Peripatoides Explained

Peripatoides novaezealandiae is a species complex of velvet worms in the genus Peripatoides, found throughout New Zealand. Like all velvet worms, these animals are nocturnal predators that spit a sticky slime to trap their prey. Individuals of all species in the genus Peripatoides usually have 15 pairs of legs.[1]

Taxonomy

The Peripatoides novaezealandiae species complex consists of at least five reproductively isolated species described in 1998, each of which has 15 pairs of legs.[2] These species (P. aurorbis, P. kawekaensis, P. novaezealandiae, P. morgani, and P. sympatrica) have no morphological characters that distinguish them although they are genetically differentiated.[3] Peripatoides novaezealandiae and the cryptic species were mistakenly considered nomina dubia by de Sena Oliveira et al. (2012) but when the holotype specimens records at Te Papa Tongarewa Museum were linked to the descriptions the species were recognised.[4] [5] [6] Three additional species in this genus were described in 2024.[7]

Species

The genus Peripatoides consists of the following species:[8]

Geographic Distribution and Habitat

Natural global range

All species in the genus Peripatoides are endemic to New Zealand.[9]

Habitat preferences

Onychophora (including species within the genus Peripatoides) are usually found within or beneath rotting logs,[10] [11] though individuals have occasionally been discovered among leaf litter and beneath objects such as stones and rocks and in crevasses.[12] Sufficient moisture is vital for all Onychophora as they cannot regulate water loss due to a lack of both a waxy cuticle and tracheal spiracles.[13] [14]

In 1989, several thousand of the P. otepoti were found on a property in Dunedin, living in an old kitchen dump among dry tins cans and sheets of roofing iron, and in a separate pile of bricks.[15] The existence of the P. otepoti in a wide range of elevations forest, scrub and tussock, suggests that prey availability and moisture are more important than vegetation type when determining habitat suitability.

Reproduction

This genus exhibits lecithotrophic ovoviviparity; that is, mothers in this genus produce and retain yolky eggs in their uteri. The eggs are fertilized internally, and babies develop inside their mother until large enough to be born, in batches of 4–6, as colourless miniatures of the parents. These live-bearing Peripatoides have dermal-haemocoelic sperm transfer – which means sperm dissolve holes in the skin of the female to enter the body (haemolymph) anywhere on the body wall of the female.[16]

Hutton originally claimed that individuals of Peripatoides novaezealandiae are hermaphroditic, possibly due to confusion regarding sperm storage sacs found within the female. This has since been contested, and more recent literature clearly designates individuals of P. novaezealandiae-complex as male or female.[17] Sex can be identified in some morphs as young as two months after birth, but sexual differentiation is complete for all members of the P. novaezealandiae-complex by five months.

Juveniles go through three stages:

Peripatids grow by moulting the outer cuticle when it becomes too restrictive.

Diet / Prey / Predators

Diet and foraging

Like others in their family, Peripatoides novaezealandiae-complex is a nocturnal predator.

Captive individuals of P. novaezealandiae-complex have been sustained with flies. An abundance of centipedes, ants, mites, and amphipods have been found in logs that also contain P. novaezealandiae, suggesting a possible predator-prey relationship.[18]

Peripatids use their oral papillae to shoot out sticky slime which thickens upon contact with the air and covers prey in a strong, net-like structure. They approach and use their jaws to puncture the cuticle of the trapped animal, injecting digestive enzymes and sucking up the liquefied remains.

Other information

Conservation status

Peripatoides novaezealandiae-complex is classed as ‘not threatened’ according to the 2018 New Zealand Threat Classification System.[19] In part, this is because the allozymatic species have not all been described and little is known about their distribution.[20]

Scientific notes

Onychophora, including P. novaezealandiae-complex, are very difficult to rear in captivity. A German study of P. novaezealandiae-complex had some success keeping specimens alive long enough to birth young.

There is currently no known way to age individuals of P. novaezealandiae-complex, which makes it very difficult to compare individuals and fully understand their life history.

Cultural connections

The te reo Māori name for velvet worms is ngaokeoke which comes from the word ‘ngaoki’, to crawl.[21]

When considering a new roading project, the presence of P. otepoti in Caversham Valley gave the location high conservation value. The New Zealand Transport Agency (NZTA) worked with the Department of Conservation, Dunedin City Council and Otago University to translocate any Peripatus impacted by the project, along with ongoing monitoring, management, and habitat enhancement.The discovery of ngaokeoke (P. novaezealandiae-complex) on their farm inspired Taranaki farming couple Damien and Jane Roper to form a partnership with the regional council to legally protect their 2.5 ha of native bush.[22]

Further reading

Notes and References

  1. Book: Trewick, Steven. Wild Life New Zealand. Hand-in-Hand Press. 2019. 978-0-473-48320-3. New Zealand.
  2. Trewick. Steven A.. 1998. Sympatric cryptic species in New Zealand Onychophora. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. en. 63. 3. 307–329. 10.1111/j.1095-8312.1998.tb01520.x. 0024-4066. free.
  3. Trewick. S. A.. 2000. Mitochondrial DNA sequences support allozyme evidence for cryptic radiation of New Zealand Peripatoides (Onychophora). Molecular Ecology. en. 9. 3. 269–281. 10.1046/j.1365-294x.2000.00873.x. 10736025. 2000MolEc...9..269T . 8637591. 1365-294X.
  4. Book: New Zealand peripatus/ngaokeoke : current knowledge, conservation and future research needs. New Zealand. Department of Conservation, New Zealand.. 2014. Department of Conservation, Ōtepoti/Dunedin Office . 9780478150094. 994631114.
  5. Oliveira . Ivo de Sena . 2023-11-16 . An updated world checklist of velvet worms (Onychophora) with notes on nomenclature and status of names . ZooKeys . en . 1184 . 133–260 . 2023ZooK.1184..133O . 10.3897/zookeys.1184.107286 . 1313-2970 . 10680090 . 38023768 . free.
  6. Web site: Loading... Collections Online - Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa . 2024-07-22 . collections.tepapa.govt.nz.
  7. Trewick . Steven A. . Koot . Emily M. . Morgan-Richards . Mary . 2024 . Ngāokeoke Aotearoa: The Peripatoides Onychophora of New Zealand . Insects . en . 15 . 4 . 248 . 10.3390/insects15040248 . free . 38667378 . 2075-4450. 11050097 .
  8. Oliveira. I. S.. Read. V. M. S. J.. Mayer. G.. A world checklist of Onychophora (velvet worms), with notes on nomenclature and status of names. ZooKeys. 2012. 211. 1–70. 16 July 2016. 10.3897/zookeys.211.3463. 22930648. 3426840. free. 2012ZooK..211....1O .
  9. Gleeson . Dianne M. . January 1996 . Onychophora of New Zealand; past, present and future . New Zealand Entomologist . 19 . 1 . 51–55 . 10.1080/00779962.1996.9722023. 1996NZEnt..19...51G .
  10. Trewick . Steven A. . 1998 . Sympatric cryptic species in New Zealand Onychophora . Biological Journal of the Linnean Society . en . 63 . 3 . 307–329 . 10.1111/j.1095-8312.1998.tb01520.x . 0024-4066 . free.
  11. Trewick . S. A. . January 1999 . Molecular diversity of Dunedin peripatus (Onychophora: Peripatopsidae) . New Zealand Journal of Zoology . 26 . 4 . 381–393 . 10.1080/03014223.1999.9518201.
  12. Hutton . F.W. . On Peripatus novæ-zealandiæ . Annals and Magazine of Natural History . November 1876 . 18 . 107 . 361–369 . 10.1080/00222937608682060.
  13. Barclay . S. D. . Rowell . D. M. . Ash . J. E. . Pheromonally mediated colonization patterns in the velvet worm Euperipatoides rowelli (Onychophora) . Journal of Zoology . April 2000 . 250 . 4 . 437–446 . 10.1017/s0952836900004027.
  14. Hardie . R. . The riddle of Peripatus . Australian Natural History . 1975 . 18 . 5 . 180–185 . en . 0004-9840.
  15. Harris . A.C. . December 1991 . A large aggregation of Peripatoides novaezealandiae (Hutton, 1876) (Onychophora: Peripatopsidae) . Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand . 21 . 4 . 405–406 . 10.1080/03036758.1991.10420836. 1991JRSNZ..21..405H .
  16. Tutt. Karen. Daugherty. Charles H.. Gibbs. George W.. 2002. Differential life-history characteristics of male and female Peripatoides novaezealandiae (Onychophora: Peripatopsidae). Journal of Zoology. en. 258. 2. 257–267. 10.1017/S095283690200136X. 1469-7998. free.
  17. Pripnow . Birgit . Ruhberg . Hilke . 31 August 2003 . Peripatopsidae (Onychophora) from New Zealand - observations on selected morphs of the 'Peripatoides novaezealandiae-complex' in culture: morphological and reproductive aspects . African Invertebrates . 44 . 1 . 103–114 . 10.5281/zenodo.7666500.
  18. Book: Tutt . Karen . The life history and reproductive cycle of Peripatoides novaezealandiae (Onychophora: Peripatopsidae) . 1997 . en-NZ.
  19. Book: Trewick . S. . Hitchmough . R. . Rolfe . J. . Stringer . I. . Conservation status of New Zealand Onychophora ('peripatus' or velvet worm), 2018 . 2018 . New Zealand Department of Conservation .
  20. Book: New Zealand peripatus/ngaokeoke : current knowledge, conservation and future research needs . Department of Conservation, Ōtepoti/Dunedin Office . New Zealand. Department of Conservation, New Zealand. . 2014 . 9780478150094 . 994631114.
  21. Web site: Ryan . P. . 2007-09-24 . Story: Peripatus. . March 17, 2024 . Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand..
  22. News: Nolly . R. . 2022-06-16 . Farming journey leads to learning te reo Maori. . live . March 17, 2024 . Farmers Weekly.

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