| Pendau | |
| Also Known As: | Umalasa |
| States: | Indonesia |
| Region: | Central Sulawesi |
| Speakers: | 3940 |
| Ethnicity: | Pendau |
| Date: | 2007 |
| Ref: | [1] |
| Familycolor: | Austronesian |
| Fam2: | Malayo-Polynesian |
| Fam3: | Celebic |
| Fam4: | Tomini–Tolitoli ? |
| Fam5: | Tomini |
| Fam6: | Southern Tomini |
| Script: | Latin |
| Iso3: | ums |
| Glotto: | pend1242 |
| Glottorefname: | Pendau |
| Notice: | IPA |
Pendau (Ndaoe, Ndau), or Umalasa, is a Celebic language of Sulawesi in Indonesia spoken by the approximately 4000 Pendau people who live in Central Sulawesi. Classified as an endangered language, Pendau is primarily spoken inside of Pendau villages whereas Indonesian is used to speak with neighboring communities and is the language of children's education and outside officials.[2] The highest concentration of speakers is in and around Kecamatan Balaesang. There are no known dialects within the Pendau region, although speakers from the mainland can identify whether a speaker is from the Balaesang peninsula through their 'rhythm' or intonation pattern. In recent years, some Pendau leaders have worked with local government to preserve their language alongside Indonesian.
While the history of the Pendau has only been recently documented, a history has been pulled together through folklore and oral traditional, historical documents kept by European explorers, Pendau language developments, and the present situation of the Pendau. In contrast to neighboring groups, older Pendau men hold that the Pendau have never had a king and view themselves as having no class distinctions, although hierarchical roles did exist in decision-making and conflict resolution. The earliest document about the Pendau comes from 1795, when an American crew led by Captain David Woodward was found stranded off the west coast of Sulawesi. Between 1925-1935, Dutch-trained Indonesian evangelists began to arrive, and many of the Pendau today are registered as Christians by the government and practice Christianity (although many features of animism are still practiced). During World War II, the Japanese occupied Indonesia. Some Pendau still recite Japanese phrases and songs, although there are mixed opinions about the occupation with the occupation described as a difficult time by many who remember it. In recent history, many Pendau have made their living in metalsmithing, agriculture, hunting, fishing, and sago making.
The Pendau often live in small, often isolated communities in Donggala between Balaesang and Dampal Utara. The Balaesang Peninsula forms its own mountain range that runs north and south, splitting the east and west coast. Most of the Pendau happen to live along the west coast. The Sirenja sub-district is considered the southernmost boundary of the Pendau-speaking area.[3]
Pendau has five vowel phonemes: two front vowels, pronounced as //i// and pronounced as //e//, one central vowel pronounced as //a//, and two back vowels, pronounced as //ɯ// (orthographic) and pronounced as //o//. Most vowels are unrounded and pronounced as //o// is the only rounded vowel in Pendau. Pendau has no diphthongs.
| Front | Central | Back | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| High | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | ||
| Mid | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | ||
| Low | pronounced as /link/ |
The high back unrounded vowel (pronounced as //u//) changes to a labial-velar glide (pronounced as //w//) when it comes before a syllable with no consonant in the onset position. When this happens, the labial-velar glide takes the place of the onset consonant, reducing the number of would-be syllables.
| u.a.ni → wa.ni | pronounced as /[wan̪i]/ | 'honey bee' | |
| ta.u.a.san → ta.wa.san | pronounced as /[t̪aws̪an]/ | 'unicorn fish' |
Pendau has 19 consonant phonemes, although (which is not an underlying phoneme) appears in its written orthography. There are five contrastive places of articulation and six contrastive manners of articulation. There are two affricates in Pendau, the voiceless dental sibilant affricate (pronounced as //t̪ʃ//) and the voiced alveolar sibilant affricate (pronounced as //dʒ//).
| Labial | Dental-Alveolar | Alveo-Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ (n) | pronounced as /ink/ (ny) | pronounced as /ink/ (ng) | ||
| Plosive | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ (t) | pronounced as /ink/ (c) | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ (') | |
| pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ | pronounced as /ink/ (j) | pronounced as /ink/ | |||
| Fricative | pronounced as /ink/ (v) | pronounced as /ink/ (s) | pronounced as /ink/ | |||
| Liquid | pronounced as /ink/ (l) | |||||
| Trill | pronounced as /ink/ (r) | |||||
| Semivowel | (pronounced as /ink/) | pronounced as /ink/ (y) |
In word-final positions, voiceless plosives are pronounced as unreleased allophones: e.g. the pronounced as /[p]/ in pronounced as /[api]/ becomes a pronounced as /[p̚]/ in pronounced as /[aɭap̚]/. Other allophones in Pendau include the voiced dental nasal pronounced as /[n̪]/ becoming the syllabic dental pronounced as /[n̩]/ and the voiced velar nasal pronounced as /[ŋ]/ becoming the syllabic velar nasal pronounced as /[ŋ̩]/ before a homorganic obstruent such as in pronounced as /[n̩''d''au]/ and in pronounced as /[ŋ̩''k''a:t̪̚]/.
| pronounced as /[api]/ | 'fire' | ||
| pronounced as /[aɭap̚]/ | 'take' | ||
| pronounced as //t̪// and pronounced as //t̪̚// | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| pronounced as /[t̪int̪iŋ]/ | 'time' | ||
| pronounced as /[udut̪̚]/ | 'server' | ||
| pronounced as //k// and pronounced as //k̚// | |||
| pronounced as /[kareβa]/ | 'news' | ||
| pronounced as /[t̪anduk̚]/ | 'horn' | ||
| pronounced as //n̪// and pronounced as //n̩// | |||
| pronounced as /[n̪aboʔ]/ | 'roof' | ||
| pronounced as /[n̩dau]/ | 'no' | ||
| pronounced as //ŋ// and pronounced as //ŋ̩// | |||
| pronounced as /[ŋa:]/ | 'don't' | ||
| pronounced as /[ŋ̩ka:t̪̚]/ | 'small flame' | ||
The glottal stop (pronounced as //ʔ//) is sometimes realized as creaky voice. It has been observed that "in place of a true stop, a very compressed form of creaky voice or some less extreme form of stiff phonation may be superimposed on the vocalic stream." The creaky voice manifests on one or more of the contiguous vowels where the glottal stop would have been. For example, creaky voice is written with pronounced as /[V̰]/ in pronounced as /[riV̰uo]/, where creaky voice appears between pronounced as /[i]/ and pronounced as /[o]/ as one vowel transitions into the next vowel.
| pronounced as /[riV̰uo]/ | 'in/by/at there' | ||
| pronounced as /[s̪oV̰uja]/ | 'why' |
The syllabic template in Pendau is (C)V(C). Pendau is one of the few Sulawesi languages with a full system of final consonants (e.g. the neighboring Kaili languages only allow CV and V, while demonstrated syllable patterns in Pendau include VC and CVC).
| V | n.da.u | 'no' | |
| CV | wa.ni | 'honeybee' | |
| VC | to.nang.la.it | 'the crippled one' | |
| CVC | wa.lan.da.no | 'Walandano (village)' |
In the above example, pronounced as //n// in behaves as a syllabic consonant.
| p | t | c | k | b | d | j | g | m | n | ny | ng | v | s | h | ' | l | r | y | ||
| Onset | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | X | + | X | X | X | X | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Coda | X | X | - | X | X | X | - | X | X | X | - | X | - | X | - | X | X | X | X |
In the table above, X means that the consonant can occupy the respective position in the syllable and + means that it is a marginal phoneme. In Pendau, pronounced as //h// is the sole marginal phoneme, and it is hypothesized to be borrowed from Indonesian loan words.
Stress always falls on the penultimate syllable and is unmarked. Words in Pendau require at least two syllables, which reflects this stress pattern. Some have described this process as "pitch accent" because the change in stress is accompanied by a change in pitch (as measured in Hz). However, Phil Quick, author of A Grammar of the Pendau Language, states that "the use of 'pitch accent' should not be confused with languages such as Japanese in which 'pitch accent' is a term used to indicate a lexical contrast similar to tone language ... So technically then there are two types of pitch-accent languages, those such as Japanese where pitch-accent is phonemic, and those such as Pendau where pitch-accent is non-phonemic."
Pendau uses affixation (including prefixes, infixes, and suffixes) and has seven verb classes which are categorized as transitive, intransitive, or mixed transitivity. Pendau shows extensive use of clitics, reduplication, and limited subject agreement.
| mong- | 'carry' | |
| Infixation | ||
|---|---|---|
| -um- | 'swim' | |
| Suffixation | ||
| -a' | ||