Paenibacillus larvae explained

Paenibacillus larvae is a species of bacterium, found worldwide, which causes American foulbrood, a fatal disease of the larvae of honeybees (Apis mellifera). It is a Gram-positive, rod-shaped bacterium,[1] which forms spores which can remain viable for at least thirty-five years.[2]

Morphology

P. larvae is a rod-shaped bacterium with slightly rounded ends, approximately 2.5–5 μm long and 0.5 μm wide.[3] The spore of P. larvae is oval, approximately 0.6 μm wide and 1.3 μm long.

Classification

In 1906, G.F. White first described the bacterium that caused American foulbrood (AFB), and named it Bacillus larvae.[4] In 1950, a bacterium isolated from bee larvae and associated with the rare disease "powdery scale" was named Bacillus pulvifaciens by Katznelson.[5] In 1993, both B. larvae and B. pulvifaciens were transferred to a new genus, Paenibacillus.[6] The two species were combined into a single species: Paenibacillus larvae in 1996, remaining differentiated as two subspecies: P. larvae ssp. larvae (formerly Bacillus larvae) and P. larvae ssp. pulvifaciens (formerly Bacillus pulvifaciens).[7] In 2006, the subspecies were eliminated based on spore morphology, biochemical profile and DNA testing, and when it was also demonstrated that experimental infection of honeybee larvae with the pulvifaciens subspecies caused American foulbrood signs without causing "powdery scale".[8]

There are at least four genotypes of P. larvae, named after their enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus (ERIC) sequences. Genotype ERIC I corresponds to the former species of Bacillus larvae, and genotypes ERIC II, III and IV correspond to the former species of B. pulvifaciens.[8] A fifth genotype ERIC V has recently been discovered in honey.[9]

Epidemiology

P. larvae is found worldwide.[10] [11] Genotypes ERIC I and II are most frequently isolated from global AFB outbreaks. In contrast, genotypes ERIC III and IV are found in bacteriology archives and are considered practically unimportant.[12] ERIC V was found in honey and has not been isolated from infected colonies yet.

American foulbrood

See main article: American foulbrood. P. larvae causes American foulbrood in honeybees. The transmission is helped by small hive beetle, which the infected small hive beetle can spread the bacteria by directly contacting both honey and honeybee.[13]

Notes and References

  1. de Graaf . Dirk C . Alippi . Adriana M . Antúnez . Karina . Aronstein . Katherine A . Budge . Giles . De Koker . Dieter . De Smet . Lina . Dingman . Douglas W . Evans . Jay D . Foster . Leonard J . Fünfhaus . Anne . Garcia-Gonzalez . Eva . Gregore . Aleš . Human . Hannelie . Murray . K Daniel . Nguyen . Bach Kim . Poppinga . Lena . Spivak . Marla . van Engelsdorp . Dennis . Wilkins . Selwyn . Genersch . Elke . Standard methods for American foulbrood research . Journal of Apicultural Research . 2 April 2015 . 52 . 1 . 1–28 . 10.3896/IBRA.1.52.1.11 . free. 2263/40908 . free .
  2. Govan . VA . Allsopp . MH . Davison . S . A PCR detection method for rapid identification of Paenibacillus larvae. . Applied and Environmental Microbiology . May 1999 . 65 . 5 . 2243–5 . 10.1128/AEM.65.5.2243-2245.1999 . 10224028 . 91325. 1999ApEnM..65.2243G .
  3. Book: Shimanuki . Hachiro . Knox . David A. . Diagnosis of Honey Bee Diseases . 2000 . Agriculture Handbook No. AH–690 . U.S. Department of Agriculture . American foulbrood . 3–9 . 2020-02-26.
  4. Book: White . Gershom Franklin . The bacteria of the apiary, with special reference to bee diseases . 1906 . Technical series no. 14 . no.14 . 40–43 . 10.5962/bhl.title.87503 . U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology . Washington.
  5. Katznelson . H. . Bacillus Pulvifaciens (N. Sp.), an Organism Associated with Powdery Scale of Honeybee Larvae . 1950 . Journal of Bacteriology . en . 59 . 2 . 153–155 . 10.1128/jb.59.2.153-155.1950 . 0021-9193 . 385736 . 15421942.
  6. Ash . Carol . Priest . Fergus G. . Collins . M. David . 1993 . Molecular identification of rRNA group 3 bacilli (Ash, Farrow, Wallbanks and Collins) using a PCR probe test: Proposal for the creation of a new genus Paenibacillus . Antonie van Leeuwenhoek . en . 64 . 3–4 . 253–260 . 10.1007/BF00873085 . 8085788 . 7391845 . 0003-6072.
  7. Heyndrickx . M. . Vandemeulebroecke . K. . Hoste . B. . Janssen . P. . Kersters . K. . De Vos . P. . Logan . N. A. . Ali . N. . Berkeley . R. C. W. . 1996 . Reclassification of Paenibacillus (formerly Bacillus) pulvifaciens (Nakamura 1984) Ash et al. 1994, a Later Subjective Synonym of Paenibacillus (formerly Bacillus) larvae (White 1906) Ash et al. 1994, as a Subspecies of P. larvae, with Emended Descriptions of P. larvae as P. larvae subsp. larvae and P. larvae subsp. pulvifaciens . International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology . en . 46 . 1 . 270–279 . 10.1099/00207713-46-1-270 . 8573507 . 0020-7713. free .
  8. Genersch . Elke . Forsgren . Eva . Pentikäinen . Jaana . Ashiralieva . Ainura . Rauch . Sandra . Kilwinski . Jochen . Fries . Ingemar . 2006-03-01 . Reclassification of Paenibacillus larvae subsp. pulvifaciens and Paenibacillus larvae subsp. larvae as Paenibacillus larvae without subspecies differentiation . International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology . en . 56 . 3 . 501–511 . 10.1099/ijs.0.63928-0 . 16514018 . 1466-5026. free .
  9. Beims . Hannes . Bunk . Boyke . Erler . Silvio . Mohr . Kathrin I. . Spröer . Cathrin . Pradella . Silke . Günther . Gabi . Rohde . Manfred . von der Ohe . Werner . Steinert . Michael . 2020 . Discovery of Paenibacillus larvae ERIC V: Phenotypic and genomic comparison to genotypes ERIC I-IV reveal different inventories of virulence factors which correlate with epidemiological prevalences of American Foulbrood . International Journal of Medical Microbiology . en . 310 . 2 . 151394 . 10.1016/j.ijmm.2020.151394 . 31959580 . 210841828 . 1438-4221. free . 10033/622140 . free .
  10. Morrissey . Barbara J. . Helgason . Thorunn . Poppinga . Lena . Fünfhaus . Anne . Genersch . Elke . Budge . Giles E. . April 2015 . Biogeography of P aenibacillus larvae, the causative agent of American foulbrood, using a new multilocus sequence typing scheme . Environmental Microbiology . en . 17 . 4 . 1414–1424 . 10.1111/1462-2920.12625 . 1462-2912 . 4405054 . 25244044. 2015EnvMi..17.1414M .
  11. Papić . Bojan . Diricks . Margo . Kušar . Darja . 2021-02-26 . Analysis of the Global Population Structure of Paenibacillus larvae and Outbreak Investigation of American Foulbrood Using a Stable wgMLST Scheme . Frontiers in Veterinary Science . 8 . 582677 . 10.3389/fvets.2021.582677 . 2297-1769 . 7952629 . 33718463. free .
  12. Genersch . Elke . American Foulbrood in honeybees and its causative agent, Paenibacillus larvae . Journal of Invertebrate Pathology . January 2010 . 103 . S10–S19 . 10.1016/j.jip.2009.06.015 . 19909971 . 2010JInvP.103S..10G . 2020-04-26.
  13. Schäfer . Marc Oliver . Ritter . Wolfgang . Pettis . Jeff . Neumann . Peter . 2010-01-01 . Small hive beetles, Aethina tumida, are vectors of Paenibacillus larvae . Apidologie . en . 41 . 1 . 14–20 . 10.1051/apido/2009037 . 1297-9678.

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