OECD explained

Organisation for Economic and Development
Native Name:Organisation de coopération et de développement économiques
Native Name Lang:fr
Type:Intergovernmental organisation
Headquarters:Château de la Muette
Paris, France
Leader Title:Secretary-General
Leader Name:Mathias Cormann
Budget:€383.4 million (2023)[1]
Leader Title2:Deputy Secretaries-General
Established: (as OEEC)
(as OECD)

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD; French: Organisation de coopération et de développement économiques, '''OCDE''') is an intergovernmental organisation with 38 member countries,[2] founded in 1961 to stimulate economic progress and world trade. It is a forum whose member countries describe themselves as committed to democracy and the market economy, providing a platform to compare policy experiences, seek answers to common problems, identify good practices, and coordinate domestic and international policies of its members.

The majority of OECD members are high-income economies ranked as "very high" in the Human Development Index, and are regarded as developed countries. their collective population is 1.38 billion[3] people with an average life expectancy of 80 years and a median age of 40, against a global average of 30.[4], OECD Member countries collectively comprised 62.2% of global nominal GDP (USD 49.6 trillion)[5] and 42.8% of global GDP (Int$54.2 trillion) at purchasing power parity.[6] The OECD is an official United Nations observer.[7] OECD nations have strong social security systems; their average social welfare spending stood at roughly 21% of GDP.[8] [9] [10]

The OECD's headquarters are at the Château de la Muette in Paris, France, which housed its predecessor organization, the Organization for European Economic Co-operation.[11] The OECD is funded by contributions from member countries at varying rates and had a total budget of €338.3 million in 2023, and is recognised as a highly influential publisher of mostly economic data through publications as well as annual evaluations and rankings of member countries.[12]

History

Organisation for European Economic Co-operation

The OECD is the successor organization to the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC), established in April 1948 among the European recipients of Marshall Plan aid for the reconstruction of Europe after World War II.[13] [14] [15] Only Western European states were members of the OEEC, whose primary function was the allocation of American aid. Its Secretaries-General[16] were the Frenchmen Robert Marjolin (1948–1955) and René Sergent (1955–1960). It was headquartered in the Château de la Muette in Paris.

Following the end of Marshall aid in 1952, the OEEC focused on economic issues. Its coordinating role was challenged after the 1957 Rome Treaties establishing the European Economic Community and Euratom. The OEEC provided a framework for negotiations aimed at setting up a European Free Trade Area, to bring the EEC's Inner Six and other OEEC members together on a multilateral basis. In 1958, a European Nuclear Energy Agency was set up in response to Euratom.

By this time, some leading countries felt that the OEEC had outlived its purpose but could be adapted to fulfil a more global mission, which proved to be a cumbersome task. Following several (occasionally unruly) meetings at the Hotel Majestic in Paris, which began in January 1960, a resolution was reached to create a body that would not only solve European and Atlantic economic issues, but also devise policies that could assist less developed countries. This reconstituted organisation would bring the US and Canada, who were already OEEC observers, on board as full members, and the OEEC would set to work straight away on convincing Japan to join the organisation.[17] [18] [19]

Founding

The Convention on the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development was signed on 14 December 1960, and the OECD officially superseded the OEEC in September 1961, consisting of the European founder countries of the OEEC, with the additions of the United States and Canada. Three countries, (Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Italy)—all OEEC members—ratified the OECD Convention after September 1961, but are nevertheless considered founding members. The official founding members are the following:

Japan became a member in 1964, and over the following decade, Finland, Australia, and New Zealand also joined the organisation. Yugoslavia had observer status in the organisation, starting with the establishment of the OECD, until its dissolution as a country.[20] The OECD also created agencies such as the OECD Development Centre (1961), International Energy Agency (IEA, 1974), and Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering.

The aims of the OECD are stated in Article 1 of the Convention[21] as:

  1. to achieve the highest sustainable economic growth and employment and a rising standard of living in Member countries, while maintaining financial stability
  2. to contribute to sound economic expansion in Member as well as non-member countries
  3. to contribute to the expansion of world trade

Unlike the Organisations of the United Nations system, OECD uses the spelling "Organisation" with an "s" in its name rather than "organization", together with a hyphenated "Co-operation".

Enlargement to Central Europe

Following the Revolutions of 1989, the OECD began assisting countries in Central and Eastern Europe (especially the Visegrád Group) to prepare market economy reforms. In 1990, the Centre for Co-operation with European Economies in Transition (now succeeded by the Centre for Cooperation with Non-Members) was established, and in 1991, the programme, "Partners in Transition", was launched to offer a partnership to Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Poland, including a membership option for these countries.[22] As a result of this, Poland,[23] Hungary, the Czech Republic and Slovakia, as well as South Korea[24] and Mexico, became members of the OECD between 1996 and 2000.

Reform and further enlargement

East Germany joined on 3 October 1990 through reunification with West Germany. In the 1990s, several European countries, now members of the European Union, expressed their willingness to join the Organisation. In 1995, Cyprus applied for membership, but according to the Cypriot government, it was vetoed by Turkey.[25] In 1996, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania signed a Joint Declaration expressing willingness to become members of the OECD,[26] and Slovenia also applied for membership that same year.[27] In 2005, Malta applied to join the Organisation.[28] The EU is lobbying for the admission of all EU member states.[29] Romania reaffirmed in 2012 its intention to become a member of the Organisation through the letter addressed by Romanian Prime Minister Victor Ponta to OECD Secretary-General José Ángel Gurría.[30] In September 2012, the government of Bulgaria confirmed it would apply for membership before the OECD Secretariat.[31]

The OECD established a working group headed by ambassador Seiichiro Noboru to work out a plan for the enlargement with non-members. The working group defined four criteria that must be fulfilled: "like-mindedness", "significant player", "mutual benefit" and "global considerations." The working group's recommendations were presented at the OECD Ministerial Council Meeting on 13 May 2004, and on 16 May 2007, the OECD Ministerial Council decided to open accession discussions with Chile, Estonia, Israel, Russia, and Slovenia, and to strengthen cooperation with Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, and South Africa through a process of enhanced engagement. Chile, Slovenia, Israel, and Estonia all became members in 2010.[32] In March 2014, the OECD halted membership talks with Russia in response to its role in the 2014 Annexation of Crimea.[33] [34]

In 2013, the OECD decided to open membership talks with Colombia and Latvia. In 2015, the Organisation opened talks with Costa Rica and Lithuania.[35] Latvia became a member on 1 July 2016, and Lithuania soon followed on 5 July 2018.[36] [37] Colombia signed the accession agreement on 30 May 2018 and became a member on 28 April 2020.[38] On 15 May 2020, the OECD decided to extend a formal invitation for Costa Rica to join the OECD,[39] which joined as a member on 25 May 2021.[40]

Other countries that have expressed interest in OECD membership are Argentina, Brazil,[41] Croatia,[42] Malaysia[43] and Peru.[44]

In January 2022, the OECD reported that membership talks were underway with Argentina, Brazil, Bulgaria, Croatia, Peru and Romania.[45]

In March 2022, the OECD suspended the participation of Russia and Belarus due to the ongoing 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.[46]

In June 2022, during the annual OECD Ministerial Council Meeting, the Roadmaps for the Accession to the OECD Convention for Brazil, Bulgaria, Croatia, Peru and Romania were adopted.[47]

Objectives and issues

Taxation

The OECD sets the rules governing international taxation for multinationals through the OECD Transfer Pricing Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises and Tax Administrations, a Model Tax Convention and country-by-country reporting rules. The OECD publishes and updates a model tax convention that serves as a template for allocating taxation rights between countries. This model is accompanied by a set of commentaries that reflect OECD-level interpretation of the content of the model convention provisions. In general, this model allocates the primary right to tax to the country from which capital investment originates (i.e., the home, or resident country) rather than the country in which the investment is made (the host, or source country). As a result, it is most effective between two countries with reciprocal investment flows (such as among the OECD member countries), but can be unbalanced when one of the signatory countries is economically weaker than the other (such as between OECD and non-OECD pairings). Additionally, the OECD has published and updated the Transfer Pricing Guidelines since 1995. The Transfer Pricing Guidelines serve as a template for the profit allocation of inter-company transactions to countries. The latest version, of July 2017, incorporates the approved Actions developed under the Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS) project initiated by the G20.

Pillar 1
  • An OECD proposal to allocate multinational profits (for taxing purposes) to countries where they do business, by a formula, including to markets which multinationals sell into without a physical presence. This is hoped to eliminate the need for Digital Services Tax implemented by several countries, including France. There are exclusions and minimum thresholds, including banking and extractive industries. The proposal involves allocating only residual profit (i.e., profits above what is established through transfer pricing, thus creating a hybrid mechanism). This is essentially no change to what is currently allowed (routine profits allocated using transfer pricing + residual profits allocated through profit split).
    Pillar 2
  • On 1 July 2021, finance officials from 130 countries agreed on plans for a new international taxation policy known as the global minimum corporate tax (of 15%). If a country taxes a multinational at a lower rate, the multinational's HQ will receive the difference.

    It is not certain when the proposals will be implemented.

    All the major economies agreed to pass national laws that would require corporations to pay at least 15% income tax in the countries they operate. This new policy would end the practice of locating world headquarters in small countries with very low taxation rates. Governments hope to recoup some of the lost revenue, estimated at $100 billion to $240 billion each year. The new system was promoted by the Biden Administration in the United States and the OECD. Secretary-General Mathias Cormann of the OECD said, "This historic package will ensure that large multinational companies pay their fair share of tax everywhere."[48]

    Multinational corporations

    The OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises are a set of legally non-binding guidelines attached as an annex to the OECD Declaration on International Investment and Multinational Enterprises. They are recommendations providing principles and standards for responsible business conduct for multinational corporations operating in or from countries adhering to the Declaration.[49]

    Publications

    The OECD publishes books, reports, statistics, working papers, and reference materials. All titles and databases published since 1998 can be accessed via OECD iLibrary. The OECD Library & Archives collection dates from 1947, including records from the Committee for European Economic Co-operation (CEEC) and the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC), predecessors of today's OECD. External researchers can consult OECD publications and archival material on the OECD premises by appointment.

    Books

    The OECD releases about 600 books and over 400 papers yearly on topics spanning public policy. The publications are updated to the OECD iLibrary. Most books are published in English and French. The OECD flagship titles include:

    All OECD books are available on the OECD iLibrary, the online bookshop or OECD Library & Archives.[52]

    Magazine

    OECD Observer, an award-winning magazine,[53] was launched in 1962.[54] The magazine appeared six times a year until 2010, and became quarterly in 2011 with the introduction of the OECD Yearbook, launched for the 50th anniversary of the organisation.[55] The online and mobile[56] editions contained news, analysis, reviews, commentaries and data on global economic, social and environmental challenges and listings of the latest OECD books.[57] An OECD Observer Crossword was introduced in Q2 2013.[58] The OECD Observer was last issued in the fourth quarter of 2019, with a double edition looking ahead at artificial intelligence, and a cover leading on why statistical offices should hire a comedian. The OECD Observer website closed in the first quarter of 2021; the archive can be consulted at www.oecd.org.

    Statistics

    The OECD is known as a statistical agency, as it publishes comparable statistics on numerous subjects. In July 2014, the OECD publicly released its main statistical databases through the OECD Data Portal, an online platform that allows visitors to create custom charts based on official OECD indicators.[59] [60]

    OECD statistics are available in several forms:

    In July 2024, the OECD announced that it "has transitioned to [an] open-access information model" and that Creative Commons CC‑BY‑4.0 attribution licenses will be used on all data and publications.[61]

    Working papers

    There are 15 working papers series published by the various directorates of the OECD Secretariat. They are available on iLibrary, as well as on many specialised portals.

    Reference works

    The OECD is responsible for the OECD Guidelines for the Testing of Chemicals, a continuously updated document that is a de facto standard (i.e., soft law).[62]

    It published the OECD Environmental Outlook to 2030 in March 2008, which argues that tackling key environmental problems—including climate change, biodiversity loss, water scarcity, and the health impacts of pollution—is both achievable and affordable.[63]

    SDG Pathfinder

    In 2020, the inaugural University Press Redux Sustainability Award was given to OECD by the Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers (ALPSP) and Cambridge University Press.[64] The award recognized the development of the SDG Pathfinder, an open-access digital discovery tool for finding content and data relating to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).[65] [66]

    Structure

    The OECD's structure consists of three main elements:[67]

    Meetings

    Delegates from the member countries attend committee and other meetings. Former Deputy Secretary-General estimated in 1997 that the cost borne by the member countries, such as sending their officials to OECD meetings and maintaining permanent delegations, is equivalent to the cost of running the secretariat.[68] This ratio is unique among inter-governmental organisations. In other words, the OECD is more a persistent forum or network of officials and experts than an administration.

    The OECD regularly holds minister-level meetings and forums as platforms for a discussion on a broad spectrum of thematic issues relevant to the OECD charter, member countries, and non-member countries.[69] Noteworthy meetings include:

    Secretariat

    Exchanges between OECD governments benefit from the information, analysis, and preparation of the OECD Secretariat. The secretariat collects data, monitors trends, and analyses and forecasts economic developments. Under the direction and guidance of member governments, it also researches social changes or evolving patterns in trade, environment, education, agriculture, technology, taxation and other areas.

    The secretariat is organised in Directorates:[71]

    Secretary-General

    The head of the OECD Secretariat and chair of the OECD Council is the Secretary-General. Secretary-General selections are made by consensus, meaning all member states must agree on a candidate.[72]

    Secretary-General of the OEEC! No.! Secretary-General! Time served! Country of origin
    1Robert Marjolin1948 – 1955 France
    2René Sergent1955 – 1960 France
    3Thorkil Kristensen1960 – 30 September 1961 Denmark
    Secretary-General of the OECD[73] ! No.! Secretary-General! Time served! Country of origin! Notes
    1Thorkil Kristensen30 September 1961 – 30 September 1969 Denmark
    2Emiel van Lennep1 October 1969 – 30 September 1984 Netherlands
    3Jean-Claude Paye1 October 1984 – 30 September 1994 France
    —Staffan Sohlman (interim)1 October 1994 – November 1994 Sweden[74] [75]
    3Jean-Claude PayeNovember 1994 – 31 May 1996 France[76]
    4Donald Johnston1 June 1996 – 31 May 2006 Canada
    5José Ángel Gurría1 June 2006 – 31 May 2021 Mexico[77]
    6Mathias Cormann1 June 2021 – present Australia[78]

    Committees

    Representatives of member and observer countries meet in specialised committees on specific policy areas, such as economics, trade, science, employment, education, development assistance or financial markets. There are about 200 committees, working groups and expert groups. Committees discuss policies and review progress in the given policy area.[79]

    Special bodies

    OECD has a number of specialised bodies:[80]

    Voting

    OECD decisions are made through voting, which requires unanimity among all of those voting. Each member country has one vote.[81] However, dissenting members which do not wish to block a decision but merely to signal their disapproval can abstain from voting.[82] 22 of the OECD member countries are also EU member states.[83]

    Member countries

    Current members

    there are 38 members of the OECD:[40]

    Country Application Negotiations Invitation Membership[84] Geographic location Notes
    Oceania
    Europe OEEC member[85]
    Europe OEEC member
    [86] [87] [88] [89]
    [90] [91] South America
    [92] [93] Europe
    Europe OEEC member
    [94] Europe
    Europe
    Europe OEEC member
    Europe Joined OEEC in 1949 (West Germany).[95] Previously represented by the Trizone.
    Europe OEEC member
    [96] Europe
    Europe OEEC member
    Europe OEEC member
    [97] Middle East
    Europe OEEC member
    [98] Asia
    [99] [100] [101] Europe
    align=right [102] Europe
    Europe OEEC member
    [103] North America
    Europe OEEC member
    Oceania
    Europe OEEC member
    [104] [105] Europe
    Europe OEEC member
    [106] Europe
    [107] Europe
    [108] Asia
    Europe Joined OEEC in 1958[109]
    Europe OEEC member
    Europe OEEC member
    Middle East OEEC member
    Europe OEEC member
    North America

    Dependent territories

    Dependent territories of member states are not members in their own right, but may have membership as part of their sovereign state.[110] As of January 2021, the Dutch Caribbean and the British territories of Guernsey, Jersey, the Isle of Man, Gibraltar, and Bermuda included as part of the OECD memberships of the Netherlands and the U.K., respectively.[111] [112] Other dependent territories of OECD member states members of the OECD.

    Participating partners

    The European Commission participates in the work of the OECD alongside the EU member states.[113] The OECD designates Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, and South Africa as Key Partners, which participate in policy discussions in OECD bodies, and take part in regular OECD surveys.[114] [115]

    Negotiating membership

    Applicants

    Expressed interest

    Former members

    The Free Territory of Trieste (Zone A) was a member of the OEEC until 1954, when it merged with Italy and ceased to exist as an independent territorial entity.[85]

    Accession talks terminated

    In May 2007, the OECD decided to open accession negotiations with Russia.[88] In March 2014, the OECD halted membership talks in response to Russia's role in that year's Crimean Annexation and continuous human and civil rights abuses.[33] [34] On 25 February 2022, the OECD terminated the accession process with Russia after it invaded Ukraine.[124] In March 2022, Belarus was suspended from any participation in the OECD.[125]

    Budget

    , the OECD's budget is composed of Part I and Part II programmes of work. All member countries contribute funding to the Part I budget, representing around two thirds of OECD Part I expenditure. The contributions (see table below) are based on both a proportion that is shared equally among member countries and a scale that is proportional to the relative size of their economies. The Part I budget for 2023 is €219.6 million. The part II budgets, meanwhile, cover programmes that are of interest to a limited number of members and are funded according to scales of contributions or other agreements among the participating countries. The consolidated Part II budgets for 2023 amount to €118.7 million.

    The overall combined OECD budget for 2023 comes to €338.3 million.[1]

    Member countries' percentage shares of Part I budget contributions for 2023!Country!% contribution
    Australia3.1
    Austria1.5
    Belgium1.7
    Canada3.6
    Chile1.2
    Colombia1.2
    Czech Republic1.2
    Denmark1.4
    Estonia0.8
    Finland1.2
    France5.1
    Germany7.5
    Greece1.1
    Hungary1.0
    Iceland0.6
    Ireland1.3
    Israel1.5
    Italy3.9
    Japan9.0
    3.5
    Latvia0.8
    Lithuania0.9
    Luxembourg0.8
    Mexico2.6
    Netherlands2.3
    New Zealand1.1
    Norway1.5
    Poland1.7
    Portugal1.1
    Slovakia1.0
    Slovenia0.9
    Spain2.9
    Sweden1.6
    Switzerland2.1
    Turkey1.9
    5.4
    United States19.1
    Total100.0

    See also

    Notes

    1. Web site: Member Countries' Budget Contributions for 2023 . 2023-03-22 . OECD.
    2. News: Shields . Bevan . Mathias Cormann confirmed as a frontrunner for OECD post following candidate cull . 11 September 2022 . . 13 January 2021 . en . OECD's 38 member countries..
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    4. Web site: OECD Economic Data Data . 2024-03-22 . World Economics.
    5. Web site: World Economic Outlook Database. 17 April 2018. International Monetary Fund.
    6. Web site: Report for Selected Country Groups and Subjects (PPP valuation of country GDP). IMF. 9 May 2018.
    7. Web site: Intergovernmental Organizations. United Nations . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20181202024809/https://www.un.org/en/sections/member-states/intergovernmental-organizations/index.html . Dec 2, 2018 .
    8. 3005973. Do Social-Welfare Policies Reduce Poverty? A Cross-National Assessment. Social Forces. 77. 3. 1119–1139. Kenworthy. Lane. 1999. 10.2307/3005973. https://web.archive.org/web/20130810134045/http://www.lisdatacenter.org/wps/liswps/188.pdf. 10 August 2013. live.
    9. 3088901. Determinants of Relative Poverty in Advanced Capitalist Democracies. American Sociological Review. 68. 1. 22–51. Moller. Stephanie. Huber. Evelyne. Stephens. John D.. Bradley. David. Nielsen. François. 2003. 10.2307/3088901.
    10. Web site: Social Expenditure – Aggregated data. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
    11. Web site: Getting to the OECD. OECD. 28 April 2016.
    12. Web site: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. 2020-09-08. Encyclopedia Britannica. en.
    13. Web site: The Economic Cooperation Authority . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20070217121005/http://www.marshallfoundation.org/library/doc_eca.html . 17 February 2007 . 30 May 2013 . Marshallfoundation.org.
    14. Book: Christopher . Warren . In the stream of history: shaping foreign policy for a new era . Stanford University Press . 1998 . 978-0-8047-3468-4 . 165.
    15. Lintott . H. J. B. . 1949 . Machinery for Rebuilding the European Economy: II. The Organization for European Economic Cooperation . International Organization . en . 3 . 2 . 269–277 . 10.1017/S0020818300020609 . 1531-5088.
    16. Web site: Definition of SECRETARY-GENERAL . 2022-12-14 . Merriam-Webster . en.
    17. Web site: OECD . OECD 60th anniversary . 2022-12-14 . OECD 60th anniversary.
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    20. Book: . The OECD and the International Political Economy Since 1948 . A Socialist Developing Country in a Western Capitalist Club: Yugoslavia and the OEEC/OECD, 1955–1980 . https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-60243-1_4 . Leimgruber . Matthieu . Schmelzer . Matthias . 89–111 . Marković . Andrej . Obadić . Ivan . 2017 . 10.1007/978-3-319-60243-1_4 . 978-3-319-60243-1 .
    21. Web site: Convention on the OECD . OECD . 1 June 2023.
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    24. News: South Korea joins OECD . . 25 October 1996 . 3 August 2013 . April 7, 2024. https://web.archive.org/web/20240407004839/http://www.chicagotribune.com/1996/10/25/south-korea-joins-oecd-south-korea-was/.
    25. Web site: International Organisations – Turkey's attempts to exclude Cyprus' membership . Cyprus Ministry of Foreign Affairs . September 2010. 4 November 2011 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110916130855/http://www.mfa.gov.cy/mfa/mfa2006.nsf/All/826CB014C0CDE8DEC22571B100229450?OpenDocument . 16 September 2011 .
    26. Web site: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Latvia: Co-operation between the OECD and Latvia . Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Latvia . 19 December 2006 . 4 November 2011.
    27. Web site: Slovenia and the OECD . OECD . 31 March 2012.
    28. News: Malta applies to join OECD as full member . Maltamedia . 24 September 2005 . 4 November 2011.
    29. News: Beatty . Andrew . EU gives ground in OECD membership battle . European Voice . 30 May 2013.
    30. Romania's candidacy for OECD membership . Romanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs . 30 May 2013.
    31. News: Bulgarian Govt to Confirm OECD Membership Bid . . 25 September 2012 . 25 September 2012.
    32. Web site: Chile's accession to the OECD . OECD . 7 May 2010 . 7 May 2010.
    33. Statement by the OECD regarding the status of the accession process with Russia & co-operation with Ukraine . 13 March 2014 . OECD . 5 July 2018.
    34. Web site: OECD halts membership talks with Russia. 13 March 2014 . Ledger-Enquirer . 5 July 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140313155417/http://www.ledger-enquirer.com/2014/03/13/2999969/oecd-halts-membership-talks-with.html. dead. 13 March 2014.
    35. Global OECD boosted by decision to open membership talks with Colombia and Latvia with more to follow . OECD . 30 May 2013 . 12 July 2013.
    36. News: Latvia becomes full-fledged OECD member . 4 July 2016 . . 1 July 2016.
    37. News: Lietuva tapo 36-ąja EBPO nare . Lithuania became the 36th member of the OECD . 5 July 2018 . . 5 July 2018.
    38. Global OECD welcomes Colombia as its 37th Member . OECD . 28 April 2020 . 28 April 2020.
    39. OECD countries invite Costa Rica to join as 38th member . OECD . 15 May 2020 . 16 May 2020.
    40. OECD welcomes Costa Rica as its 38th Member . OECD. 2021-05-25 . 2021-05-25.
    41. Web site: Brazil Is Seeking to Join the OECD Despite Its Political Crisis . . 31 May 2017 . 22 January 2018.
    42. Web site: Twitter . PLENKOVIĆ U DAVOSU Sastao se s Federicom Mogherini, gruzijskim premijerom, švicarskom predsjednicom i šefom OECD-a -Jutarnji List . 19 January 2017 . Jutarnji.hr . 20 January 2017.
    43. Web site: Malaysia has applied to become a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development . Daily Express . 24 April 2011 . 30 May 2013.
    44. Web site: Peru eager to become an OECD member . Andina.com.pe . 15 November 2012 . 30 May 2013.
    45. Web site: UPDATE 2-OECD begins membership talks with Brazil, Argentina, Peru and more. 25 January 2022. Reuters. Marcela. Ayres. Lisandra. Paraguassu.
    46. https://thehill.com/policy/finance/597443-oecd-suspends-russia-belarus-from-any-participation/ OECD suspends Russia, Belarus from any participation
    47. Bulgaria, Croatia, Romania on track to join OECD
    48. Paul Hannon and Kate Davidson, "U.S. Wins International Backing for Global Minimum Tax." Wall Street Journal July 1, 2021
    49. Web site: Guidelines for multinational enterprises – OECD . 2023-03-23 . OECD.
    50. Web site: OECD Economic Outlook, June 2020. 2020-06-10. OECD. en.
    51. Web site: OECD Insights . 2023-03-23 . www.oecd-ilibrary.org . en.
    52. Web site: OECD Archives – OECD . 2023-03-23 . OECD.
    53. Highly Commended certificate in the annual ALPSP/Charlesworth awards from the Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers 2002; see article http://www.oecdobserver.org/news/archivestory.php/aid/825/.
    54. Web site: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development . OECD . 28 November 1962 . 13 January 2014.
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    57. Web site: Subscribe to OECD Observer.
    58. Web site: Crossword No.2 2013 . OECD Observer . 13 January 2014.
    59. News: Find, compare and share OECD data. 2015-01-26. OECD Insights Blog. 2018-10-02. en-US.
    60. News: New data visualization project: OECD Data Portal · molily. 2018-10-02. en.
    61. Web site: OECD . OECD data, publications and analysis become freely accessible — Press release . 4 July 2024 . Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) . Paris, France . 2024-07-10.
    62. Web site: OECD Test Guidelines for Chemicals – OECD . 2023-03-23 . OECD.
    63. Web site: OECD Environmental Outlook to 2030 – OECD . 2023-03-23 . OECD.
    64. News: Irfanullah . Haseeb . How are Publishing Associations Leading the Way to Meet the SDGs? . The Scholarly Kitchen . 20 February 2023.
    65. Web site: OECD Wins Inaugural University Press Redux Sustainability Award . Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers . 27 July 2020.
    66. Web site: SDG Pathfinder . sdg-pathfinder.org.
    67. Web site: Organisational structure . 2023-03-23 . OECD . en.
    68. Web site: The Power of Peer-Learning, chapter 3: OECD's Basic Rules of Conduct – A Sociology of its Institutional Culture . 2007 . IRDC . 31 July 2008 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080602214358/http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev-114358-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html . 2 June 2008.
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