Occitania Explained

Occitania
Native Name:Occitan (post 1500);: Occitània
Native Name Lang:oc
Settlement Type:Nation
Etymology:Oc (yes in Occitan) + "itania" from Aquitania
Flag Alt:Flag of Occitania
Anthem:

Subdivision Type:Continent
Subdivision Name:Europe
Unit Pref:Metric
Area Total Km2:198113
Population Total:16.1 million
Population Density Km2:auto
Coordinates:44.3°N 2.8781°W

Occitania (Occitan (post 1500);: Occitània in Occitan (post 1500); pronounced as /utsiˈtanjɔ, uksiˈtanjɔ/, in Occitan (post 1500); pronounced as /u(k)siˈtanjɔ/, in Occitan (post 1500); pronounced as /ukʃiˈtanja/ or in Occitan (post 1500); pronounced as /u(k)siˈtanja/, French: Occitanie in French pronounced as /ɔksitani/) is the historical region in Southern Europe where the Occitan language was historically spoken[1] and where it is sometimes used as a second language. This cultural area roughly encompasses much of the southern third of France (except the French Basque Country and French Catalonia) as well as part of Spain (Aran Valley), Monaco, and parts of Italy (Occitan Valleys).

Occitania has been recognized as a linguistic and cultural concept since the Middle Ages. The territory was united in Roman times as the Seven Provinces (Latin: Septem Provinciae[2]) and in the Early Middle Ages (Aquitanica or the Visigothic Kingdom of Toulouse,[3] or the share of Louis the Pious following Thionville divisio regnorum in 806[4]).

Currently, the region has a population of 16 million, and between 200,000–800,000[5] [6] people are either native or proficient speakers of Occitan.[7] More commonly, French, Piedmontese, Catalan, Spanish and Italian are spoken. Since 2006, the Occitan language has been an official language in Catalonia, which includes the Aran Valley, where Occitan gained official status in 1990.

At the time of the Roman empire, most of Occitania was known as Aquitania.[8] The territories conquered early were known as Provincia Romana (see modern Provence), while the northern provinces of what is now France were called Gallia (Gaul). Under the late Roman empire, both Aquitania and Provincia Romana were grouped in the Seven Provinces or Viennensis. Provence and Gallia Aquitania (or Aquitanica) have been in use since medieval times for Occitania (i.e. Limousin, Auvergne, Languedoc and Gascony).

The historic Duchy of Aquitaine should not be confused with the modern French region called Aquitaine: this is a reason why the term Occitania was revived in the mid-19th century. The terms "Occitania"[9] and "Occitan language" (Occitana lingua) appeared in Latin texts from as early as 1242–1254[10] to 1290[11] and during the early 14th century; texts exist in which the area is referred indirectly as "the country of the Occitan language" (Patria Linguae Occitanae). The name was used in Italian (Lingua d'òc) by Dante in the late 13th century. The somewhat uncommon ending of the term Occitania is most likely from a French clerk who joined the òc pronounced as /[ɔk]/ and Aquitània pronounced as /[ɑkiˈtanjɑ]/ in a portmanteau term, thus blending the language and the land in just one concept.[12]

On 28 September 2016, Occitanie became the name of an administrative region that succeeded the regions of Midi-Pyrénées and Languedoc-Roussillon;[13] it is a small part of Occitania.

Geographic extent

The extent of Occitania may vary according to the criteria used:

On the other hand one always speaks Occitan in the French Basque Country[16] [17] and in the Catalan Countries (the Val d'Aran and the Fenolheda), and internal allophone enclaves (Petite Gavacharie of Poitevin-Saintongeais language, ancient Ligurian enclaves of eastern Provence, the quasi-Ligurian-Occitan enclave of Monaco ...). This leads to variations in whether small internal or external enclaves are taken into account.[18] The definition of a contiguous and compact Occitan-speaking territory is currently the most widespread.

Northern Italy and the Catalan Countries were also homes of troubadour using the Koiné Occitan literary. In the same way, the Basque Country and Aragon benefited from Occitan stands, old or newer, which notably gave rise to the appearance of an Occitan dialect south of the Pyrenees. We can also note the historical use of an Occitan scripta as official language.[20] [21] [22]

The name Occitanie appeared in the Middle Ages on the basis of a geographical, linguistic and cultural concept, to designate the part of the French royal domain speaking the langue d’oc.[23]

Its current definition is variable. In the most common usage, Occitania designates the territory where the Occitan has remained in use until today, within the limits defined between 1876[24] and the 20th century.[25] If Occitan language and culture are almost always associated with it,[26] [27] [28] we also find references to a common history, an ethnic group,[29] a homeland,[30] [31] to a people[32] [33] [34] [35] [36] or to a nation.[37] [38] [39] [40] The first sociological study in the Occitan language to learn how the Occitan define themselves was started in 1976.[41] The survey shows that the Occitan reality is defined by language for 95% of people, culture (94%), characterization by a common history (69%), an ethnic group (50%), a nation (20%).[42] Occitania, as defined by the modern Occitan linguistic territory, covers most of the current Southern France, the Alpine valleys of the Western Piedmont, in Italy, Val d'Aran in Spain and Monaco[43] [44] an area of approximately 190,000 km2. It had about fifteen million inhabitants in 1999[45] with about 20% inhabitants born outside the territory[46] and about 20% of natives who left.[47] On the other hand, in the absence of a linguistic census, we only imperfectly know the number of speakers of Occitan.[48]

If the preceding notions are generally limited to the modern linguistic boundaries of Occitan, this term can also be used to designate a larger territory. The term "Occitania" becomes commonplace more and more in the vocabulary of scientists.[49] It is used particularly in a historical sense and anthropological by designating a region extending north to the Loire, ignoring contemporary linguistic boundaries.[50] In a book written by experts in medieval history, are included in Occitania of the year 1000 both the provinces of the north (now mainly in Poitou-Charentes) and Catalonia (without the Balearic Islands and the Valencian country) – p. 484. The seven-pointed star, adopted as emblem by the Felibritge symbolized the seven provinces of Occitania, one of which was Catalan. Occitanie is indeed divided by this association into seven maintenances (sections) of which one was that of Catalonia-Roussillon.

In 2016, the name Occitanie is used for the French administrative region Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyrénées which is located on part of the traditional Occitania and includes the Roussillon.

Toponymies

Occitania comes from the medieval Latin Occitania. The first part of the name, Occ-, comes from Occitan òc and the expression langue d'oc, in Italian lingua d'oc. It is an appellation promoted by Dante Alighieri of Occitan by the way of saying "yes" in Old Occitan-Catalan; as opposed to the "langue de si" (Italian) and the "langue d'oïl" (Old French). The ending -itania is probably an imitation of the name [Aqu] itania (Aquitaine). The term Occitania is a synonym for Languedoc and the Mediterranean coast in the Middle Ages.[51]

The first attestation of the use of Occitanie in French dates from 1556.[52] [53] [54] The first certificate of Occitania in Italy dates 1549.[55] In German, the word Occitania was found in 1572.[56]

All of the Occitan language countries have had various designations throughout history. The word Occitania has been the subject of whimsical etymologies (for example, Languedoc was formerly understood as "land of the Goths" or "language of the Goths"[57]), as well as the rapprochement to the Occitan language exemplified in the names of the regions Languedoc and Occitania, we find in La Minerve Française, a collective work published in Paris in 1818, a history of name-changes of the provinces which reveals the word Occitanie to be a doublet of the word Occident formed in the Lower Empire, giving it the original meaning of "western regions",[58] and not a region where (necessarily) the Occitan language was spoken.

Like the Occitan language, Occitania has been designated under various successive names.[59] The terms are not exclusive: one can find authors who use different terms in the same time period. Occitania or Pays d'Oc are the most frequently used terms today. However the term Provence is still used when the Felibritge sing the Copa Santa for example during the annual festival of Estello.

The term "Occitania" now covers a linguistic region. This meaning was used in medieval times attested since 1290.[74] On 29 May 1308, during the Council of Poitiers, it appears that the king of France was declared to reign over two nations: one of lingua gallica and the other of lingua occitana. This partition between Occitan language and langue d'oïl in the Gallo-Roman space is very ancient since it started with Romanisation itself. In 1381, the King Charles VI of France considered that his kingdom comprised two parts: the country of langue d'oc, or Occitania, and the oil-language country or Ouytanie "Quas in nostro Regno occupare solebar tam in linguae Occitanae quam Ouytanae".[75] "Occitania" remained in force in the administration until the French Revolution of 1789. It was taken up again in the 19th century by the literary association of Felibritge[71] then it is again claimed since the 20th century, especially since the end of the 1960s. According to Frédéric Mistral's dictionary "Treasury of Felibritge", the term Occitania is sometimes used by scholars to describe Southern France in general but mainly for the former province of Languedoc.

Historiography of the Occitania concept

The langue d'oc is a territorialized language, that is to say, spoken mainly on a territory whose boundaries can be described. This part attempts to describe the origins of the Occitanie concept, the different names that this territory has taken and the creation of the modern concept of Occitania.

A unique object of study: d'oc culture

The speakers of the Occitan language do not use a single meaning of their language because Occitan is not a monolithic language with for example a single dictionary where each speaker finds exactly their vocabulary, but a juxtaposition of dialects. Also, many studies have focused on the differences between Provençal, Languedoc, etc. We must also remember the many common features of the Occitan cultural space, which are generally considered partisans.

The consciousness of a common culture

Robert Lafont develops this idea in the introduction of the "History and Anthology of Occitan Literature".[76] The reference to troubadours is essential. This socio-linguistic argument is modulated according to the authors but it is accepted by all the current scholarship, including the authors who speak of "domain d'oc", since by definition, their study of the d'oc domain rests on the consciousness of the existence of a common culture.

Intercomprehension

The different speakers of the language share many common traits (tonic accentuation, close vocabulary, frequent use of the subjunctive, etc.) that allow mutual understanding. For Occitanists, this intercomprehension means that Occitan is one language; for others, it means that these languages are very close but all agree that the speakers in this defined space understand each other.

Common social characteristics

The social characteristics of Occitania are not eternal and intangible because factors of endogenous mutations[77] and European influences, especially of Northern France, can blur these social peculiarities.[78]

The best studied example is that of Roman Law which is better maintained in the Occitan Early Middle Ages society than in Northern France thanks to the promulgations of Visigoth and Burgundians laws.[79] From the mid-11th century, the teaching of the Corpus Juris Civilis taken shortly after Bologna in the universities of Toulouse, Montpellier, Avignon, Perpignan... will promote a massive renaissance of Roman Law in Occitania.

With regard to education: Pierre Goubert and Daniel Roche write, to explain the low literacy in Occitania in the 18th century, that there exists in these territories a confidence maintained in the old vulgar languages.[80] The relations to education are today completely reversed between Northern and Southern France thanks to the anthropological imprint of the family strain.[81] [82]

From a demographic point of view, the influence of the family was still felt in 2007 because of the small number of families with many children.[83]

In politics, many debates have also taken place around the expression Red Southern coined by Maurice Agulhon[84] to find out if the "pays d'oc" was more "republic" than the northern half of France. Emmanuel Todd analyzing the regions that voted for Jean-Luc Mélenchon, calling himself a "Republican" in the 2012 presidential elections, declares that "what is obvious is his general inscription in the Occitan family[...] that loves vertical structures, the state or the church."[85]

Finally, for André Armengaud,[86] these common social characteristics make it possible to write a historical synthesis. But since 1979, no other "History of Occitan" has been undertaken.

The appearance of the modern concept of Occitania

If the term Occitania appeared in French from the mid-16th century,[87] [88] then in 1732 in a collection of laws of the ancien régime,[89] it only becomes current at 19th century. Thus, the duke of Angoulême conspired with a view to the establishment of a Kingdom of Occitania[90] or of a Vice-Royalty of Occitania[91] at the time of the Restoration. The term was popularized by the publications of Raynouard and Rochegude, and known in its contemporary sense by the English historian Sharon Turner.[92]

It appeared in the Treasury of Felibritge and in the statutes of this organization in 1911.[93] In the Interwar period, a Felibritgan school, the Escòla Occitana was created in 1919 in the Toulousean Languedoc. The Institute of Occitan Studies was born in 1930. These initiatives (as well as others) remain closely linked, notably because of the dual membership of their main animators at Felibritge.

After the Second World War, the creation of the Institute of Occitan Studies was presided over by a resistant (at a time when the Felibritge like the SEO were tainted by lawsuits of collaboration), but above all its action in terms of linguistic reform, particularly its desire to adapt the classical norm to Provençal, marked a break with a large fraction of the Felibritge[94] François Fontan created the first overtly Occitan nationalist party in 1959.

In France, Occitania has been confronted with a problem of recognition of Occitan since 1992; the French is the only "language of the Republic". In 1994, it was made compulsory in the public space (places of commerce and work, public transport, etc.) and in the administration (laws, regulations, documents, judgments, etc.).[95]

In 2015, with the prospect of creating a large region gathering "Midi-Pyrénées" and "Languedoc-Roussillon",[96] the name "Occitanie" came at the head of an online survey organized by the regional press (23% of the 200,000 voting, in front of "Occitanie-Pays catalan" 20%). Note, however, a variable support rate depending on the geographical origin of the voters.[97] As part of the territorial reform, a consultation on the name of the region, organized by the Regional Council Languedoc-Roussillon-Midi-Pyrénées took place in spring 2016 to give a name to the new region regrouping Midi-Pyrenees and Languedoc-Roussillon. Occitanie came first (44.90% of the vote), with 91,598 voters. Second was Languedoc-Pyrenees with 17.81% of the votes, then Pyrenees-Mediterranean (15.31%), Occitanie-Catalan Country (12.15%) and finally Languedoc (10.01%). This new region was renamed Occitanie (with the subtitle Pyrenees-Mediterranean), according to the vote of the regional councillors on June 24, 2016, and after final validation by the Government of France and Conseil d'État.

Distinction between Occitania and Catalonia

Despite the historic and political dependencies between the 10th and 13th centuries that eventually led to the creation of a common Occitan-Catalan cultural environment during Middle Ages,[98] neither the Principality of Catalonia nor the Catalan Countries have ever been part of Occitania.[99] On the contrary, from the 11th century the Catalan expansion towards the Occitan regions of Languedoc and Provence (through family ties of feudal nobility) gave rise to a long-term confrontation between the countal dynasties of Barcelona and Toulouse, but finally they had to ally against the Cathar Crusade promoted by France and the Papacy in the beginning of the 13th century.[100] The great defeat resulting from the Battle of Muret (1213) and the subsequent Treaty of Corbeil (1258) ratified the loss of Catalan influence in Occitania and its gradual replacement by the French dynasty of the House of Capet.[101]

Regarding to linguistic affinity and closeness, after some early Romance-language scholars considered them to be the same language,[102] Catalan intellectuals (among them Pompeu Fabra and Joan Coromines) solemnly proclaimed in a 1934 manifesto that Catalan was a distinct language from Occitan,[103] as established by the common consensus of current scientific linguistics.[104]

Moreover, the Parliament of Catalonia passed in 2015 a law recognizing Aran Valley's "national identity", understood as an "Occitan national reality" apart from the Catalan nation.[105]

Geography

Occitania includes the following regions:

Occitan or langue d'oc (lenga d'òc) is a Latin-based Romance language in the same way as Spanish, Italian or French. There are six main regional varieties, with easy inter-comprehension among them: Provençal (including Niçard spoken in the vicinity of Nice), Vivaroalpenc, Auvernhat, Lemosin, Gascon (including Bearnés spoken in Béarn) and Lengadocian. All these varieties of the Occitan language are written and valid. Standard Occitan is a synthesis which respects soft regional adaptations.

Catalan is a language very similar to Occitan and there are quite strong historical and cultural links between Occitania and Catalonia.

Historic regions

The regions of Ancien Régime that make up Occitania are the following: Auvergne (Auvèrnhe), Forez (west and south fringe), Bourbonnais (southern half), Couserans (Coserans), Dauphiné (southern half), County of Foix (County of Fois), County of Nice (County of Nissa), Périgord (Peiregòrd), Gascony, Guyenne (Guiana), Languedoc (Lengadòc), Angoumois (eastern end), Limousin (Lemosin), Poitou (Poetou) (southeastern extremity), La Marche (la Marcha), Provence (Provença), Comtat Venaissin (lo Comtat Venaicin), Velay, Vivarais (Vivarés).

Traditional Occitan Provinces (currently in France):

  1. Béarn [Bearn] (Pau) – 6,800 km2 (est.)
  2. Guyenne [Guiana] & Gascony (Bordeaux) – 69,400 km2 (est.)
  3. Limousin [Lemosin] (Limoges) – 9,700 km2 (est.)
  4. La Marche (Limousin) [la Marcha] (Guéret) – 7,600 km2 (est.)
  5. Auvergne [Auvèrnhe] (Riom) – 19,300 km2 (est.)
  6. Languedoc [Lengadòc] (Toulouse) – 45,300 km2 (est.)
  7. Dauphiné (Grenoble) – 8,500 km2 (est.)
  8. County of Nice [County of Nissa] (Nice) – 3,600 km2 (est.)
  9. Provence [Provença] (Aix-en-Provence) – 22,700 km2 (est.)
  10. Comtat Venaissin [lo Comtat Venaicin] (Carpentras) – 3,600 km2 (est.)
  11. County of Foix [County of Fois] (Foix) – 3,300 km2 (est.)

X. Bourbonnais (southern half) – approx. 3,200 km2 (est.)

Administrative divisions in France

The administrative regions covering Occitania are the following: Occitanie region (except the Pyrénées-Orientales where a majority speak Catalan, although the Fenouillèdes region, in the North-West of the department, that is to say of Occitan language and culture), Nouvelle-Aquitaine (except the peripheries where one speaks basque, poitevin and saintongeais), Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes (in the southern half, namely almost all the Drôme and the Ardèche, the southern Isère and some fringes of the Loire) and Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. In the Centre-Val de Loire Occitan is spoken in some communes in southern Cher and Indre.

Occitanie Maps

Geographical boundaries

The geographical delimitation of Occitania most commonly accepted was specified between 1876—beginning of research on the linguistic boundaries[106] —and the 20th century. Occitania roughly covers a southern third of France (commonly known as Midi, including Monaco), the Occitan Valleys and Guardia Piemontese, in Italy, as well as the Val d'Aran, in Spain.

The practice of Occitan is not the same uniformly throughout the territory. In addition, there is a linguistic transition area in the north called Croissant where the terms of d'oil and Occitan interfere strongly (see Croissant). Instead, some territories are not generally considered to be part of Occitania according to the modern definition:[107]

History

Written texts in Occitan appeared in the 10th century: it was first used in legal texts, and then in literary, scientific, and religious texts. Spoken dialects of Occitan are many centuries older and appeared as soon as the 8th century, at least, as revealed through toponyms and Occitanized words left in Latin manuscripts.

Occitania was often politically united during the Early Middle Ages, under the Visigothic Kingdom and several Merovingian and Carolingian sovereigns. In the year 805 in Thionville, Charlemagne declared the partition of his empire into three autonomous territories along linguistic and cultural boundaries: what is now modern Occitania was to be formed from the reunion of a broader Provence and Aquitaine.[116] Instead, however, at the 9th century division of the Frankish Empire, Occitania was split into different counties, duchies and kingdoms, bishops and abbots. Since then, the country has never been politically united, although Occitania remained intact through a common culture. Nonetheless, Occitania suffered a tangle of varying loyalties to nominal sovereigns: from the 9th to the 13th centuries, the dukes of Aquitaine, the counts of Foix, the counts of Toulouse and the Counts of Barcelona competed for control over the various pays of Occitania.

Occitan literature flourished during this time period: in the 12th and 13th centuries, the troubadours invented courtly love (fin'amor), and the Lenga d'Òc spread throughout European cultivated circles; the terms Lenga d'Òc, Occitan, and Occitania first appeared at the end of the 13th century.

From the 13th to the 17th centuries, the kings of France gradually conquered Occitania. By the end of the 15th century, the nobility and bourgeoisie had started learning French, while the peasantry generally continued to speak Occitan; this process began from the 13th century in the two northernmost regions, northern Limousin and Bourbonnais. In 1539, Francis I issued the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts that imposed the use of French in administration. But despite measures such as this, a strong feeling of national identity against the French occupiers remained as Jean Racine wrote on a trip to Uzès in 1662: "What they call France here is the land beyond the Loire, which to them is a foreign country."[117]

In 1789, the revolutionary committees tried to re-establish the autonomy of the "Midi" regions, using the Occitan language; however, Jacobin power prevented its realization.

The 19th century witnessed a strong revival of the Occitan literature, exemplified by the writer Frédéric Mistral, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1904. But from 1881 onwards, children who spoke Occitan at school were punished in accordance with minister Jules Ferry's recommendations; this led to a deprecation of the language known as la vergonha (the shaming). In 1914, fourteen million inhabitants in the region spoke Occitan,[118] but French overtook Occitan in prominence during the 20th century. The situation got worse with the media excluding the use of the langue d'oc. In spite of this decline, however, the Occitan language is still alive and gaining fresh impetus.

Outer settlements

Although not really a colony in a modern sense, there was an Occitan enclave in the County of Tripoli, founded in 1102 by Raymond IV of Toulouse during the Crusades north of Jerusalem. Most people in this county came from Occitania and Italy.

Around the 14th century, some "Provençal" settlements were founded by Valdenses in Ssouthern Italy: the Capitanata area, Basilicata, and Calabria. Most of them were destroyed by the Inquisition during the 16th century, but the Guardia Piemontese managed to keep its language and Occitan identity until now.

At the end of the 17th century, Valdenses fleeing persecution in the Occitan valleys settled in Baden, Hesse, and Wurtemberg (modern Germany). The use of the Occitan language vanished during the 20th century, but some Occitan placenames are still in use.

In the 19th century, Occitans settled in the Americas. Some Valdense colonies have retained their use of the language down to the present day, such as those in Uruguay and the United States.

Cultural and political movements

Occitanist associations or organizations

The oldest Occitanist association is the Felibritge, founded in 1854. In 1945, after the Second World War, some of the association's members founded a distinct movement, the Institut d'Estudis Occitans (Institute of Occitan Studies).

The main movements in France are as follows:

In Italy, the main movements are:

In Spain:

Anti-Occitanist Associations

See also: Language secessionism. Some associations adhering to Felibritge and Parlaren claim a Provençal language distinct from Occitan.

Other associations claim distinct "languages d'oc", even if, paradoxically, some of them are grouped together in an Alliance of Oc languages:

Some associations have no affiliation with other oc countries:

Pan-Occitanist associations

On the other hand, some groups claim an Occitan-Roman identity including the Catalan Countries (France-Spain).

Politics

Spain

In Spain, Aranese political parties alternately run the Conselh Generau d'Aran, the principal institution of government in the Val d'Aran. They also have elected officials in the municipalities of Aran, the Parliament of Catalonia and the Spanish Senate. They are close to Catalan parties with the exception of the localist party Partit Renovador d'Arties-Garòs who has, however, made alliances with Unity of Aran. Unity of Aran (UA-PNA) is a social-democratic and regionalist-autonomist party affiliated to Socialists' Party of Catalonia (PSOE-PSC), while Aranese Democratic Convergence (CDA-PNA), currently in power, is a centrist and autonomist party linked to the Democratic Convergence of Catalonia. Esquèrra Republicana Occitana (ÈRO) founded in 2008, Left/Social Democracy and Independence, is a local section of Republican Left of Catalonia. Corròp is a citizen movement born in February 2015 that aims to break with the Aranese bipartisanship and is inspired by the Catalan independence movement Popular Unity Candidacy (CUP), but with a view to Occitania.

In the 2017 Catalan regional election, the electors of the Val d'Aran voted mostly for "constitutionalists," parties which support continued union with Spain.

France

In France, Occitan political parties and movements (such as the Occitan Nationalist Party, Occitan Party, Freedom !, ...) have had difficulty winning a large audience and getting officials elected. They had never had elected representatives in national or European institutions, or in general councils. However, in the 2010 French regional elections, the Occitan Party, within the framework of the participation of the federation Regions and Peoples with Solidarity to Europe Écologie, elected representatives to five regional councils: Dàvid Grosclaude in Aquitaine.,[119] Guilhem Latrubesse in Midi-Pyrénées, Gustau Aliròl in Auvergne, Anne-Marie Hautant and Hervé Guerrera in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur.[120] The latter was also elected to the city council of Aix-en-Provence and counselor to the Agglomeration Community of Aix Country.[121] The movement Bastir! ran for the first time in the 2014 municipal elections and won 55 seats.[122] [123] The president of the Occitan Party, Gustave Alirol, is currently also president of the "Regions and Peoples with Solidarity" party and vice-president of the "European Free Alliance," which participates in a group of 50 deputies in the European Parliament.[124]

Political parties Ideology
Occitan Party Regionalism

Autonomism

Occitan nationalism

Environmentalism

Left-wing nationalism

Party of the Occitan NationOccitan nationalism
Freedom ! Occitan nationalism

Italy

Monaco

There are currently no Occitan political movements in Monaco.

Former movements

Former political movements include:

Today

There are 14 to 16 million inhabitants in Occitania today. According to the 1999 census, there are 610,000 native speakers and another million people with some exposure to the language. Native speakers of Occitan are to be found mostly in the older generations. The Institut d'Estudis Occitans (IEO) has been modernizing the Occitan language since 1945, and the Conselh de la Lenga Occitana (CLO) since 1996. Nowadays Occitan is used in the most modern musical and literary styles such as rock 'n roll, folk rock (Lou Dalfin), rap (Fabulous Trobadors), reggae (Massilia Sound System) and heavy metal, detective stories or science-fiction. It is represented on the internet. Association schools (Calandretas) teach children in Occitan.

The Occitan political movement for self-government has existed since the beginning of the 20th century and particularly since post-war years (Partit Occitan, Partit de la Nacion Occitana, Anaram Au Patac, Iniciativa Per Occitània, Paratge, Bastir! etc.). The movement remains negligible in electoral and political terms. Nevertheless, Regional Elections in 2010 allowed the Partit Occitan to enter the Regional councils of Aquitaine, Auvergne, Midi-Pyrénées, and Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur.

Major demonstrations in Carcassonne (2005 and 2009) and Béziers (2007) and the week-long Estivada festivals in Rodez (2006–2010) suggest that there is a revival of Occitan language and culture. However, in France, Occitan is still not recognized as an official language, as the status of French has been constitutionally protected since 1992, and Occitan activists want the French government to adopt Occitan as the second official language for seven regions representing the South of France.

Language

See main article: Occitan language.

See also: Meridional French. The Occitan language is only recognized as official, protected and promoted in the Val d'Aran (in Spain); in Italy it has the status of a protected language; and in France it only has acceptance in the educational network but without legal recognition.

The Fédération des langues régionales pour l'enseignement public calculated the number of students in the Occitan language in October 2005 at 4,326.[127]

According to a 2002 report by the French Ministry of Culture (Report to Parliament on the use of the French language, 2003), in public schools, collèges and lycées and private schools: in the academic year 2001–02, 67,549 students had enrolled in classes of or in Occitan.

Despite this precarious social position, Occitan was one of the official languages of the 2006 Turin Winter Olympics.

Literature

Music

Romantic composer Gabriel Fauré was born in Pamiers, Ariège in the Pyrenees region of France. Déodat de Séverac, another Romantic music composer, was also born in the region, and, following his schooling in Paris, he returned to Occitania to compose; he sought to incorporate the music indigenous to the area into his compositions.

Cuisine

See main article: Occitan cuisine.

Occitan cuisine is considered Mediterranean, but has some specific features that separate it from Catalan cuisine or Italian cuisine. Indeed, because of the size of Occitania and the great diversity of landscapes- from the mountaineering of the Pyrenees and the Alps, rivers and lakes, and finally the Mediterranean and Atlantic coast – it can be considered as a highly varied cuisine. Compared to other Mediterranean cuisines, Occitan gastronomy significantly uses basic elements and flavors, such as meat, fish and vegetables, along with the frequent usage of olive oil; elements from Atlantic coast cuisine are also common, such as cheeses, pastes, creams, butters and other high-calorie foods. Well-renowned meals common on the Mediterranean coast include ratatolha (the equivalent of Catalan samfaina), alhòli, bolhabaissa (similar to Italian Brodetto alla Vastese), pan golçat (bread with olive oil), and salads with mainly olives, rice, corn and wine. Another significant aspect that distinguishes Occitan cuisine from that of its Mediterranean neighbors is the abundant amount of aromatic herbs; some of them are typically Mediterranean, like parsley, rosemary, thyme, oregano or again basil.

Some world-renowned traditional meals are Provençal ratatolha (ratatouille), alhòli (aioli) and adauba (Provençal stew), Niçard salada nissarda (Salad Niçoise) and pan banhat (Pan-bagnat), Limousin clafotís (clafoutis), Auvergnat aligòt (aligot), Languedocien caçolet (cassoulet), or again Gascon fetge gras (foie gras).

Occitania is also home of a great variety of cheeses (like Roquefort, Bleu d'Auvergne, Cabécou, Cantal, Fourme d'Ambert, Laguiole, Pélardon, Saint-Nectaire, Salers), and a great diversity of wines (such as Bordeaux, Rhône wine, Gaillac wine, Saint-Émilion wine, Blanquette de Limoux, Muscat de Rivesaltes, Provence wine, Cahors wine, Jurançon). Alcohols such as Pastis and Marie Brizard or brandies such as Armagnac and Cognac are also produced in the area.

See also

External links

Notes and References

  1. "The ancient language of the South France, was called, la langue d'oc, from the sound of its affirmative particle. From this circumstance, the country has been called Occitanie, and a specific portion of it, Languedoc. The French have lately formed a new adjective, Occitanique, to comprize all the dialects derived from the ancient tongue." in Sharon Turner, The history of England (during the middle ages), London, Longman, Hurst, &c. 1814. Read on GoogleBooks
  2. //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/The_Roman_Empire_ca_400_AD.png Map of the Roman Empire, ca400 AD
  3. //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Visigothic_Kingdom.png Map of the Visigothic Kingdom
  4. //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Carte_de_l%27empire_de_Charlemagne_apr%C3%A8s_le_partage_de_806.jpg Map of the 806 divisio regnorum'. Louis' share in yellow.
  5. Fabrice BERNISSAN (2012). "Combien l'occitan compte de locuteurs en 2012 ?", Revue de Linguistique Romane, 76 (12/2011-07/2012), pp. 467-512
  6. « De fait, le nombre des locuteurs de l’occitan a pu être estimé par l’INED dans un premier temps à 526 000 personnes, puis à 789 000, » ("In fact, the number of occitan speakers was estimated by the French Demographics Institute at 526,000 people, then 789,000") Philippe Martel, "Qui parle occitan ?" in Langues et cité n°10, December 2007.
  7. Web site: World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous People. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20090429201218/http://www.minorityrights.org/1626/france/occitanspeakers.html. 2009-04-29.
  8. Jean-Pierre Juge (2001) Petit précis – Chronologie occitane – Histoire & civilisation, p. 14.
  9. Joseph Anglade, Grammaire de l'ancien provençal ou ancienne langue d'oc, 1921, Part I, Chapter 1, p. 9: Le mot Langue d'Oc a d'abord désigné le pays où se parlait cette langue; c'était une expression géographique. Le pays de langue d'oc s'appelait en Latin Occitania (formé sans doute sur Aquitania) ("The words Langue d'Oc first designated the country where the language was spoken: it was a geographical expression. The land of the langue d'oc was called Occitania in Latin (probably coined from Aquitania").
  10. Frederic Mistral, Lo Tresor dóu Felibrige (1878–1886), vol. II, p. 1171: "Les textes abondent qui montrent l'origine française ou ecclésiastique des expressions lingua occitana et Occitania. Le pape Innocent IV (1242–1254), un des premiers parle de Occitania dans ses lettres; les commissaires de Philippe le Bel qui rédigèrent l'arrêt sanè des coûtumes de Toulouse se déclarent Ad partes linguae occitanae pro reformatione patriae designati et stipulent que leur règlement est valable in tota lingua occitaniae."
  11. Robèrt LAFONT (1986) "La nominacion indirècta dels païses", Revue des langues romanes nº2, tome XC, pp. 161–171.
  12. Bodo MÜLLER. "Langue d'Oc, Languedoc, Occitan", in: Verba et Vocabula, Festschrift Ernst Gamillscheg, München 1968, pp. 323-342.
  13. Web site: Décret n° 2016-1264 du 28 septembre 2016 portant fixation du nom et du chef-lieu de la région Occitanie - Legifrance. www.legifrance.gouv.fr. 2017-04-13. https://web.archive.org/web/20170414081741/https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/eli/decret/2016/9/28/INTB1617888D/jo. 2017-04-14. live.
  14. Robert Lafont, Clefs pour l'Occitanie, Seghers, 1971; p. 11
  15. Robert Lafont, "Clefs pour l'Occitanie", Seghers, 1971; p. 13
  16. http://www.jornalet.com/nova/4378/loccitan-a-lonor-dins-la-television-basca Occitan on the Basque television
  17. http://www.eitb.tv/eu/bideoa/tribuaren-berbak-tribuaren-berbak-2014-2015/4104751617001/4088429546001/okzitanierak-bizi-duen-egoeraz/ Okzitanierak bizi duen egoeraz
  18. http://opinion.jornalet.com/lenga/blog/1943/las-enclavas-linguisticas Las enclavas lingüisticas
  19. , Théorie de l’aliénation et émancipation ethnique. Suivi de: Pour en finir avec le Mammouth, Circle Alfons Mias, 2014,
  20. http://www.degruyter.com/dg/viewarticle/j$002fzrph.1989.105.issue-3-4$002fzrph.1989.105.3-4.276$002fzrph.1989.105.3-4.276.xml La scripta administrativa en la Navarra medieval en lengua occitana: comentario lingüístico
  21. http://www.opengrey.eu/item/display/10068/894206 An Occitan scripta in the Kingdom of Navarre in the Middle Ages (13th–16th centuries) (formation and functioning)
  22. http://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/26117.pdf Occitan medieval scripta in Euskal Herria (full text)
  23. http://www.univ-montp3.fr/uoh/occitan/une_histoire/co/module_occitan_histoire_19.html "Le pouvoir royal et la lingua de hoc, alias Occitania"
  24. Début des recherches sur les frontières linguistiques avec notamment Charles de Tourtoulon and Octavien Bringuier, Study on the geographical limit of the langue d'oc and langue d'oïl (with a map), 1876, Paris: Imprimerie nationale [reed. 2004, Masseret-Meuzac: Institute of Occitan Studies of Lemosin/Lo Chamin de Sent Jaume].
  25. Books of Pierre Bec and Jules Ronjat in bibliography in the Occitan article and Gaston Tuaillon in the Francoprovençal.
  26. Robert Lafont (1971, 1977, 1987), "Clefs pour l'Occitanie", Paris: Seghers, 1987: .
  27. "Histoire d'Occitanie" under the direction of André Armengaud and Robert Lafont. Paris: Hachette, 1979
  28. Rober Lafont (2003). Petita istòria europèa d'Occitània, Canet: El Trabucaire
  29. http://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/langue-et-litterature-occitanes/ Universalis Encyclopedia – Occitan Language and Literature
  30. [Jean Jaurès]
  31. [Simone Weil]
  32. Mistral and the Occitan people, Sylvain Toulze, Society of Occitan Publishers, 1931
  33. Web site: The Occitan people want to take the street for their rights – La Dépêche du Midi . 2017-12-28 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170722061607/http://www.ladepeche.fr/article/2012/03/18/1309069-le-peuple-occitan-veut-prendre-la-rue-pour-ses-droits.html . 2017-07-22 . live .
  34. Web site: Occitan people – Douarnenez Film Festival . 2017-12-28 . https://web.archive.org/web/20131215201639/http://www.festival-douarnenez.com/fr/ressources_films/peuples_invites/peuple_occitan . 2013-12-15 . live .
  35. http://www.p-n-o.org/Manifesta_francais.htm PNO Manifesto, French version
  36. https://web.archive.org/web/20071029002225/http://www.eurominority.eu/version/fra/minority-detail.asp?id_minorities=171 Eurominority.eu, Association for the Promotion of Minorized European Peoples – Occitanie
  37. . 'Cartabeu de Santo-Estello', n° 14, Avignon: 1924–1925.
  38. François Fontan (excerpts from: The Occitan Nation, Its Frontiers, Its Regions, 1969) .
  39. See the Occitan Nation Party.
  40. Text of law for the recognition of the Occitan national reality of Val d'Aran in Catalonia, Spain: Val d'Aran wants more autonomy
  41. Occitans sens o saber ?; Maria Clara Viguièr; Vent Terral, 1979, Documents, Paperback 190 p -Sociological Essay-
  42. Yvon Bourdet. Maria Clara Viguier Occitans sense o saber (Occitan without knowing it), Language and society, 1980, vol. 11, number 1, pp. 90-93. Maria Clara Viguier Occitans sense o saber (Occitans without knowing it)
  43. There is also a variant of Occitan Monegasque aboriginal (district of the Port à la Condamine and Saint Roman) -called patois- which is called Moneguier. (René ANFOSSO, speaker of Moneguier p. 51 in REVEST Laurenç Nissa e Occitània per Garibaldi. Garibaldian anthology of Oc, publisher Serre, Nice, 212 p.).
  44. "15% of the population of Monaco speaks Niçard variety of Provençal, which strongly French influences from the Monegasque territory. In fact, people speaking Niçard are mainly people over 50, but Provencal increases its status as a literary language (translated from: "A further 15% of the population of Monaco speaks the Niçard variety of Provençal, which greatly influences the French of the Monegasque region. In fact, the Niçard speaking community is over 50 years of age, Provençal is increasingly gaining status as a literary language}} "Monaco: "Language Situation", in Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics (Second Edition)}}, 2006, p. 230 http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/bookdescription.cws_home/709649/description
  45. On the basis of the French census of 1999, the population was estimated at 14 million inhabitants, see: ALCOUFFE Alan (2001) Cultura occitana e devolopament economic, 361-382 [13 of December 2000], Treballs de la Societat catalana de geografia, vol. XVI, 2001, num. 52 Societat catalana de geografia 1 and Societat Catalana de Geografia 2
  46. "About 20% of the current population is born outside the territory (from 30 to 35% in Provence, less than 20% in the western territory). This immigration occurred mainly between 1975 and 1993. The languages spoken by the newcomers are mainly French and then the languages of immigration (Arabic, Berber, etc.). In The Euromosaic-Occitan study in France.
  47. "About 20% of the population born in the territory left for work elsewhere, especially between 1963 and 1975. The most important causes are: the lack of employment opportunities, the industrial crisis and the mechanization of the work of the agricultural sector. European Commission> Languages> Euromosaic – Occitan in France
  48. Philippe Martel admits: "let's say we do not know how many Occitanophones there are in this country" Martel Philippe, "Who speaks Occitan?","Languages and city", 10, Paris, DGLFLF, 12/2007.
  49. We can quote in particular the demographer Hervé Le Bras and the historian Emmanuel Todd who often use it in several of their works.
  50. L'Origine des systèmes familiaux

    Volume 1 Eurasia, Emmanuel Todd, publisher Gallimard, col. "NRF Essais", 2011, 768 pages

  51. J. Stefanini, The meaning of the term "Occitanique" at Fabre d'Olivetds International Congress. of lang. and litt. of Southern France, Aix-en-Provence, 1961, p. 209
  52. "It fires me in Narbonne, Aiguesmortess, Nymes & Besiers, colony & nille of great name, inhabited by IADIS soldiers the seventh legion of Rome, including the country man may seem auoir prins his name, then Easting Appointee Septimanie, and to present Ocitane & Languedo instead that the nõmoit Gotthicane, depending on whether we have dictated deuant." Two links of Paul Aemyle of the history of France, traduicts of Latin in French, by Simon de Monthiers, In Paris, From the printing press of Michel de Vascosan, leaving in the Rue S.Iaques, with the sign of the fountain. MD LVI (1556) p. 92. Read online
  53. See also, later, "Arade, genti-homme de ceste Prouince Occitanie...", in Les récits historiques ou histoires divertissantes, entremeslées de plusieurs agreables rencontres & belles reparties. Par Iean-Pierre Camus, Evesque de Belley. In Paris, at Gervais Clousier, at the Palace, on the steps of the Saincte Chapelle. MDCXLIV en linha .
  54. http://edicions.talvera.free.fr/primadiers/Jean%20Pierre%20CAMUS.%20Les%20r%e9cits%20historiques%20ou%20Histoires%20divertissantes.pdf Jean-Pierre Camus, Les récits historiques ou histoires divertissantes entremeslées de plusieurs agréables rencontres & belles réparties, Edicions Talvera, 2010
  55. Egli tutto pien d'ira Carlo attacò il fuoco, e spianò Narbona, Agate, Nemauso, e Biterra nobile Colonia de' Settumani, onde pare che hauesse tutta quella contrada il nome, che alhora si chiamava Settimania, & hora (come s'è gia detto) in uece di Gotticana, è chiamata Ocitania." Historia delle cose di Francia, raccolte fedelmente da Paolo Emilio da Verona, e recata hora a punto dalla Latina in questa nostra lingua Volgare, Venezia: Michele Tramezzino; 1549. online (images 144-145) and also.
  56. https://books.google.com/books?id=fzNhAAAAcAAJ&dq=ocitania&pg=PR75 Frantzösischer und anderer Nationen mit einlauffender Historien warhaffte Beschreibung: biß auff Henricum den Anderen ... in Neunthehen Bücher verfasset ... Sampt aller Königen Bildtnussen, Volum 2
  57. https://books.google.com/books?id=UoM-AAAAcAAJ&dq=langue+d%27oc%2C+langue+de+goth&pg=RA1-PA136 Gilles Ménage, Dictionnaire étymologique de la langue française
  58. "This province was long known as "Gallia Narbonensis", then Septimania. When the Roman Empire was divided again, the name of Occitania was given to the regions westward (of Provence), and of Novempopulania to the province of Bordeaux."
  59. Revista tolsana Infòc, number 265, Genièr 2008.
  60. Pierre Bec, op. cit., p. 20.
  61. Web site: Old map of Occitania . GIF.
  62. Trobadors, Martial Peyrouny, CRDP of Aquitaine, 2009, p. 14.
  63. Louis-Étienne Arcère, Histoire de la Ville de la Rochelle et du Pays d'Aulnis, 1756, p. 40 online.
  64. Pierre Bec, op. cit., p. 65.
  65. Web site: Roumanio • Tresor dóu Felibrige - Dictionnaire provençal-français . 2017-12-29 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160817040740/http://www.lexilogos.com/provencal/felibrige.php?q=roumanio . 2016-08-17 . dead .
  66. http://www.museeprotestant.org/notice/les-provinces-unies-du-midi/ The United Provinces of the South
  67. [Joseph Vaissète|Dom Vaissette]
  68. Alain Viaut quotes the Languedocian dictionary of the Abbé de Sauvages (1785): Hence it follows that not only the Provençal, but all Gascon idioms of the southern provinces are within the purview of our dictionary. Alain Viaut, "Practices and representations of Occitan in Aquitaine", in Variable territoriale et promotion des langues minoritaires, MSHA, 2007, p. 146 online.
  69. "OCCITANIA (Geog. Anc.) Is the name that some authors of the Middle Ages gave to the province of Languedoc but this name was common to all the people who said yes, that is to say, to the inhabitants of Gascony, Provence, Dauphine, and Languedoc, whose modern name was formed.".
  70. https://archive.today/20120604171548/http://fr.dir.groups.yahoo.com/group/Gasconha-doman/message/9695 Explanation Online
  71. Web site: Óucitanìo . Mistralian norm, for Occitània in classical norm) in: Frédéric Mistral (1879 - 1886) . Lou Tresor dóu Felibrige, Provençal-French Dictionary . Aix-en-Provence: Remondet-Aubin . https://web.archive.org/web/20170918124854/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k7486f. 2017-09-18 . See also the statutes of Felibritge adopted in 1911, article 11: Tóuti li Felibre majourau o manteneire soun coumparti dins de seicioun terrenalo dicho mantenènço e courrespoundènto, tant que se pòu, is anciano prouvinço de l'Óucitanìo o i grand dialèite de La Lengo d'O "All major felibritgists or maintainers are divided into territorial sections known as maintenances and corresponding, as far as possible, to the former provinces of Occitania or the great dialects of the Occitan language..
  72. Pierre Pasquini, Le pays des parlers perdus, preface by Robert Lafont, Montpellier, Presses du Languedoc, 1994, see page 160 for more clarification.
  73. Frédéric Mistral, Oucitanìo article, The Treasure of the Felibritge, 1878.
  74. [Robèrt Lafont]
  75. André Dupuy, Marcel Carrieres and André Nouvel, Histoire de l'Occitanie, Publisher Connaissance de l'Occitanie, Montpellier, 1976 p. 58.
  76. Robert Lafont, "The Classical Age", Volume I of the "History and Anthology of the Occitan literature", Montpellier, Presses du Languedoc, 1997.
  77. See The Invention of Europe of Emmanuel Todd.
  78. https://books.google.com/books?id=4CfAgLCV9eIC&pg=PA74 see chapters 2, 3 and 5 of this book
  79. https://web.archive.org/web/20111105074609/http://books.google.fr/books?id=4CfAgLCV9eIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Droit+priv%C3%A9+compar%C3%A9+Par+Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois+Gerkens&ei=hVSJSdOBJ4LeyASknYDwAg Private Law Compared By Jean-François Gerkens
  80. http://www.opiskelijakirjasto.lib.helsinki.fi/eres/hum/historia/goubert201-210.pdf Goubert and Roche
  81. Web site: Démographie : en trente ans, comme vous avez changé ! . 2017-12-30 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160303171007/http://www.ladepeche.fr/article/2013/04/01/1595876-demographie-en-trente-ans-comme-vous-avez-change.html . 2016-03-03 . live .
  82. Web site: The level of education in Europe in 2010 . 2017-12-30 . https://web.archive.org/web/20171231103509/http://www.ladocumentationfrancaise.fr/cartes/economie-et-indicateurs/c001318-le-niveau-d-education-en-europe-en-2010 . 2017-12-31 . live .
  83. Web site: INSEE-Part des familles nombreuses . 2018-11-03 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150924230035/http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/document.asp?reg_id=19&ref_id=16572&page=pages_de_profils%2FP10_74%2Fgraphiques.htm#cart1 . 2015-09-24 . live .
  84. http://www.arkheia-revue.org/Le-Midi-rouge is the red midi really a reality? Interview with Jean-Jacques Becker and Gilles Candar
  85. [Emmanuel Todd]
  86. Andre Armengaud and Robert Lafont (dir.), "Histoire d'Occitanie", Paris, Hachette, 1979, 949 pages.
  87. in Jean-Pierre Camus, Les Récits historiques ou histoires divertissantes, entremeslées de plusieurs agreables rencontres & belles reparties, 1644.
  88. in Jean Besly, History of the Counts of Poitou and the dukes of Guyenne since 811 to Louis the Younger, 1647.
  89. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k118975q Orders of the Kings of France of the third race... Third volume, Containing the ordinances of King John from the beginning of the year 1355 until his death arrived April 8, 1364 / by M. Secousse, Imprimerie Royale, Paris, 1732, on line on Gallica
  90. FRÉGEVILLE (CHARLES-LOUIS-JOSEPH, marquis de) . Frégeville (Charles-Louis-Joseph, Marquis de) . General Frégeville had to fight the occult orders of the duke Angouleme and his chief of staff, the Duke of Damascus. The Prince's plan was to disorganize the army; he succeeded, and General Frégeville was retired. It is known that the Duke of Angouleme was suspected at that time of wanting to form an independent kingdom under the name of the Kingdom of Occitania..
  91. "Faced with these excesses, fear outweighs explicit convictions -as evidenced by the isolation of Voyer d'Argenson when he denounces them in the House- and the central government is struggling to react:the prefects appointed by the government only arrive in his departments at the end of July, and suffer from the competition of the commissioners who have been appointed by the Duke of Angouleme. The latter is also recalled to Paris by Louis XVIII, who cancels all the nominations to which his nephew had proceeded and published, on September 1st, a "proclamation on the excesses of the South". Written by Pasquier, this text condemns the "odious enterprise" described as "an attack against us and against France". The royal intervention puts an end to the troubles -except in Nîmes, where they continue until November- strongly reminding that no one can substitute for the authority of the king. But it aroused the anger of the leaders of exalted southern royalism (the Marquis of Villeneuve, the Abbé de Chièze, the Baron of Calvière) who, having failed to establish a Viceroyalty of Occitania, had hoped to take advantage circumstances to restore the institutions of the Ancien Régime to the benefit of the local nobility. Bertand GOUJON. Post-Revolutionary Monarchies. 1814-1848. Paris: The Threshold. 2012. . Read on Google Books
  92. History of England During the Middle Ages, 1814.
  93. "The Felibritge is established to preserve the language, the customs, the genius of the Occitan nation. Its doctrine is contained in the works of Frédéric Mistral and his disciples") Article 2 of the statutes in the Cartabèu de Santo Estello online at CIEL d'Oc
  94. Simon Calamel and Dominique Javel, The Langue d'oc for standard, p. 203: "IEO ... competitive organization but not necessarily enemy... created in 1945".
  95. http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=LEGITEXT000005616341&dateTexte=vig Law n°94-665 of August 4, 1994 relative to the use of the French language
  96. Web site: What is the Occitanie region? . 2018-01-02 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180102132245/http://www.laregionoccitanie.fr/ . 2018-01-02 . live .
  97. Survey for the new name of the large region regrouping "Midi-Pyrénées" and "Languedoc-Roussillon" http://www.20minutes.fr/toulouse/1699703-20151001-midi-pyreneeslanguedoc-roussillon-internautes-votent-nom-occitanie
  98. Sasor . Rozalia . 1 December 2020 . The historical background of Catalan separatism: The case of Occitania . Review of Nationalities . 10 . 1 . 153–167 . 10.2478/pn-2020-0011 . 235076124 . 2543-9391 . 20 April 2023.
  99. Book: Débax . Hélène . Càtars i trobadors: Occitània i Catalunya, renaixença i futur . 2003 . Generalitat de Catalunya . 9788439361497 . Barcelona . 68–75 . L'échec de l'Etat occitan. Sur les divergences de l'évolution entre Occitanie et Catalogne (IXe-XIIIe siècles).
  100. Book: Costen, M. D. . The Cathars and the Albigensian Crusade . 1997 . Manchester University Press . 0-7190-4331-X . Manchester, U.K. . 9–11 . 36407762.
  101. Fernández-Cuadrench . Jordi . 2014 . L'Estat que no va ser: catalans i occitans entre els segles VIII i XIII. A propòsit del vuitè centenari de la Batalla de Muret . Butlletí de la Societat Catalana d'Estudis Històrics . ca . 25 . 47–85 . 10.2436/20.1001.01.126 . 2013-3995.
  102. Web site: Lamuela . Xavier . Catalan and Occitan: one diasystem, two languages . 20 April 2023 . www.trob-eu.net . TrobEu, Trobadours and European Identity .
  103. Book: Fabra, Pompeu . Obres Completes de Pompeu Fabra en format digital . . 1934 . 9, Textos i materials . 679–682 . ca . Desviacions en els conceptes de llengua i de pàtria.
  104. Web site: Catalan language . 20 April 2023 . www.britannica.com . Encyclopaedia Britannica . en . Catalan is most closely related to the Occitan language of southern France and to Spanish, but it is clearly distinct from both..
  105. Web site: 2015-01-21 . Catalonia recognizes Aran's national identity . 20 April 2023 . Nationalia . CIEMEN.
  106. Notably Carles de Tortolon, & Octavien Bringuier, Étude sur la limite géographique de la langue d’oc et de la langue d’oïl (avec une carte), 1876, Paris: Imprimerie Nationale [reed. 2004, Masseret-Meuzac: Institute of Occitan Estudis of Lemosin/Lo Chamin of Sent Jaume].
  107. See for example the map in Occitània i l'occità, a popular work on Occitania and Occitan published by the Autonomous Government of Catalonia (in Catalan).
  108. https://archive.today/20120604171558/http://www.gasconha.com/debat/spip.php?article66 Guiche, Came, Urt, Bidache, Bassussarry, Montory, Mouguerre... are they really Gascon?
  109. http://www.xarnege.com/1024x768/francais/indexfran.htm Sharnègos
  110. "In fact, the community of Brigue has its most distant origins in the emigrations of the 12th century after the conquest of Languedoc and Provence by the "barons of the North", conquest followed by religious persecutions (note 10). Thus, their language is a Provençal speech with an old Ligurian substratum in which words from French were mixed.
    (Note 10) Traces of Provençal civilization can be found in some Alpine valleys of Piedmont [...] In Liguria we can find smaller traces in Lower Roya (Olivetta San Michele, Airole, Libri) and in the Alps. Rochetta Nervina, Pigna and Triora. Guido Lucarno, "The peace treaty of 1947 between Italy and France. Consequences on the Border and on the Development of the Roya Valley", p. 121 in André-Louis Sanguin, Mare Nostrum : dynamiques et mutations géopolitiques de la Méditerranée, Paris : L'Harmattan, 2000.
  111. [Werner Forner]
  112. [Werner Forner]
  113. [Jean-Philippe Dalbera]
  114. [Giulia Petracco Sicardi]
  115. "The Brigasc has an Occitan component that denies the belief of some people that this speech would be part of the Ligurian dialects." The feeling of belonging to the Occitan culture is sufficiently shared by the locals "on the A Vaštéra site.
  116. Jean-Pierre JUGE (2001) Petit précis – Chronologie occitane – Histoire & civilisation, p. 19.
  117. [Frederic Mistral]
  118. Joseph Anglade, Grammaire de l'ancien provençal ou ancienne langue d'oc, 1921: La Langue d'Oc est parlée actuellement par douze ou quatorze millions de Français ("Occitan is now spoken by twelve or fourteen million French citizens").
  119. http://www.interieur.gouv.fr/sections/a_votre_service/resultats-elections/RG2010/072/064/064.html Results of the 2010 regional elections in Aquitaine
  120. http://www.pyreneesinfo.fr/actu/toulouse-cinq-elus-pour-le-patit-occitan/ L’Occitanie présente au Conseil régional
  121. Web site: Les élu-e-s, fonctions et bios > Hervé GUERRERA . 2018-01-03 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160401160450/http://paca.elus-ecologistes.fr/groupe/le-groupe-eelvpoc/les-elu-e-s-fonctions-et-bios/6285-herve-guerrera/ . 2016-04-01 . live .
  122. Web site: Results of the second round . FR . 2014 . 2018-01-03 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180315143914/http://bastir.eu/#!municipalas-2014---los-elegits-bastir/c4oq . 2018-03-15 . dead .
  123. Web site: OC. Lista dels elegits municipals. 2014. 2018-01-03. https://web.archive.org/web/20160303182106/http://media.wix.com/ugd/cc1e3b_4db786ddc0ae40559eca232a6076627e.pdf. 2016-03-03. live.
  124. Web site: FR . Les députés Le Groupe des Verts/Alliance Libre Européenne . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20150326105111/http://www.greens-efa.eu/fr/les-deputes/42-tous-les-deputes.html . 2015-03-26 .
  125. Chemins d'occitanie-Camins d'occitania: Politique Occitane 1974-2000, Gérard Tautil,Éditions L'Harmattan, 1998, p. 20.
  126. Chemins d'occitanie-Camins d'occitania: Occitan Politics 1974-2000, Gérard Tautil, Éditions L'Harmattan, 1998, p. 17.
  127. Web site: Les langues régionales enseignées . 2018-01-03 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130318063230/http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/europe/francecarte_lng-regionales.htm . 2013-03-18 . live .

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