The penny-farthing, also known as a high wheel, high wheeler or ordinary, is an early type of bicycle.[1] It was popular in the 1870s and 1880s, with its large front wheel providing high speeds, owing to it travelling a large distance for every rotation of the wheel. These bicycles had solid rubber tires and as a consequence the only shock absorption was in the saddle.
It became obsolete in the late 1880s with the development of modern bicycles, which provided similar speed, via a chain-driven gear train, and comfort, from the use of pneumatic tires. They were marketed as "safety bicycles" because of the greater ease of mounting and dismounting, the reduced danger of falling, and the reduced height to fall, in comparison to penny-farthings.[2] [3]
The name came from the British penny and farthing coins, the penny being much larger than the farthing, so that the side view of the bicycle resembles a larger penny (the front wheel) leading a smaller farthing (the rear wheel).[4] Although the name "penny-farthing" is now the most common, it was probably not used until the machines had been almost superseded. The first recorded print reference is from 1891 in Bicycling News.[5] For most of their reign they were simply known as "bicycles" and were the first machines to be so called, although they were not the first two-wheeled, pedalled vehicles.[6] In the late 1890s, the name "ordinary" began to be used, to distinguish them from the emerging safety bicycles,[7] and that term, along with "hi-wheel" and variants, are preferred by many modern enthusiasts.[8] [9]
Following the popularity of the boneshaker, Eugène Meyer, a Frenchman, invented the high-wheeler bicycle design in 1869 and fashioned the wire-spoke tension wheel.[10] Around 1870 English inventor James Starley, described as the father of the bicycle industry, and others, began producing bicycles based on the French boneshaker but with front wheels of increasing size,[4] because larger front wheels, up to 5feet in diameter, enabled higher speeds on bicycles limited to direct-drive.[3] [4] [11] [12] [13] In 1878, Albert Pope began manufacturing the Columbia bicycle outside Boston, starting their two-decade heyday in the United States.[4]
Although the trend was short-lived, the penny-farthing became a symbol of the late Victorian era. Its popularity also coincided with the birth of cycling as a sport.[4]
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Eugène Meyer of Paris is now regarded as the father of the high bicycle[10] by the International Cycling History Conference in place of James Starley. Meyer patented a wire-spoke tension wheel with individually adjustable spokes in 1869.[4] They were called "spider" wheels in Britain when introduced there.[4] Meyer produced a classic high bicycle design during the 1880s.
James Starley in Coventry added the tangent spokes[4] and the mounting step to his famous bicycle named "Ariel". He is regarded as the father of the British cycling industry. Ball bearings, solid rubber tires and hollow-section steel frames became standard, reducing weight and making the ride much smoother.[4]
Penny-farthing bicycles are dangerous because of the risk of headers (taking a fall over the handlebars head-first). Makers developed "moustache" handlebars, allowing the rider's knees to clear them,[14] "Whatton" handlebars that wrapped around behind the legs, and ultimately (though too late, after development of the safety bicycle), the American "Eagle" and "Star" bicycles, whose large and small wheels were reversed.[15] [16] This prevented headers but left the danger of being thrown backwards when riding uphill. Other attempts included moving the seat rearward and driving the wheel by levers or treadles, as in the "Xtraordinary" and "Facile",[17] [18] or gears, by chain as in the "Kangaroo" or at the hub, as in the "Crypto";[15] another option was to move the seat well back, as in the "Rational".[15] [19]
Even so, bicycling remained the province of the urban well-to-do, and mainly men, until the 1890s,[20] and was a salient example of conspicuous consumption.[21]
The penny-farthing used a larger wheel than the velocipede, thus giving higher speeds on all but the steepest hills. In addition, the large wheel gave a smoother ride,[22] important before the invention of pneumatic tires.[23]
An attribute of the penny-farthing is that the rider sits above the front axle. When the wheel strikes rocks and ruts, or under hard braking, the rider can be pitched forward off the bicycle head-first. Headers were relatively common and a significant, sometimes fatal, hazard. Riders coasting down hills often took their feet off the pedals and put them over the tops of the handlebars, so they would be pitched off feet-first instead of head-first.[24]
Penny-farthing bicycles often used similar materials and construction as earlier velocipedes: cast iron frames, solid rubber tires, and plain bearings for pedals, steering, and wheels. They were often quite durable and required little service. For example, when cyclist Thomas Stevens rode around the world in the 1880s, he reported only one significant mechanical problem in over 20000km (10,000miles), caused when the local military confiscated his bicycle and damaged the front wheel.
The well-known dangers of the penny-farthing[25] were, for the time of its prominence, outweighed by its strengths. While it was a difficult, dangerous machine, it was simpler, lighter, and faster than the safer velocipedes of the time. Two new developments changed this situation, and led to the rise of the safety bicycle. The first was the chain drive, originally used on tricycles, allowing a gear ratio to be chosen independent of the wheel size. The second was the pneumatic bicycle tire, allowing smaller wheels to provide a smooth ride.The nephew of one of the men responsible for popularity of the penny-farthing was largely responsible for its demise. James Starley had built the Ariel (spirit of the air)[26] high-wheeler in 1870; but this was a time of innovation, and when chain drives were upgraded so that each link had a small roller, higher and higher speeds became possible without the need for a large front wheel.
In 1885, Starley's nephew John Kemp Starley took these new developments to launch the modern bicycle, the Rover safety bicycle, so-called because the rider, seated much lower and farther behind the front wheel contact point, was less prone to a header.[4] [27]
In 1888, when John Dunlop re-invented the pneumatic tire for his son's tricycle, the high wheel was made obsolete. The comfortable ride once found only on tall wheels could now be enjoyed on smaller chain-driven bicycles. By 1893, high-wheelers were no longer being produced.[3] Use lingered into the 1920s in track cycling until racing safety bicycles were adequately designed.
Today, enthusiasts ride restored penny-farthings, and a few manufacturers build new ones with modern materials.[28] Manufacturers include Richards of England (Hull, UK), Rideable Bicycle Replicas (US), Trott & Sons (UK) and UDC (Taiwan).[29] One of these manufacturers, UDC Penny Farthings, the largest penny-farthing retailer in the United Kingdom, recorded record sales of penny-farthings in 2020 during the COVID-19 lockdown.[30]
The Penny Farthing Club is a cycling club that was founded in 2013 by Neil Laughton. The club offers rider training, bike tours of London and other UK cities, and hosts club events such as penny-farthing polo.[31]
The penny-farthing is a direct-drive bicycle, meaning the cranks and pedals are fixed directly to the hub. Instead of using gears to multiply the revolutions of the pedals, the driven wheel is enlarged so the radius from the hub to the outer wheel is comfortable for the rider to reach the pedals fixed to the hub. But the rider needs to be able to both mount the saddle and reach the pedals. If the wheel is too large, this will not be achievable. For instance a 5'9" cyclist due to their leg length could at best ride a 50"-54" high wheel depending on the height of the saddle.
The frame is a single tube following the circumference of the front wheel, then diverting to a trailing wheel. A mounting peg is above the rear wheel. The front wheel is in a rigid fork with little if any trail. A spoon brake is usually fitted on the fork crown, operated by a lever from one of the handlebars. The bars are usually mustache shaped, dropping from the level of the headset. The saddle mounts on the frame less than 18inches behind the headset.
One particular model, made by Pope Manufacturing Company in 1886, weighs 36lb, has a 60-spoke 53inch front wheel and a 20-spoke 18inch rear wheel. It is fitted with solid rubber tires. The rims, frame, fork, and handlebars are made from hollow, steel tubing. The steel axles are mounted in adjustable ball bearings. The leather saddle is suspended by springs.[32]
Another model, made by Humber and Co., Ltd., of Beeston, Nottingham, weighs only 24lb, and has 52inches and 18inches wheels. It has no step and no brakes, in order to minimize weight.[33]
A third model, also made by Pope Manufacturing Company, weighs 49lb and has forged steel forks. A brake lever on the right of a straight handlebar operates a spoon brake against the front wheel.[34]
All three have cranks that can be adjusted for length.
Mounting and dismounting a penny-farthing take practice, but can be learned in about an hour or two. Mounting is generally achieved on flat, level ground. It's possible to mount a penny-farthing on a slight incline, but more challenging as you need to maintain momentum. Once the penny-farthing stops rolling, the rider will fall over if they have not mounted by that point. Dismounting on an incline is also to be avoided and one's ability to successfully reach the top needs to be considered before even attempting it.[35]
Once mounting and dismounting have been mastered, speed moderation is the next key skill to learn. If you never cycle faster than you can react to potential hazards, then you can avoid disaster. For instance, don't freewheel (feet off the pedals) down a steep hill which leads to a busy juncture/roundabout or has a blind bend where you can't see if there is a stopped vehicle or other obstruction. Slow-pedaling is a key skill to master. If you can slow-pedal up to a red light, you can stage your approach so when you arrive it is hopefully green, so you don't have to dismount. When cycling downhill, you must start braking at the top of the hill. Start applying resistance on the pedals at the top and through the descent. Also, never brake sharply if using a mechanical brake or you risk going over the handlebars.[36]
The last key skill needed to ride a penny-farthing safely is learning to change direction. Never turn the handlebars too sharply or you risk a headover. Turns should be wide and gentle. Also, in respect to changing direction, skill and care must be exercised when approaching junctures and roundabouts. This is where speed moderation becomes important: you need to stage your approach so you can time arriving at the juncture or roundabout when a gap in traffic permits you to safely join the flow of traffic. This is also true for turning in front of opposing lane traffic: you need to be able to stage your approach to reach the turn when a gap enables you to do so. When approaching any juncture/roundabout, if you cannot enter safely, you must stop and dismount.[37]
When learning, do not cycle a penny-farthing on busy roads: you will not have the skills to stay safe. Only venture onto the roads when you can mount/dismount reflexively and have mastered speed moderation or you risk serious injury or death.
In most other respects, once mounted, riding a penny-farthing is much like riding any other bicycle in respect to anticipating hazards, signaling, and defensive cycling. Penny-farthings are legal to ride on UK roads, but one must check the laws in the country they want to ride their penny-farthing [38]
Frederick Lindley Dodds, of Stockton-on-Tees, England, is credited with having set the first hour record, covering an estimated distance of 15 miles and 1,480 yards (25.493 kms) on a high-wheeler during a race on the Fenner's Track, Cambridge University on March 25, 1876.[39]
The furthest (paced) hour record ever achieved on a penny-farthing bicycle was 22.09miles by William A. Rowe, an American, in 1886.[40]
The record for riding from Land's End to John o' Groats on a penny-farthing was set in 1886 by George Pilkington Mills with a time of five days, one hour, and 45 minutes. This record was broken in 2019 by Richard Thoday with a time of four days, 11 hours and 52 minutes.[41] [42]
Until the 21st century, the last paced hour record to be set on a penny-farthing was probably BW Attlee's 1891 English amateur record of 21.1miles.[40] This was beaten by Scots cyclist Mark Beaumont at Herne Hill Velodrome on 16 June 2018 when he covered 21.92miles.[43] [44]
In 1884, Thomas Stevens rode a Columbia penny-farthing from San Francisco to Boston[4] —the first cyclist to cross the United States. In 1885–86, he continued from London through Europe, the Middle East, China, and Japan, to become the first to ride around the world.
Tremendous feats of balance were reported, including negotiating a narrow bridge parapet and riding down the U.S. Capitol steps with the American Star Bicycle which has the small wheel in front.[45]
The bike, with the one wheel dominating, led to riders being referred to in America as "wheelmen", a name that lived on for nearly a century in the League of American Wheelmen until renamed the League of American Bicyclists in 1994.[46] Clubs of racing cyclists wore uniforms of peaked caps, tight jackets and knee-length breeches, with leather shoes, the caps and jackets displaying the club's colors. In 1967 collectors and restorers of penny-farthings (and other early bicycles) founded the Wheelmen,[47] a non-profit organization "dedicated to keeping alive the heritage of American cycling".
The high-wheeler lives on in the gear inch units used by cyclists in English-speaking countries to describe gear ratios.[48] These are calculated by multiplying the wheel diameter in inches by the number of teeth on the front chain-wheel and dividing by the teeth on the rear sprocket. The result is the equivalent diameter of a penny-farthing wheel. A 60-inch gear, the largest practicable size for a high-wheeler, is nowadays a middle gear of a utility bicycle, while top gears on many exceed 100 inches. There was at least one 64inch Columbia made in the mid-1880s,[49] but 60 was the largest in regular production.
A penny-farthing is the logo of The Village in the cult 1960s television series The Prisoner, and is also featured in the show's closing titles. Co-creator and star Patrick McGoohan stated that the bike represented slowing down the wheels of progress.
The penny-farthing is a symbol of the cities of Sparta, Wisconsin; Davis, California; and Redmond, Washington.[50]