Palani Hills Explained

Palani Hills
Elevation M:2533
Location:Tamil Nadu, India
Range:Western Ghats
Coordinates:10.2°N 105°W
Easiest Route:Laws Ghat Road
Palani Hills Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park (proposed)
Alt Name:Kodaikanal Wildlife Sanctuary
Map:India
Relief:1
Location:Dindigul district, Tamil Nadu, India
Nearest City:Kodaikanal
Coordinates:10.2453°N 77.5239°W
Governing Body:Tamil Nadu Forest Department

The Palani Hills are a mountain range in the southern Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala. The Palani Hills are an eastward extension of the Western Ghats ranges, which run parallel to the west coast of India. The Palani Hills adjoin with the high Anamalai range on the west and extend east into the plains of Tamil Nadu, covering an area of 2068km2. The highest part of the range is in the southwest, and reaches 1,800-2,500 metres (5,906-8,202 feet) elevation; the eastern extension of the range is made up of hills 1,000-1,500 m (3,281-4,921 ft) high.[1]

It is also home to the main temple of Murugan, who is worshipped as a major deity in Tamil Nadu.

The Palani Hills Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park is a proposed protected area in Dindigul District, Tamil Nadu. The park will be an upgrade and expansion of the Palani Kodaikanal Wildlife Sanctuary which was to be established in 2008.[2] [3] [4] The park includes about 36% of the in the Palani Hills. The park is located between latitude 10°7'–10°28' N and longitude 77°16'–77°46' E. Central location is east northeast of Silver Cascade Waterfall and E X NE of Kodaikanal Lake.

History

The Palani Hills derive their name from the ancient temple town of Palani (பழநி in Tamil) located at the northern base of the hills.

In 1906, the great undulating plateau on top of the Palanis comprising four forest ranges were consolidated under the Indian Forest Act of 1878 and designated by the British Government as a single reserve forest, from Kodaikanal town to the Kerala state border in the west and the Bodinayakkanur town limits to the south, and given the name of the Ampthill Downs. It was over 53sqmi in extent and about one quarter of it then consisted of sholas and three quarters was open, rolling, grassy downs.[5]

The Ampthill Downs area is now named Upper Palani Shola Reserved Forest and totals (36,000 acres) of forest land. It is the largest reserve forest division in the Palani Hills. The core of the proposed Kodaikanal Wildlife Sanctuary awaiting government notification is located in this division.[6]

In 1988, the new Kodaikanal-Berijam Wildlife Sanctuary was included in the protected area proposals considered to be of national priority status by the Wildlife Institute of India.[7] In the early 1990s, the Tamil Nadu Forest Department submitted a proposal to the State government to protect much of the Palani Hills by declaring the area a wildlife sanctuary or a national park.[8]

The proposed park area includes only reserve forest land. These forests are already among the protected areas of Tamil Nadu. Their upgrade to Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park will increase their IUCN status from level VI - Protected Area with Sustainable Use of Natural Resources to IV - Habitat/Species Management Area or II - National Park and improve the habitat and wildlife conservation of the area.

The sanctuary has been under consideration of the Government of India in consultation with the Government of Tamil Nadu since 1999.[9] The actual park boundaries have not been finalized. In 2007, proposals for declaration of Kodaikanal Wildlife Sanctuary were under consideration of the Government.[10]

On 13 August 2012, in an apparent change away from plans for notification of parts of the Palani Hills as a separate wildlife sanctuary, the Tamil Nadu Gazette notification attached parts of Kodaikanal and Dindigul divisions of reserve forests to the buffer zone of Annamalai Tiger Reserve. About 5155.42 hectares of forest land belonging to Palani Hills Northern Slope, Andipatty reserve forest, 4,344.53 acres in Kudraiyar block forest and 5,548.49 hectares in Mannavanur Range in Kodaikanal will be included in the buffer zone. The villages and hamlets that now form part of the Palani Hills buffer zone are Poondi, Mannavanur, Kilavarai, Polur, Kavunchi, Kumbur, Kilanavayal, Kukkal, Pazhamputhur and Puthurpuram.[11] [12]

The increasingly important economic role of Eco-tourism, including trekking, hiking, camping, mountaineering, rock climbing and bird watching may help the local populace to welcome this new Protected area. It remains to be seen whether the Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park will stimulate or stifle commercial development and tourism. The decision to finally establish the park must balance short term financial benefits of the status quo versus long term stability of the natural and human community.

Geography

Vandaravu peak is the highest peak in the Palani hills. The range lies between the Cumbum Valley on the south, which is drained by the Vaigai River and its upper tributaries, and the Kongunadu region to the north. The northern slopes are drained by the Shanmukha River, Nanganji River, and Kodavanar River, which are tributaries of the Kaveri River. The range lies mostly within Dindigul district, except in the western portion, where it forms the boundary between Dindigul district and Theni district to the south and Idukki District to the south west. The hill station of Kodaikanal lies in the southern central portion of the range. Palani Hills joined with Anamalai Hills and Cardamom Hills at Anamudi peak in Kerala state. Vattavada in Kerala is a part of Palani hills.

The Palni Hills are an eastward spur of the Western Ghats with a maximum east–west length of, and a north–south width of . Area is . These hills rise in steep escarpments to a high undulating plateau ranging from to over elevation.[13]

The western extremity of the park is contiguous with the Manjampatti Valley core area of the Indira Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park and with The Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala. The Kurinjimala Sanctuary in Kerala borders the southwestern corner of the park.[14] These Wildlife Sanctuaries are adjacent to the recently established Eravikulam National Park.

The park area includes only reserve forest land, including Palni Hills Northern Slope East, Kallar, Palni Hills Southern Slope East, Upper Palni Shola, Allinagaram, and Palni Hills Northern Slope West Reserve Forests in the Dindigul[15] and Kodaikanal Forest Divisions.[16]

Ecoregions

The lower elevations of the Palani Hills, between 250 and 1,000 m (820-3,281 ft), are part of the South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests ecoregion. Above 1,000 m (3,281 ft), the deciduous forests transition to the evergreen South Western Ghats montane rain forests. In the highest portions of the range, above 2,000 m (6,562 ft), the montane rainforests give way to shola-grassland mosaic, made up of frost-tolerant montane grasslands interspersed with pockets of stunted shola forests. The hills extend into Kerala as Pampadum Shola National Park.

Conservation

The Palani Hills are currently subject to increasing development pressure as it is under developed for a long time. The Palani Hills Conservation Council, a non-governmental organization headquartered in Kodaikanal, was founded in 1985. In the early 1990s the Tamil Nadu Forest Department proposed to the Tamil Nadu state government that much of the range be granted protected status as a wildlife sanctuary or Palani Hills Wildlife Sanctuary and National Park.[17]

Geology

History

The Palani Hills are formed of pre-Cambrian gneisses, charnockites and schists; they are among the oldest mountain ranges in India.[18] The park is an eastward extension of the Western Ghats hills formed by separation of the India-Madagascar-Seychelles blocks of East Gondwana in the Early Cretaceous period about 120 million years ago.[19]

It is surrounded to the north, east and south by the Deccan Plateau formed later in the massive Deccan Traps eruption 66 million years ago as India drifted over the Reunion Hotspot.[20]

Mountains

The Palani hills are most prominent towards the west, ranging from to (5,906 ft - 8,376 ft). The ten most prominent peaks are:

  1. Vandaravu,
  2. Ibex Peak
  3. Vembadi Peak,
  4. Gundar,
  5. Karunmakadu,
  6. Sandana Parai
  7. Venkombu
  8. Tina Vardi,
  9. Perumal Malai,
  10. Vellari Malai

The hill station of Kodaikanal stands in a 2,195 m (7,202 ft) high basin at the southern edge of the central part. The eastern end of the park is made of hills 1000–1500 m (3,281 ft - 4,921 ft) high.[21]

The Tamil Nadu Department of Geology and Mining has completed detailed Geo-Technical Studies of the Palni Hills determining moderate to high landslide danger in much of the area.[22]

Waterfalls

There are many waterfalls throughout the park which are popular tourist attractions. Some of the prominent falls associated with the park are: (Distances are referenced from km 0.0 at the bund (dam) on northeast end of Kodaikanal lake at .)

  1. Alanthoni Falls at high, elevation in Manjampatti Valley, core area of Indira Gandhi National Park, between Talinji and Manjampatti villages on the Ten Ar River, public access restricted.
    1. Bamen Falls
  2. Bear Shola Falls at from Kodaikanal,
  3. Fairy Falls at from Kodaikanal),
  4. Glen Falls at Vilpatti on Palar (Kallar) River
  5. Gundar Falls at A dangerous sheer cliff that drops over, to the first level, then drops off a couple more times to the plains.
  6. Neptune Falls and Pool at, are down a pine needle path through large pines beginning on left of road past Forest Dept. Nursery, from Kodaikanal on Poombrai Road.
  7. Palar Upper Falls also called Anju Veedu Falls (Five House Falls), photo, photo, on Palar stream 5.5 km southeast of Palar Reservoir and 1.7 km downstream north from Ganesha Puram village, per 1974 survey map. from Kodaikanal), in the Vilpatti Range. Spectacular waterfalls with dangerous currents. This stream originates in the Kodaikanal lake.
  8. Palar Lower falls photo, photo, on Palar stream 5.5 km southeast of Palar Reservoir and 1.7 km downstream north from Ganesha Puram village, per 1974 survey map. from Kodaikanal), in the Vilpatti Range. Spectacular waterfalls with dangerous currents. This stream originates in the Kodaikanal lake.
  9. Poombarai Falls
  10. Pambar Falls (also called Liril or Vatakanal) at, elevation, is SE from Kodaikanal.
  11. Silver Cascade at high, is from Kodaikanal) on the Ghat Road.
  12. Skamba Falls at is NE from Kodaikanal).
  13. Snake Falls Just below Pambar Falls where Levigne stream comes out of Pambar Shola. Is particularly visible from Priests Walk[23] and from top end of Coolie Ghat just below Shenbuganour.
  14. Thalaiyar Falls, (Rat Tail Falls) at, elevation, is (297 meters) high. It is the highest waterfall in Tamil Nadu and the third highest in India.
  15. Gaur Vellaiyan Falls at, high, is along the Kilavarai trail between Kilavarai and intersection 11 with Kodaikanal–Munnar Road, from Kodaikanal.
  16. Kathirikkai Falls is at, elevation . There is small pool above this 50m (160feet) waterfall just southwest of the Kodaikanal–Munnar Road crossing the Kathirikkai Odei (the Second Trout Stream) west of the Forest Dept Hut.
  17. Unnamed Falls at is on Dolphins Nose Trail.
  18. Unnamed Falls 16m at, high, is southwest of Vandaravu Peak in remote southwest corner of Palani Hills.
  19. Kudiraiyar River Falls at Kookkal Kombai, high, is walk northwest of Kukkal.[24]
  20. Kukkal Falls unnamed? at southwest of Kukkal village center
  21. Polur Falls (போளூர் அருவி) at .
  22. Poondi Falls at estimated from Army Map and contours
  23. Kumbakarai Falls located in the lower Palni foothills, along the Kodai-Vellagavi-Periyakulam footpath. These falls have two stages. At the first stage water collects in huge rock recesses which are each named after wild animals such as tiger, elephant and snake. The Pambar river then flows 0.5km (00.3miles) to the second stage before falling as the main waterfall.[25] Bathing is allowed. There is a bus from Periyakulam with fare of Rs. 5(6.00,7.00 13.00,15.30,16.30 hrs).
  24. Unnamed Falls 10m, in Allinagaram Reserved Forest, elevation, location estimated from Map
  25. Unnamed Falls 15m height, elevation, location estimated from Map

Climate

The Palani Hills have a montane tropical monsoon climate which varies from west to east. Generally, as one proceeds from the Kerala border in the west to the foothills in the east, average rainfall decreases and temperature increases. Compared to the Deccan plateau and the southwestern coastal plains, temperatures vary from moderate to quite cool. In the central Palani Hills at Kodaikanal, during March to May, the temperature range is between 10.1C20.9C. The temperature can rise to a high of . During December to February it is between 8.1C18.6C. In January, night temperatures sometimes drop below freezing, and thin ice is seen on lake edges in the early morning.

The climate of the upper Palnis has four clearly defined seasons:

The average annual rainfall is, mostly during the north-east monsoon.[27] [28]

Tribes

Nomadic Paliyan tribes people have been seen living in some of the several caves in Manjampatti Valley. Paliyan people can be seen near Kukal Cave. The Tamil speaking Pulayan are referred to as the MalaPulayans, a group categorized as scheduled caste by State government of Tamil Nadu. Their traditional livelihood is foraging yams and small gaming in the nearby forest areas combined with cultivation of several species of minor millets in small plots located near their hamlets to meet their subsistence requirements.

They live in small hamlets in huts and government constructed colonies. The sedentary life started with the construction of group houses by the government in the early sixties. The community is vertically divided into two sub divisions called Koora and Kanni, further subdivided into 47 sub sects. Each sub sect is called Kootams, which regulates certain social events. Each kootam has its own deity, which is common to the entire group and once yearly the members of the same kootam assemble to worship the deity.[29]

Many native tribals in the Palani Hills have partially assimilated modern culture but are marginalized on the fringes of society. Their social, economic and physical survival has become a difficult challenge for them and several public and private agencies. Their ancient culture in this area is well documented.[30] [31]

Relics and artifacts of the Paliyan tribes people can be seen in the Shenbaganur Museum.[32]

Ecoregions

The Palani hills are the easternmost part of the Western Ghats of India, which is one of the 25 biodiversity hotspots of the world. Some of the very rare and endangered plants and animals of India are found here. including intact relics of primary indigenous vegetation and a large number of non-native plants.[33]

The hills may be divided into four distinct vertical zones comprising distinct Ecoregions with a wide diversity of Endemic species.

  1. The foothills from 400mto800mm (1,300feetto2,600feetm) consist mostly of Deccan thorn scrub forests and South Deccan Plateau dry deciduous forests. There is also some evergreen forest along streams and rivers at these altitudes.
  2. Between 800mand1600mm (2,600feetand5,200feetm) is dominated by South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests accompanied by shrub savannah, although most has been converted to plantations.
  3. From 1600mto2000mm (5,200feetto7,000feetm) are upper montane slopes characterised by shola-grassland mosaic, composed of frost-tolerant montane grasslands on the hills interspersed with pockets of dense shola forests in the valleys. This is an undulating plateau interspersed with occasional peaks.
  4. Peaks rising to over with total area of and average elevation of consist mostly of montane grasslands interspersed with sholas. The grassland component is now largely replaced by forest plantations of wattle, pine and some eucalyptus .[13]

Flora and fauna

Mammals: Wild are common in areas away from human habitation and cultivation.

Threatened species in the park area include: Bengal tiger, Indian elephant, Indian leopard, gaur (wild ox), Nilgiri tahr and grizzled giant squirrel.

Endangered Bengal tiger populations in the adjacent Project Tiger reserves of Anamalai Tiger Reserve and the Kalakkad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve[34] in the Agasthyamalai hills could expand back into this area when it is better protected. In February 2010, tigers were sighted in Kodaikanal forests during a six-day carnivore signs survey. A tigress and her cub were spotted playing in the wild. Forest Department officials are studying survey data to estimate the local tiger population based on indirect evidence like pug marks, scats and scratches.[35] Amphibians and reptiles: Several little-known and endemic species of amphibians like Raorchestes dubois, Ghatixalus asterops, Micrixalus nigraventris, Indirana leptodactyla, Nyctibatrachus deccanensis and reptiles like Salea anamallayana, Hemidactylus anamallensis, Kaestlea palnica, Kaestlea travancorica, Ristella rurkii, Platyplectrurus madurensis, Teretrurus rhodogaster, Uropeltis pulneyensis, Uropeltis broughami, Uropeltis woodmasoni, Ahaetulla dispar, Boiga dightoni and Trimeresurus macrolepis occur in this sanctuary. Other more widespread species of herpetofauna also occur lower down.

Plants:Moist areas exist along the ravines and in the sheltered pockets of high elevation shola forests around . These sholas are often hotspots of endemic plant life. Notable among these is Pambar Shola. The Pambar Shola, draining to the Pambar River, is now reduced to less than in circumference. It contains several rare and endemic plant species including: Sonerila pulneyensis: a delicate Melastomataceae succulent herb endemic to Pambar Shola, Hoya wightii ssp. pulneyensis: a succulent vine with waxy flowers endemic to Pambar Shola', Plectranthus bourneate: a succulent herb endemic to Pambar Shola, Trichoglottis tenera: an epiphytic orchid. Pambar Shola is its major habitat, Phyllanthus chandrabosei: a shrub endemic to Pambar Shola, Huperzia sp.: a fern ally endemic to Pambar Shola, Selaginella sp.: a delicate creeping fern endemic to Pambar Shola, Psydraxficiformis: a tree, until recently thought extinct, Utleria salicifolia: only one clump known on the Palni hills, Elaeocarpus blascoi: a tree believed extinct until this year, Cyathea crinita: tree fern, highly endangered (Botanical Survey of India), Aeschynanthus perrottetii: known only from one other shola in the Palni hills, Eulophia sp.: a new species for the Palni hills first collected in April 2000,Actinodapohne bourneae: Laurel tree believed extinct (Botanical Survey of India). Two trees found in Pambar Shola, Ceropegia thwaitesii: vine, vulnerable, endemic to Pambar shola, Pimpinella pulneyensis: scarce, Exacum anamallayannum: gentian, only one other known location in Palni hills.[36]

The comprehensive source on Palani Hills flora is currently in print: "The Flora of the Palni Hills, South India" by K.M. Matthew (1999), Tiruchirapalli, 3 vols., xcvi, 1880 p., figs., maps, $193 (set). . Contents:[37]

Kurinji flowers (Strobilanthes kunthiana) which blossom in spectacular fields of violet only once in 12 years are threatened.[38]

Threat aversion

There is decreasing biodiversity, deforestation, grasslands destruction, monoculture tree plantations, and invasive exotic plant species in the park. There is sewage pollution, solid waste pollution and mercury contamination,[39] and mercury pollution. There is also sound pollution, visual pollution, uncontrolled tourism, overdevelopment and lake eutrophication in and near Kodaikanal town. The Government of Tamil Nadu and several local NGO conservation groups are actively working to reduce some of these threats:

A sum of Rs.1327.50 lakhs has been released for this purpose during 2006–2007.[42]

Visitor information

The Kodaikanal Division Forest Office offers a book called Kodaikanal Beauty in Wilderness, which has a list and map of local treks in the Kodaikanal area. Several trekking destinations are accessible from the Kodaikanal–Munnar Road. Permission from the Forest Department is necessary to visit areas deep inside the forests and for trekking in forests. Forest rest houses are available with advance reservation at Kodaikkanal, Poombarai, Kukkal, Kavunji, Berijam and Devadanapatty. Contact: District Forest officer, Kodaikkanal Forest Division, Kodaikanal, Dindigal District, Tamil Nadu, India. (open 10 am to 6 pm) Phone : 91-4542-240287[51]

External links

Notes and References

  1. Book: R. P. Singh, Zubairul Islam. Environmental Studies. 18 November 2012. Concept Publishing Company. 978-81-8069-774-6. 172.
  2. Web site: National Wildlife Data Center . 2006 . List of Proposed Wildlife Sanctuaries in India . 2007-03-26 . Wildlife Institute of India.
  3. Book: Policy note 2006-2007 . Tamil Nadu Ministry of Forests and Environment . ((Demand 15)) . 1.5.3. Biodiversity Conservation, Landscape and Protected Areas Management . 2020-07-12 . http://www.forests.tn.nic.in/PublicUtilities/graphics/PolicyNote-0607-E.pdf] . https://web.archive.org/web/20090409231539/http://www.forests.tn.nic.in/PublicUtilities/graphics/PolicyNote-0607-E.pdf . 2009-04-09 . dead.
  4. News: 2006 . Call for protection of Palani hills . 12 July 2020 . The Hindu.
  5. Book: Francis, W. Indian Civil Service . Madras District Gazetteers - Madura . Superintendent, Government Press . 1906 . Madras . 139 – on the Palni Plateaus . V - Forests . https://archive.org/stream/madurafrancis01madr/madurafrancis01madr_djvu.txt.
  6. Web site: Roshan . George . National Parks and Sanctuaries : Kodaikanal . 1 April 2010 . Wildvistas.
  7. Book: Mathur, Vinod B. . Wildlife Protected Area Network in India: A Review . Rogers, W. Alan . Panwar, Hemendra S. . Wildlife Institute of India . 2002 . Dehra Dun . Summary of Protected Area Proposals Considered to be of National Priority Status . 2010-03-31 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110721162507/http://oldwww.wii.gov.in/envis/panetworks/tb3.html . 2011-07-21 . dead.
  8. The Hindu, Frontline, Volume 20 - Issue 16, 02–15 August 2003, "On The Danger List" by Ian Lockwood, an excellent and comprehensive description of the Palani Hills
  9. ENVIRONMENT AND FORESTS DEPARTMENT, POLICY NOTE ON FOREST DEPARTMENT 2001-2002, DEMAND NO. 44 - FORESTS AND DEMAND NO.58 - CAPITAL OUTLAY ON FORESTS http://www.tn.gov.in/policynotes/archives/policy%20%202001_02/forest-e-2001-2.htm 9. WILDLIFE SANCTUARIES
  10. Web site: Selvaraj . N., Minister for Forests . 1.5.3. Biodiversity Conservation, Landscape and Protected Areas Management . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20090409231539/http://www.forests.tn.nic.in/PublicUtilities/graphics/PolicyNote-0607-E.pdf . 2009-04-09 . 25 March 2010 . POLICY NOTE 2006–2007 Demand No. 15 . Tamil Nadu Forest Department . 4 . Chennai.
  11. News: K.A. Shaji . 2012-08-22 . Gazette note doesn't exempt Topslip from core zone . 2012-08-22 . The Times of India . Bennett, Coleman & Co. Ltd. . Coimbatore.
  12. News: Stationary and Printing Department . 2012-08-13 . Environment and Forests Department – Declaration of Areas as Critical Tiger Habitats in the Three Tiger Reserves of the State of Tamil Nadu in the Interest of Conservation of Tiger Under Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. . 2012-08-22 . Extraordinary Gazette Publication 233 . Government of Tamil Nadu . Chennai.
  13. Web site: Palni Hills . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20101028025746/http://www.vattakanalconservationtrust.org/Home/activities/palni-hills . 28 October 2010 . 31 March 2010 . Vattakanal Conservation Trust . Kodaikanal.
  14. Kurinjimala and Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuaries, Map
  15. Book: Surukumar, R. . The Asian Elephant In Southern India, Dindigul - Territorial Forest Division - Data . Venkataraman, Arun . Varma, Surendra . Kumar, N. Venkatesa . October 1998 . Asian Nature Conservation Foundation, Asian Elephant Conservation and Research Centre . A GIS Database for Conservation of Project Elephant Reserves . Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore . 53 . 2008-09-30 . https://web.archive.org/web/20071011231527/http://www.asiannature.org/pdf_resources/TheAsianElephantInSouthernIndia.pdf . 2007-10-11 . dead.
  16. Book: Surukumar, R. . The Asian Elephant In Southern India, Kodaikanal - Territorial Forest Division - Data . Venkataraman, Arun . Varma, Surendra . Kumar, N. Venkatesa . October 1998 . Asian Nature Conservation Foundation, Asian Elephant Conservation and Research Centre . A GIS Database for Conservation of Project Elephant Reserves . Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore . 59 . 2008-09-30 . https://web.archive.org/web/20071011231527/http://www.asiannature.org/pdf_resources/TheAsianElephantInSouthernIndia.pdf . 2007-10-11 . dead.
  17. On the danger list. Frontline. 2 August 2003. 7 April 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20120204071315/http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl2016/stories/20030815000106600.htm. 2012-02-04.
  18. Markham Clements Robert (1862) "Travels in Peru and India, while superintending the collection of chinchona plants and seeds in...", Chapter XXIV, p. 390 - 407, Willim clowes and sons, London, retrieved 3/28/2007 (1862) Journey to the Pulney Hills
  19. Book: Wadia, Dr. D.N. . The Shaping of Indian Science: 1914-1947 . Orient Blackswan . 2003 . 9788173714320 . Indian Science Congress Association . 508–511 . The making of India . https://books.google.com/books?id=ccOgr1XNE2kC&q=%22Palni+hills%22+-com+peaks&pg=PA509.
  20. Wikimapia, satellite view
  21. Gurung Dr. Harka (Sept, 1999) "Mountains of South Asia", Asia Pacific Mountain Network, Vol. 4, No. 2, retrieved 23 March 2010 "Mountains of South Asia"
  22. Industries Department, POLICY NOTE - 2005-2006, DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY AND MINING Industries Dept.
  23. Web site: Lockwood . Ian . 2012-02-29 . Pambar Falls in February .
  24. Trekking to the Plains Kukkal
  25. Web site: Kumbakkarai Falls . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20090923185629/http://www.discovertamilnadu.net/tamilnadu%20dams%20and%20waterfalls.html . 2009-09-23 . 2009-10-26 . Tamilnadu Waterfalls & Dams . Discover Tamil Nadu.
  26. Web site: Rangan, H., C. A. Kull, and L. Alexander. . 2010 . Forest plantations, water availability, and regional climate change: controversies surrounding Acacia mearnsii plantations in the upper Palni Hills, southern India. . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20120426021352/http://christiankull.files.wordpress.com/2011/05/rangan-et-al-2010-palnis-rec-author-version1.pdf . 2012-04-26 . 2007-03-26 . Regional Environmental Change, 10 (2) . author version . 103–117.
  27. http://www.kodaikanal.org/ Kodaikanal.org, Kodaikanal climate
  28. http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/25/Kodaikanal.html Falling Rain Genomics, Inc - Kodaikanal
  29. P.Thamizoli, K.Balasubramanian, M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai and P.Ignatius Prabakar, Department of Anthropology, University of Madras, Chennai (2003) "Folk Narratives from the Palni Hills: The Pulayans left behind the dead cattle, driven to the mountain’s edge, shown the dry waterhole" "Folk Narratives from the Palni Hills..."
  30. Bicultural Versatility as a Frontier Adaptation among Paliyan Foragers of South India, by Dr. Peter Gardner, Edwin Mellen Press, 2000, "Bicultural Versatility..."
  31. Gardner, Excerpts "Bicultural Versatility..." excerpts
  32. travelportalindia Shenbaganur Museum
  33. Matthew K. M. (1999) "The Flora of the Palni Hills, Parts 1–3.", The Rapinat Herbarium, St. Joseph’s College, Tiruchirapalli 620 002, India. 364. pp. Price: set Rs 600. $175, £100.Flora of the Palni Hills
  34. Project Tiger, Kalakad - Mundanthurai Reserve Project Tiger
  35. News: 2010-03-01 . Sathyamangalam could be a tiger reserve . 2011-01-02 . The Times of India, Chennai . Bennett, Coleman & Co. Ltd..
  36. Greenpeace India Pambar shola: a biodiversity treasure trove under threat
  37. K.M. Matthew (1999) "The Flora of the Palni Hills, South India", retrieved 24 March 2007 "The Flora of the Palni Hills, South India"
  38. News about Kuringi, Endemic birds, Vattakanal Conservation Trust, the Hindu, Frontline, Volume 23 - Issue 17 :: 26 Aug. – 8 Sep. 2006
  39. Yashwant Shailendra "Mercury rising in Kodaikanal", Infochange India, Toxic Tours - IV, retrieved 3/28/2007
  40. Govt. of Tamilnadu, Tourism, Demand No.50, Policy Note 2000-2001, State Government Schemes, Works in progress under Part-II Scheme 1999-2000, retrieved 26 January 2007. Policy Note 2000-2001, State Government Schemes
  41. Tamil Nadu Ministry of Forests and Environment, Policy note 2006-2007, Demand 25, Dept. of Forests, page 49 Ministry of Forests, page 49
  42. Tamil Nadu Forest Dept. (2007) Projects & Programs 2007 - 2008, retrieved 9/2/2007 FOREST MAINTENANCE WORKS AS PER THE RECOMMENDATIONS OF 12TH FINANCE COMMISSION
  43. The Hindu
  44. Palni Hills Conservation Council Palani Hills Conservation Council
  45. Vattakanal Conservation Trust Vattakanal Conservation Trust
  46. Kodaikanal International School, Environmental awareness programs.Kodaikanal International School
  47. Save Kurinji Campaign Council Save Kurinji Campaign Council
  48. The Tamil Nadu Green Movement-Tamil Nadu Green Movement
  49. News: The Group Endeavor for Environment and Nature Sustenance Pleas to the Forestry Minister for Palani Hills National Park.Tamil Nadu Green Movement, News
  50. Elephant Valley Organic Farm, retrieved 4/13/2007 Organic Farm
  51. http://www.dindigul.tn.nic.in/forest.htm Kodaikkanal Forest Division

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Palani Hills".

Except where otherwise indicated, Everything.Explained.Today is © Copyright 2009-2024, A B Cryer, All Rights Reserved. Cookie policy.