007/https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/attachments/crd/specialrelease/SR%20Death%20Statistics%202021_0.pdf . March 24, 2023 . 6 . February 22, 2023.
310. Salazar . Miguel Antonio . Pesigan . Arturo . Law . Ronald . Winkler . Volker . December 1, 2016 . Post-disaster health impact of natural hazards in the Philippines in 2013 . . . 9 . 1 . 31320 . 10.3402/gha.v9.31320 . 4871893 . 27193265 . free.
311. Orange Health Consultants . Health Care in the Philippines . Netherlands Enterprise Agency (RVO) . March 17, 2023 . Rotterdam, Netherlands . April 2021 . Organization of the health care system . https://web.archive.org/web/20211017093201/https://www.rvo.nl/sites/default/files/2021/06/Healthcare-in-The-Philippines.pdf . October 17, 2021.
312. Cachero . Paulina . May 30, 2021 . How Filipino Nurses Have Propped Up America's Medical System . . en . https://web.archive.org/web/20210530110820/https://time.com/6051754/history-filipino-nurses-us/ . May 30, 2021 . November 11, 2022.
313. Lorenzo . Fely Marilyn . Galvez-Tan . Jaime . Icamina . Kriselle . Javier . Lara . 2007 . Nurse Migration from a Source Country Perspective: Philippine Country Case Study . . . 42 . 3 (pt 2) . 1406–1418 . 10.1111/j.1475-6773.2007.00716.x . 1955369 . 17489922.
314. Book: OECD . Interrelations between Public Policies, Migration and Development in the Philippines . OECD Development Pathways . Scalabrini Migration Center . 2017 . . Paris, France . 978-92-64-27228-6 . 138–139 . en . OECD.
315. Book: Nagao . Masafumi . Mathematics and Science Education in Developing Countries: Issues, Experiences, and Cooperation Prospects . Rogan . John M. . Magno . Marcelita Coronel . 2007 . . Quezon City, Philippines . 978-971-542-533-9 . 31 . en.
316. Book: Wu . Qiuchen . Bai . Bin . Zhu . Xiaolin . Vocational Education and Training in ASEAN Member States . Bai . Bin . Paryono . Perspectives on Rethinking and Reforming Education . April 2019 . Technical and Vocational Education and Training in the Philippines: Development and Status Quo . 155, 158 . . Singapore . 978-981-13-6616-1 . 10.1007/978-981-13-6617-8_7 . 159328746 .
317. Book: Mooney . Thomas Brian . Aquinas, Education and the East . Sophia Studies in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Traditions and Cultures . Nowacki . Mark . 2013 . . Dordrecht, Netherlands . 978-94-007-5261-0 . 185 . en.
318. June 9, 2022 . DepEd, UNICEF strengthen Alternative Learning System toward quality, relevant second chance basic education . en . . February 22, 2023 . https://archive.today/20230222171030/https://www.unicef.org/philippines/press-releases/deped-unicef-strengthen-alternative-learning-system-toward-quality-relevant-second . February 22, 2023.
319. Web site: About Us . Catholic Educational Association of the Philippines . March 24, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231203064402/https://www.ceap.org.ph/who-we-are/about-ceap . December 3, 2023 . live .
320. Encyclopedia: Peters . Michael A. . Aguas . Jove Jim S. . Encyclopedia of Teacher Education . 2019 . . Singapore . 978-981-13-1179-6 . March 24, 2024 . en . Catholic Education in the Philippines . 1–7 . https://www.academia.edu/50848177 . 10.1007/978-981-13-1179-6_147-1 . Michael Peters (education academic) . Academia.edu.
321. Table 2. Distribution of Higher Education Institutions by Region and Sector: AY 2019–20 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210728115539/https://ched.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/Distribution-of-Higher-Education-Institutions-by-Region-and-Sector-AY-2019-20.pdf . July 28, 2021 . January 12, 2022 . Commission on Higher Education.
322. New measures support university and technical students in the Philippines – Asia 2019 . Oxford Business Group . March 19, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230319071934/https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/reports/philippines/2019-report/economy/working-the-plan-five-years-into-basic-education-reform-programme-rollout-shifts-to-supporting-university-and-technical-school-students . March 19, 2023 . Sector Structure . September 9, 2019.
323. Encyclopedia: Ness . Daniel . Lin . Chia-Ling . International Education: An Encyclopedia of Contemporary Issues and Systems . 1–2 . March 17, 2015 . . Abingdon, Oxon, England . 978-1-317-46751-9 . Philippines . 459 . en.
324. The University of the Philippines Charter of 2008 . RA . 9500 . April 19, 2008 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180830074039/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2008/04/19/republic-act-no-9500/ . August 30, 2018 . February 6, 2023 . . Metro Manila, Philippines.
325. Book: Krishna . V. V. . Universities in the National Innovation Systems: Experiences from the Asia-Pacific . 2017 . . London, England . 978-1-351-61900-4 . 328.
326. Book: Yu Chang . Albert Vincent Y. . A Legal Guide to Doing Business in the Asia-Pacific . Thorson . Andrew . 2010 . . Chicago, Ill. . 978-1-60442-843-8 . 288.
327. Commercial Setting: The Philippines . Federal Register . March 15, 2013 . . 78 . 51 . 16468.
328. January 26, 2023 . GDP Expands by 7.2 Percent in the Fourth Quarter of 2022, and by 7.6 Percent in Full-year 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230130010406/https://psa.gov.ph/national-accounts . January 30, 2023 . March 13, 2023 . Philippine Statistics Authority.
329. Mapa . Dennis S. . Dennis Mapa . Unemployment Rate in December 2023 was Estimated at 3.1 Percent . https://web.archive.org/web/20240207091631/https://psa.gov.ph/content/unemployment-rate-december-2023-was-estimated-31-percent . February 7, 2024 . . live.
330. International Monetary Fund. Monetary and Capital Markets Department . Annual Report on Exchange Arrangements and Exchange Restrictions 1999 . September 17, 1999 . . Washington, D.C. . 978-1-4519-4280-4 . 683 . April 17, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230409193323/https://www.elibrary.imf.org/downloadpdf/book/9781451942804/9781451942804.pdf . April 9, 2023.
331. Book: SME Policy Index: ASEAN 2018: Boosting Competitiveness and Inclusive Growth . September 21, 2018 . The Philippines . 371–373 . OECD Publishing. Paris, France; Jakarta, Indonesia . 978-92-64-30531-1 . https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/9789264305328-22-en.pdf . May 12, 2023 . en . 10.1787/9789264305328-22-en . free.
332. Conference proceeding . 2018 . Critical Perspectives on Federalism for Regional Development (Proceedings of the Third Annual Public Policy Conference 2017) . Appc 2017 . Quezon City, Philippines . . xvii . 2546-1761 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230208162326/https://pidswebs.pids.gov.ph/CDN/PUBLICATIONS/pidsbk2018-appc2017.pdf . February 8, 2023 . February 8, 2023.
333. Seriño . Moises Neil V. . Effects of International Remittances on the Philippine Economy: A Cointegration Analysis . DLSU Business & Economics Review . 2012 . 21 . 2 . 47–48 . April 30, 2023 . . 855102346 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230430132943/https://www.dlsu.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/EffectsofInternationalRemittancesonthePhilippineEconomy_ACointegrationAnalysis.pdf . April 30, 2023.
334. Book: Stevens, Andrew J. R. . Routledge Advances in Sociology . Call Centers and the Global Division of Labor: A Political Economy of Post-Industrial Employment and Union Organizing . 2014 . . New York, N.Y. . 978-1-135-11868-6 . 1.
335. Book: Arenas . Guillermo . A New Dawn for Global Value Chain Participation in the Philippines . International Development in Focus . Coulibaly . Souleymane . 2022 . . Washington, D.C. . 978-1-4648-1848-6 . 28–29 . en.
336. Baconguis . Rowena T. . February 14, 2022 . Agricultural Technology: Why Does the Level of Agricultural Production Remain Low Despite Increased Investments in Research and Extension? . PIDS Discussion Paper Series . . Quezon City, Philippines . 1302730898 . 6 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230224005936/https://think-asia.org/bitstream/handle/11540/14877/pidsdps2206.pdf?sequence=1 . February 24, 2023 . February 24, 2023 . Think Asia.
337. Stads . Gert-Jan . Faylon . Patricio S. . Buendia . Leah J. . Key trends in agricultural R&D investments in the Philippines . https://archive.today/20230224011436/https://ebrary.ifpri.org/digital/collection/p15738coll2/id/32328 . March 2007 . February 24, 2023 . February 24, 2023 . International Food Policy Research Institute, Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development.
338. Book: Conference proceeding . Virmani . S. S. . Advances in Hybrid Rice Technology: Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium on Hybrid Rice, 14–16 November 1996, Hyderabad, India . Siddiq . E. A. . Muralidharan . K. . 1998 . . Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines . 978-971-22-0115-8 . 341 . en.
339. Book: Ricroch . Agnès . Plant Biotechnology: Experience and Future Prospects . Chopra . Surinder . Fleischer . Shelby J. . July 11, 2014 . . Cham, Switzerland. 978-3-319-06892-3 . 256 . en.
340. Encyclopedia: Cumo . Christopher . Coconut . Encyclopedia of Cultivated Plants: From Acacia to Zinnia . I: A–F . April 25, 2013 . . Santa Barbara, Calif. . 978-1-59884-775-8 . 298 . en.
341. Book: Conference proceeding . Molina . A. B. . Roa . V. N. . Maghuyop . M. A. G. . Advancing banana and plantain R & D in Asia and the Pacific Vol. 10: Proceedings of the 10th INIBAP-ASPNET Regional Advisory Committee meeting held at Bangkok, Thailand, 10–11 November 2000 . 2001 . . Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines . 978-971-91751-5-5 . 53 . en.
342. Book: Verspieren . Quentin . ASEAN Space Programs: History and Way Forward . Berthet . Maximilien . Coral . Giulio . Nakasuka . Shinichi . Shiroyama . Hideaki . January 12, 2022 . . Singapore . 978-981-16-7326-9 . 57–58 . en.
343. Book: Kim, Doo Hwan . Global Issues Surrounding Outer Space Law and Policy . Advances in Public Policy and Administration (APPA) Book Series . 2021 . IGI Global . Hershey, Pa. . 978-1-7998-7409-6 . 69 . en.
344. Pertierra . Raul . We Reveal Ourselves to Ourselves: The New Communication Media in the Philippines . Social Science Diliman . June 2013 . 9 . 1 . 25 . July 1, 2023 . . 1655-1524 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170225214150/https://journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/socialsciencediliman/article/view/3920/3573 . February 25, 2017.
345. Zafra . Maria Angela G. . Developing the Philippine Blue Economy: Opportunities and Challenges in the Ocean Tourism Sector . . May 14, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220104111713/https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/761906/adbi-wp1291.pdf . January 4, 2022 . Tokyo, Japan . 8–9 . December 2021 . ADBI Working Paper Series . 1291.
346. Book: Nordquist . Myron H. . Cooperation and Engagement in the Asia-Pacific Region . Moore . John Norton . Long . Ronán . November 11, 2019 . . Leiden, Netherlands . 978-90-04-41202-6 . 72 . en.
347. Philippines: Transport Sector Assessment, Strategy, and Road Map . 2012 . . Mandaluyong, Philippines . 978-92-9092-855-3 . 1–2 . August 9, 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160803210126/https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-document/33700/files/philippines-transport-assessment.pdf . August 3, 2016.
348. February 22, 2019 . Department of Public Works and Highways; Strategic Infrastructure Programs and Policies . https://web.archive.org/web/20200827174411/https://iro.ph/article_doc/eaaa3b67_Philippine%20Economic%20Briefing%20%28Osaka,Japan%29%20-%20DPWH%20Presentation.pdf . August 27, 2020 . September 2, 2020 . Investor Relations Office . . 2.
349. The Report: Philippines 2015 . 2015 . Oxford Business Group . London, England . 978-1-910068-26-7 . 152.
350. Odchimar . Anita II . Hanaoka . Shinya . Intermodal Road-RoRo Transport in the Philippines, its Development and Position in the Domestic Shipping . Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies . 2015 . 11 . 741–746 . 10.11175/easts.11.739 . May 10, 2023 . Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies . 1881-1124 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230510102758/https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/easts/11/0/11_739/_pdf/-char/ja . May 10, 2023 . . free.
351. Bridges across Oceans: Initial Impact Assessment of the Philippines Nautical Highway System and Lessons for Southeast Asia . April 2010 . . Metro Manila, Philippines . 978-971-561-896-0 . 11–17 . February 25, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230225182806/https://www.adb.org/publications/bridges-across-oceans-initial-impact-assessment-philippines-nautical-highway-system-and . February 25, 2023.
352. Department of Transportation . Local Public Transport Route Plan Manual . 1 . Department of the Interior and Local Government . Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board . October 2017 . 7, 16 . August 1, 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200801043749/https://www.dilg.gov.ph/PDF_File/reports_resources/dilg-reports-resources-2017112_2cf0f97098.pdf . August 1, 2020. Department of Transportation (Philippines) . Department of the Interior and Local Government . Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board.
353. Book: Hansen . Arve . Cars, Automobility and Development in Asia: Wheels of change . Routledge Studies in Transport, Environment and Development . Nielsen . Kenneth Bo . 2016 . . London, England . 978-1-317-39672-7 . 125.
354. December 2017 . Preparing the Metro Manila Transport Project, Phase 1: Project Preparatory Technical Assistance Report . https://web.archive.org/web/20220707035400/https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/linked-documents/51117-002-ld-01.pdf . July 7, 2022 . February 10, 2023 . Asian Development Bank.
355. Santos . Luis Pocholo A. . December 2020 . Influence of Traffic Congestion in Business Development: A Literature Review . International Journal of Engineering Science and Computing . 10 . 12 . 27497–27498 . 2321-3361 . February 10, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230210080714/https://ijesc.org/upload/2440a2983ccced0de91c9f08a3a6c875.Influence%20of%20Traffic%20Congestion%20in%20Business%20Development%20A%20Literature%20Review.pdf . February 10, 2023.
356. 1908 . The Railway Age . . en . XLV . 5 . 148 . 0149-4430 . 675807010.
357. Francisco . Kris A. . Lim . Valerie L. . December 2022 . Philippine Air Transport Infrastructure: State, Issues, Government Strategies . PIDS Discussion Paper Series . Quezon City, Philippines . . 3–5 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230103074218/https://pidswebs.pids.gov.ph/CDN/document/pidsdps2262.pdf . January 3, 2023 . February 21, 2023.
358. Book: Park . Seung Ho . ASEAN Champions: Emerging Stalwarts in Regional Integration . Ungson . Gerardo Rivera . Francisco . Jamil Paolo S. . 2017 . . Cambridge, England . 978-1-107-12900-9 . 80 . en.
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360. The Report: Philippines 2009 . Oxford Business Group . 2009 . London, England . 978-1-902339-12-2 . 97.
361. Doria . Sheena DC. . De Vera . Leo P. Jr. . Parel . Danice Angelee C. . Business Models and Selected Performance Metrics of Philippine Airlines and Cebu Pacific: An Exploratory Comparative Analysis . Southeast Asian Journal of Science and Technology . 2017 . 2 . 1 . 148–149 . April 7, 2023 . Pangasinan State University-Lingayen Campus . 2672-2992 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230407184736/https://www.sajst.org/online/index.php/sajst/article/download/197/144/ . April 7, 2023.
362. Book: Aguilar . Glenn D. . In Turbulent Seas: The Status of Philippine Marine Fisheries . . Cebu City, Philippines . 2004 . 978-971-92753-4-3 . Silvestre . Geronimo . 118–121 . Philippine Fishing Boats . Green . Stuart J. . White . Alan T. . Armada . Nygiel . Luna . Cesar . Cruz-Trinidad . Annabelle . Carreon . Marciano F. III . https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PBAAB124.pdf . https://web.archive.org/web/20170429082453/https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PBAAB124.pdf . April 29, 2017 . . April 2, 2023.
363. Funtecha . Henry F. . 2000 . The history and culture of boats and boat-building in the Western Visayas . Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society . . 28 . 2 . 0115-0243 . 111–132 . 29792457.
364. Ali . Mubarik . Porciuncula . Fe . Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Metro Manila: Resources and Opportunities for Food Production . December 1, 2001 . . 978-92-9058-121-5 . 12 . en.
365. Regional and subregional program links: Mapping the links between ASEAN and the GMS, BIMP-EAGA, and IMT-GT . September 2013 . . Mandaluyong, Philippines . 978-92-9254-203-0 . 27 . August 1, 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200801035953/https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/30420/regional-and-subregional-program-links.pdf . August 1, 2020.
366. PDP Australia Pty Ltd/Meyrick and Associates . March 1, 2005 . Promoting Efficient and Competitive Intra-ASEAN Shipping Services – The Philippines Country Report . https://web.archive.org/web/20200801041010/https://www.asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/Philippines.pdf . August 1, 2020 . August 1, 2020 . . 11.
367. 2021 Power Statistics . . May 20, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221221042947/https://www.doe.gov.ph/sites/default/files/pdf/energy_statistics/2021_power_statistics_02_installed_and_dependable_capacity_per_plant_type_per_grid.pdf . December 21, 2022.
368. Renewables 2022: Global Update Report . REN21 Secretariat . Paris, France . 2022 . 978-3-948393-04-5 . 108 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220616033736/https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/GSR2022_Full_Report.pdf . June 16, 2022.
369. GCC Annual Review 2021 . The Green Certificate Company Limited . 16 . February 19, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230219225148/https://gcc.re/documents/GCC_Annual_Review_2021Final.pdf . February 19, 2023.
370. The Report: Philippines 2016 . 2016 . Oxford Business Group . London, England . 978-1-910068-55-7 . 122 . en.
371. 40th Electric Power Industry Reform Act (EPIRA) Implementation Status Report (For the Report Period April 2022) . . August 31, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230501231703/https://www.doe.gov.ph/sites/default/files/pdf/electric_power/40th-EPIRA-Status_Report-FINAL.pdf . May 1, 2023 . 69.
372. Book: Pekkanen . Robert J. . The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Politics . Pekkanen . Saadia . October 25, 2021 . . New York, N.Y. . 978-0-19-005099-3 . 311 . en.
373. Book: Mochizuki . Mike . Nuclear Debates in Asia: The Role of Geopolitics and Domestic Processes . Ollapally . Deepa M. . 2016 . . Lanham, Md. . 978-1-4422-4700-0 . 194 . en . Deepa M. Ollapally.
374. Book: Franceys . Richard . Regulating Water and Sanitation for the Poor: Economic Regulation for Public and Private Partnerships . Gerlach . Esther . May 4, 2012 . . London, England . 978-1-136-55889-4 . 146 . en.
375. Book: Kohsaka . Akira . Infrastructure Development in the Pacific Region . 2007 . . Abingdon, Oxon, England . 978-1-134-22761-7 . 227 . en.
376. Book: McDonald . David A. . Rethinking Corporatization and Public Services in the Global South . April 10, 2014 . . London, England . 978-1-78360-020-5 . en.
377. Del Prado . Divina Gracia L. . Country's Overall Water Use Efficiency increased by 5.5 percent in 2022 . October 5, 2023 . . https://web.archive.org/web/20231005062929/https://psa.gov.ph/content/countrys-overall-water-use-efficiency-increased-55-percent-2022 . October 5, 2023 . live.
378. Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2015 Update and MDG Assessment . 2015 . . Geneva, Switzerland . 978-92-4-150914-5 . 68.
379. Book: Bankoff . Greg . Post-Colonial National Identity in the Philippines: Celebrating the Centennial of Independence . Routledge Revivals . Weekley . Kathleen . 2017 . . London, England . 978-1-351-74209-2.
380. Book: Edelstein . Sari . Food, Cuisine, and Cultural Competency for Culinary, Hospitality, and Nutrition Professionals . . Sudbury, Mass. . 2011 . 978-0-7637-5965-0 . 515.
381. Encyclopedia: Williams . Victoria R. . Igorot . Indigenous Peoples: An Encyclopedia of Culture, History, and Threats to Survival . Illustrated . February 24, 2020 . . Santa Barbara, Calif. . 978-1-4408-6118-5 . 473 . en.
382. Encyclopedia: Minahan . James B. . Cordillerans . Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An Encyclopedia . Illustrated . Ethnic Groups of the World . August 30, 2012 . . Santa Barbara, Calif. . 978-1-59884-660-7 . en.
383. Book: Law, Gwillim . Administrative Subdivisions of Countries: A Comprehensive World Reference, 1900 through 1998 . November 19, 2010 . . Jefferson, N.C. . 978-0-7864-6097-7 . 289 . en.
384. Book: Nadal, Kevin L. . Filipino American Psychology: A Handbook of Theory, Research, and Clinical Practice . March 23, 2011 . . Hoboken, N.J. . 978-1-118-01977-1 . en . Kevin Nadal.
385. Regular Holidays and Nationwide Special Days . EO . 292 . Chapter 7, section 26: Regular Holidays and Nationwide Special Days . July 25, 1987 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170903160004/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1987/07/25/executive-order-no-292-book-ichapter-7-regular-holidays-and-nationwide-special-days/ . September 3, 2017 . March 10, 2023 . . Manila, Philippines.
386. Chan . Richel Royce T. . The Festival Extravaganza of Vigan City, Philippines . UNP Research Journal . January 2020 . XXIX . 64–66 . . 0119-3058 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230430021308/https://vector.unp.edu.ph/index.php/1/article/download/57/7/251 . April 30, 2023.
387. Wendt . Reinhard . Philippine Fiesta and Colonial Culture . . . 1998 . 46 . 1 . 4–5 . 0031-7837 . 42633620.
388. Pison . Ruth Jordana . The Dinagyang Festival: An Afterlife of the Ilonggos' Faith . Journal of English Studies and Comparative Literature . May 28, 2019 . 16 . 81, 85 . August 30, 2023 . . en . 0119-1721.
389. Lopez . Patricia Marion Y. . Mary as Mother in the Flores de Mayo in Poblacion, Oslob . Humanities Diliman: A Philippine Journal of Humanities . February 22, 2016 . 13 . 1 . 101 . August 30, 2023 . . en . 2012-0788 . 7181411125 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160623012242/https://journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/humanitiesdiliman/article/view/4932/4444 . June 23, 2016.
390. Book: Rood, Steven . The Philippines: What Everyone Needs to Know® . June 15, 2019 . . New York, N.Y. . 978-0-19-092060-9 . en.
391. Book: Sexton, Colleen A. . Philippines in Pictures . Visual Geography Series . January 1, 2006 . . Minneapolis, Minn. . 978-0-8225-2677-3 . 46 . en.
392. Book: Qiu . Renzong . Bioethics: Asian Perspectives: A Quest for Moral Diversity . Philosophy and Medicine . 80 . 2004 . . Dordrecht, Netherlands . 978-1-4020-1795-7 . en . Qiu Renzong.
393. Hallig . Jason V. . Communicating Holiness to the Filipinos: Challenges and Needs the Path to a Filipino Theology of Holiness . Didache: Faithful Teaching . 2 . 1 . 1536-0156 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110720015814/http://didache.nts.edu/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=277&Itemid . July 20, 2011 . February 10, 2023 . . 2, 10.
394. Book: Alora . Angeles Tan . Beyond a Western Bioethics: Voices from the Developing World . Lumitao . Josephine M. . 2001 . . Washington, D.C. . 978-1-58901-249-3 . 57 . en.
395. Book: Tabadda . Emil V. . Gripaldo . Rolando M. . Filipino Cultural Traits: Claro R. Ceniza Lectures . Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change Series IIID, Southeast Asia . 4 . 2005 . Council for Research in Values and Philosophy . Washington, D.C. . 978-1-56518-225-7 . 35–39 . Chapter II: A Phenomenology of the Tagalog Notions of Hiya [Shame] and Dangal [Dignity] . https://books.google.com/books?id=hXJe6vKMjroC&pg=PA21.
396. Book: Warner . Malcolm . Culture and Management in Asia . March 5, 2014 . . London, England . 978-1-136-49760-5 . 157 . en.
397. Book: Smith . Bradford . Philanthropy in Communities of Color . Shue . Sylvia . Vest . Jennifer Lisa . Villarreal . Joseph . 1999 . . Bloomington, Ind. . 978-0-253-11293-4 . 89–90 . en.
398. Book: Naylor . Larry L. . Cultural Diversity in the United States . 1997 . . Westport, Conn. . 978-0-89789-479-1 . 179 . en.
399. Book: Bonifacio, Glenda Tibe . Pinay on the Prairies: Filipino Women and Transnational Identities . November 15, 2013 . . Vancouver, Canada . 978-0-7748-2582-5 . 192 . en.
400. Encyclopedia: Nadal . Kevin Leo Yabut . Family Structure . The SAGE Encyclopedia of Filipina/x/o American Studies . Tintiangco-Cubales . Allyson . David . E. J. R. . November 3, 2022 . . Thousand Oaks, Calif. . 978-1-0718-2901-1 . Hierarchy . en. Kevin Nadal.
401. Book: Talisayon . Serafin D. . Dy . Manuel B. . Values in Philippine Culture and Education . Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change Series III. Asia; Philippine Philosophical Studies . 7 . Office of Research and Publications, Council for Research in Values and Philosophy . Washington, D.C. . 1994 . 978-1-56518-040-6 . 155 . Chapter 13: Teaching Values in the Natural and Physical Sciences in the Philippines . https://www.crvp.org/publications/Series-III/III-7.pdf . September 3, 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220804051616/https://www.crvp.org/publications/Series-III/III-7.pdf . August 4, 2022.
402. Book: Panizo . Alfredo . Rustia . Erlinda F. . Introduction to Art Appreciation and Aesthetics: An Approach to the Humanities . . Manila, Philippines . 978-971-23-1932-7 . 1969 . 156 . en.
403. Book: McFerson . Hazel M. . Mixed Blessing: The Impact of the American Colonial Experience on Politics and Society in the Philippines . 2002 . . Westport, Conn. . 978-0-313-30791-1 . 22–23 . en.
404. Book: Foster . Simon . The Rough Guide to the Philippines . Deere . Kiki . October 1, 2014 . . London, England . 978-0-241-01376-2 . en.
405. Book: Yu . Pei-Lin . Relevance and Application of Heritage in Contemporary Society . Shen . Chen . Smith . George S. . 2018 . . New York, N.Y. . 978-1-351-33296-5 . en.
406. Book: Brown . Jessica . The Protected Landscape Approach: Linking Nature, Culture and Community . Mitchell . Nora J. . Beresford . Michael . 2005 . . Gland, Switzerland . 978-2-8317-0797-6 . 101 . en.
407. Cruz . Geoffrey Rhoel C. . A Review of How Philippine Colonial Experience Influenced the Country's Approaches to Conservation of Cultural Heritage . April 1, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210517150542/https://www.dlsu.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/pdf/conferences/arts-congress-proceedings/2019/FAC-02.pdf . May 17, 2021 . . Arts Congress Proceedings . 3 . 9 . February 2019 . Manila, Philippines . 12th Arts Congress . 2012-0311 . The Philippine Built Cultural Heritage.
408. Book: Ortiz . Ma. Aurora R. . Erestain . Teresita E. . Guillermo . Alice G. . Montano . Myrna C. . Pilar . Santiago A. . Art: Perception & Appreciation . Goodwill Trading Co., Inc. . Makati, Philippines . 978-971-11-0933-2 . 287 . en.
409. Book: Girard, Jean-Claude . Leandro Valencia Locsin: Filipino architect . December 6, 2021 . . Basel, Switzerland . 978-3-0356-2093-1 . 23–25 . en.
410. Book: Harrison . Peter . Castles of God: Fortified Religious Buildings of the World . 2004 . . Woodbridge, Suffolk, England . 978-1-84383-066-5 . 190 . en.
411. Rabang . Marie Rose Q. . Cultural Mapping as a Tool in Heritage Conservation in a World Heritage Site: The Vigan City Experience . Journal Sampurasun: Interdisciplinary Studies for Cultural Heritage . December 4, 2015 . 1 . 1 . 31 . 10.23969/sampurasun.v1i1.26 . April 19, 2023 . Research Institute of Pasundan University . https://web.archive.org/web/20230429061850/https://journal.unpas.ac.id/index.php/sampurasun/article/download/26/7/58 . April 29, 2023 . free.
412. Ancho . Inero . San Juan . Mark Ponce . Preservation Of Heritage School Buildings In The Philippines: A Case Study Of The Gabaldon Buildings . Journal of Urban Culture Research . 2021 . 22 . 106–109 . 10.14456/jucr.2021.8 . August 13, 2024 . 2408-1213.
413. Book: Adams, Thomas . Outline of Town and City Planning . November 2004 . . London, England . 978-0-415-16094-0 . 201 . en.
414. Book: Kirsch, Scott . American Colonial Spaces in the Philippines: Insular Empire . Routledge Research in Historical Geography . February 15, 2023 . . Abingdon, Oxon, England . 978-1-000-83977-7 . en.
415. Book: Villaruz, Basilio Esteban S. . Treading Through: 45 Years of Philippine Dance . 2006 . . Quezon City, Philippines . 978-971-542-509-4.
416. Book: Rodríguez, José Miguel Díaz . The Appeal of the Philippines: Spain, Cultural Representation and Politics . Routledge Contemporary Southeast Asia Series . 2018 . . London, England . 978-1-351-99811-6 . en.
417. Book: Parfitt . Clare . Cultural Memory and Popular Dance: Dancing to Remember, Dancing to Forget . Palgrave Macmillan Memory Studies . 2021 . . Cham, Switzerland . 978-3-030-71083-5 . 189 . en.
418. Namiki . Kanami . Hybridity and National Identity: Different Perspectives of Two National Folk Dance Companies in the Philippines . Asian Studies . 2011 . 47 . Special Issue: Cultural Hybridities of the Philippines . 69, 84 . May 10, 2023 . . 0004-4679 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130711181559/https://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-47-2011/vol-47-2011-cultural-hybridities-philippines.pdf . July 11, 2013.
419. Book: Burridge . Stephanie . The Routledge Companion to Dance in Asia and the Pacific: Platforms for Change . September 9, 2021 . . London, England . 978-1-000-44021-8 . en.
420. Encyclopedia: Martin . Andrew R. . Mihalka . Matthew . Philippines, Music of the . Music around the World: A Global Encyclopedia . September 8, 2020 . 1st . . Santa Barbara, Calif. . 978-1-61069-499-5 . 665 . en.
421. Book: Ellingham, Mark . The Rough Guide to World Music . 2: Latin and North America, Caribbean, India, Asia & Pacific . Rough Guide Music Guides . . London, England . 2000 . 978-1-85828-636-5 . 214.
422. Book: Murray . Jeremy A. . Pop Culture in Asia and Oceania . Entertainment and Society around the World . Nadeau . Kathleen . August 15, 2016 . . Santa Barbara, Calif. . 978-1-4408-3991-7 . en.
423. Shunwei . Liu . Jia . Li . Establishment of Philippine Popular Music Industry . Multicultural Education . June 7, 2022 . 8 . 6 . 60, 66–67 . 10.5281/zenodo.6618973 . free . April 30, 2023 . International Journal Documentation & Research Institute.
424. Encyclopedia: Goldsmith . Melissa Ursula Dawn . The Philippines . Hip Hop around the World: An Encyclopedia . Illustrated . I and II: A–Z . Fonseca . Anthony J. . December 2018 . . Santa Barbara, Calif. . 978-0-313-35759-6 . 552–553.
425. Book: Klempe, Sven Hroar . Sound and Reason: Synesthesia as Metacognition . Palgrave Studies in Sound . 2022 . . Singapore . 978-981-19-2340-1 . 83 . en.
426. Book: Liu . Siyuan . Routledge Handbook of Asian Theatre . Routledge Handbooks . 2016 . . London, England . 978-1-317-27886-3 . 372–373.
427. Book: Literaturen . 1976 . . Leiden, Netherlands . 978-90-04-04331-2 . 277 . en.
428. Book: Rodriguez . Eulogio Balan . The Adarna Bird: A Filipino Tale of Pre-Spanish Origin Incorporated in the Development of Philippine Literature, the Rapid Growth of Vernacular Belles-letters from Its Earliest Inception to the Present Day . 1933 . General Printing Press . Manila, Philippines . . 51–52 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230725001440/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=philamer;idno=AJV4301.0001.001 . July 25, 2023 . 34358713 . University of Michigan Library.
429. Lumbera . Bienvenido . 'Florante at Laura' and the Formalization of Tradition in Tagalog Poetry . . 1967 . 15 . 4 . 545–575 . . 0031-7837 . 42720240.
430. Book: Blanco, John D. . Frontier Constitutions: Christianity and Colonial Empire in the Nineteenth-Century Philippines . February 24, 2009 . . Berkeley, Calif. . 978-0-520-94369-8 . 55 . en.
431. Bernad . Miguel A. . Rizal in Guerrero's Translation: El Filibusterismo . . 1967 . 15 . 1 . 204 . April 30, 2023 . . 0031-7837 . https://web.archive.org/web/20171108185224/http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/2299/4425 . November 8, 2017.
432. Encyclopedia: Tarver . H. Micheal . Slape . Emily . The Spanish Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia . Empires of the World . I . Illustrated . Philippine Revolution (1896–1898) . July 25, 2016 . . Santa Barbara, Calif. . 978-1-61069-422-3 . 108 . en.
433. Reyes . Soledad S. . Soledad Reyes . The Philippine 'Komiks': Text as Containment . Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science . 1997 . 25 . 1 . 81–81, 85–87 . . 10.1163/030382497X00059 . 24492451 . 0303-8246 . 9982710804.
434. Reyes . Soledad S. . Soledad Reyes . The Komiks and Retelling the Lore of the Folk . . 2009 . 57 . 3 . 389–390 . . 42634017 . 0031-7837 . 9975776944.
435. Encyclopedia: Fee . Christopher R. . Filipino American Folklore and Folktales . American Myths, Legends, and Tall Tales: An Encyclopedia of American Folklore . I: A–F . Webb . Jeffrey B. . August 29, 2016 . . Santa Barbara, Calif. . 978-1-61069-568-8 . 369 . en . Christopher R. Fee.
436. Book: Hardenberg . Wilko Graf von . The Nature State: Rethinking the History of Conservation . Routledge Environmental Humanities series . Kelly . Matthew . Leal . Claudia . Wakild . Emily . July 14, 2017 . . London, England . 978-1-351-76463-6 . en.
437. Villanueva . Louie B. . Biag ni Lam-ang: An Ilokano Epic Analysis and Its Implication to Ilokano Folk Literature and Philippine Educational Development . Journal of Tianjin University: Science and Technology . 2022 . 55 . 4 . 624–625, 631 . 10.17605/OSF.IO/RYXCN . May 1, 2023 . . 0493-2137.
438. Encyclopedia: Bane . Theresa . Sarimanok . Encyclopedia of Beasts and Monsters in Myth, Legend and Folklore . May 22, 2016 . . Jefferson, N.C. . 978-1-4766-2268-2 . 279 . en.
439. Book: Lopez, Mellie Leandicho . A Handbook of Philippine Folklore . 2006 . . Quezon City, Philippines . 978-971-542-514-8 . 147 . en.
440. Book: Madale, Abdullah T. . The Maranaws, Dwellers of the Lake . 1997 . . Manila, Philippines . 978-971-23-2174-0 . 67 . en.
441. Book: Kitley . Philip . Television, Regulation and Civil Society in Asia . August 29, 2003 . . London, England . 978-1-134-43194-6 . 140 . en.
442. Book: Deocampo, Nick . Film: American Influences on Philippine Cinema . November 9, 2017 . . Mandaluyong, Philippines . 978-971-27-2896-9 . en . Nick Deocampo.
443. Book: Achenbach . Ruth . Afrasian Transformations: Transregional Perspectives on Development Cooperation, Social Mobility, and Cultural Change . Africa-Europe Group for Interdisciplinary Studies . 20 . 2020 . . Leiden, Netherlands. 978-90-04-42526-2 . Beek . Jan . Karugia . John Njenga . Mageza-Barthel . Rirhandu . Schulze-Engler . Frank . 256 . en.
444. Book: Lim . David C. L. . Film in Contemporary Southeast Asia: Cultural Interpretation and Social Intervention . Yamamoto . Hiroyuki . March 12, 2012 . . Abingdon, Oxon, England . 978-1-136-59247-8 . 16 . en.
445. Book: Kusaka, Wataru . Moral Politics in the Philippines: Inequality, Democracy and the Urban Poor . Kyoto-CSEAS Series on Asian Studies . 2017 . . Singapore . 978-981-4722-38-4 . 63–65.
446. Book: Bautista . Ma. Lourdes S. . Philippine English: Linguistic and Literary Perspectives . Asian Englishes Today . Bolton . Kingsley . November 2008 . . Hong Kong, China . 978-962-209-947-0 . 53.
447. Diaz . Manuel O. Jr. . Sentiment Polarity Identification in Banner Headlines of Broadsheets in the Philippines . Asian Journal of Media and Communication . December 2021 . 5 . 2 . 102, 108–109 . April 30, 2023 . . 10.20885/asjmc.vol5.iss2.art1 . 260224724 . 2579-6119 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230430013654/https://journal.uii.ac.id/AJMC/article/download/20642/11986/61543 . April 30, 2023. free.
448. Dutta . Soumitra . Lanvin . Bruno . León . Lorena Rivera . Wunsch-Vincent . Sacha . Global Innovation Index 2023: Innovation in the face of uncertainty . 16th . 2023 . . 10.34667/tind.48220 . 978-92-805-3320-0 . Geneva, Switzerland . 58 . October 4, 2023 . free . https://web.archive.org/web/20230928035340/https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo-pub-2000-2023-en-main-report-global-innovation-index-2023-16th-edition.pdf . September 28, 2023 . Soumitra Dutta . Bruno Lanvin . (:Unas) .
449. Encyclopedia: Roufs . Timothy G. . Roufs . Kathleen Smyth . Sweet Treats around the World: An Encyclopedia of Food and Culture . The Philippines . July 29, 2014 . . Santa Barbara, Calif. . 978-1-61069-221-2 . 267–268 . en.
450. Book: Alejandro, Reynaldo . The Philippine Cookbook . 1985 . . New York, N.Y. . 978-0-399-51144-8 . 12–14 . en.
451. Book: De Meester . Fabien . Wild-type Food in Health Promotion and Disease Prevention: The Columbus Concept . January 23, 2008 . . Totowa, N.J. . 978-1-59745-330-1 . Watson . Ronald Ross . 530.
452. Book: Aquino . Richard S. . Tourism in the Philippines: Applied Management Perspectives . Perspectives on Asian Tourism . Porter . Brooke A. . 2022 . . Singapore . 978-981-19-4497-0.
453. Book: Narvaez-Soriano, Nora . A Guide to Food Selection, Preparation and Preservation . Revised . 1994 . . Manila, Philippines . 978-971-23-0114-8 . 120 . en.
454. Conference proceeding . Howeler . R. H. . Kawano . K. . Cassava Breeding and Agronomy Research in Asia: Proceedings of a Regional Workshop Held in Rayong, Thailand, Oct. 26–28, 1987 . 1988 . . Cali, Colombia . 19544717 . 261 . en.
455. Conference proceeding . Bacusmo . Jose L. . Howeler . Reinhardt H. . Tan . Swee Lian . Cassava's Potential in Asia in the 21st Century: Present Situation and Future Research and Development Needs: Proceedings of the Sixth Regional Workshop held in Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam. Feb. 21–25, 2000 . 2001 . . Bangkok, Thailand . . 49746198 . 87 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170811055627/https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/56519/cassavas_potential_in_asia.pdf?sequence=1 . August 11, 2017 . Status and Potentials of the Philippines Cassava Industry . CGSpace.
456. Book: Zibart, Eve . The Ethnic Food Lover's Companion: Understanding the Cuisines of the World . February 1, 2010 . Menasha Ridge Press . Birmingham, Ala. . 978-0-89732-775-6 . en.
457. Book: Anderson . E. N. . Asian Cuisines: Food Culture from East Asia to Turkey and Afghanistan . Buell . Paul D. . Goldstein . Darra . Christensen . Karen . 2018 . . Great Barrington, Mass. . 978-1-61472-846-7 . 80 . en.
458. Encyclopedia: Zhao . Xiaojian . Park . Edward J. W. . Asian Americans: An Encyclopedia of Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political History . I: A–F . Filipino Cuisine in the United States . November 26, 2013 . . Santa Barbara, Calif. . 978-1-59884-240-1 . 409 . en.
459. Book: Cheung . Sidney . Wu . David Y. H. . Globalization of Chinese Food . 2012 . . London, England . 978-1-136-00294-6 . 186 . en.
460. De Villa . Bianca Denise M. . Domingo . Thea Mari M. . Ramirez . Rhema Jenica C. . Mercado . Jame Monren T. . Explicating the culinary heritage significance of Filipino kakanin using bibliometrics (1934–2018) . International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science . June 2022 . 28 . 10.1016/j.ijgfs.2022.100522 .
461. Book: Ang . Catharina Y. W. . Asian Foods: Science and Technology . Liu . Keshun . Huang . Yao-Wen . April 5, 1999 . Technomic Publishing Co. . Lancaster, Pa. . 978-1-56676-736-1 . 474 . en.
462. Encyclopedia: Ling . Huping . Restaurants and Cuisine, Filipino American . Asian American History and Culture: An Encyclopedia . Austin . Allan W. . 2015 . . Abingdon, Oxon, England . 978-1-317-47645-0 . 303 . en . Huping Ling.
463. Book: Manabat, Rudolf Vincent T. . Baking Secrets . September 14, 2020 . . Mandaluyong, Philippines . 978-971-27-3623-0 . en . Filipino Desserts . March 10, 2023 . https://books.google.com/books?id=6Ub9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT68.
464. Book: Duke, James A. . Handbook of Nuts . Herbal Reference Library . November 10, 2000 . . Boca Raton, Fla. . 978-0-8493-3637-9 . 67 . en . James A. Duke.
465. Book: Cruz . Gemma Tulud . An Intercultural Theology of Migration: Pilgrims in the Wilderness . 2010 . . 978-90-04-19367-3 . 22–23 . en . Leiden, Netherlands.
466. Book: Zibart, Eve . The Ethnic Food Lover's Companion: Understanding the Cuisines of the World . Menasha Ridge Press . Birmingham, Ala. . 2001 . 978-0-89732-372-7 . registration.
467. Bender . Daniel E. . De Leon . Adrian . Everybody was boodle fighting: military histories, culinary tourism, and diasporic dining . . . January 2018 . 21 . 1 . 36–37 . 10.1080/15528014.2017.1398469 . 158465429 .
468. Book: Alejandro, Reynaldo G. . Authentic Recipes from the Philippines: 81 Easy and Delicious Recipes from the Pearl of the Orient . March 13, 2012 . . Singapore . 978-1-4629-0533-1.
469. Book: Cho . Younghan . Modern Sports in Asia: Cultural Perspectives . Sport in the Global Society – Contemporary Perspectives . Leary . Charles . 2016 . . London, England . 978-1-317-58638-8 . 87.
470. Encyclopedia: Grasso . John . Philippines . Historical Dictionary of Basketball . Historical Dictionaries of Sports . 2 . November 15, 2010 . . Lanham, Md. . 978-0-8108-7506-7 . 291 . en.
471. An Act Declaring Arnis as the National Martial Art and Sport of the Philippines . RA . 9850 . December 11, 2009 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170810035837/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2009/12/11/republic-act-no-9850/ . August 10, 2017 . February 9, 2023 . . Metro Manila, Philippines.
472. Book: Dundes . Alan . The Cockfight: A Casebook . . Madison, Wis. . 1994 . 978-0-299-14054-0 . 136–137 . Alan Dundes.
473. Booc . Rahmat P. . Rafaela . Kimberson B. . Torres . Mae J. . Bulawan . Rina P. . Jabonero . Louis C. Ii . Cortuna . Ian Jay M. . Asuncion . Joel E. . The Traditional Filipino Games: Status Check Among Generation Z . Theoretical & Applied Science . International Academy of Theoretical and Applied Sciences . October 30, 2019 . 78 . 10 . 150–152 . 10.15863/TAS.2019.10.78.25 . free .
474. Gutierrez . Ariel . Guzman . Neriza G. . Ramos . Ramilet . Uylengco . Jan Katherine A. . The Empirical Change of Playing Habits among Children . International Journal of Multidisciplinary: Applied Business and Education Research . Future Science . February 25, 2022 . 3 . 2 . 306–309, 311–315 . 10.11594/ijmaber.03.02.15 . free.
475. Encyclopedia: Grasso . John . Philippines, The (PHI) . Historical Dictionary of the Olympic Movement . Fifth . Mallon . Bill . Heijmans . Jeroen . May 14, 2015 . . Lanham, Md. . 978-1-4422-4860-1 . 473 . Bill Mallon.
476. Periodical . . U.S. says 60 nations will join boycott . AF Press Clips . 1980 . 24.
477. The XI Olympic Winter Games; Les XI Jeux Olympiques d'hiver; Sapporo, 1972 . Official report . The Organizing Committee for the XIth Olympic Winter Games . 1973 . 32, 145, 447 . 842416 . January 31, 2008 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080226202605/http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1972/orw1972.pdf . February 26, 2008 . LA84 Foundation.

Further reading

See main article: Bibliography of the Philippines.

External links

• Government of the Philippines
• Official Gazette
• "Philippines" profile at BBC News
• "Philippines" at UCB Libraries (archived May 21, 2011)
  • • • Filipiniana.net – Free digital library and a research portal (archived December 17, 2008)

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