Nuclear engineering explained

Nuclear engineering is the engineering discipline concerned with designing and applying systems that utilize the energy released by nuclear processes.^{[1] [2]} The most prominent application of nuclear engineering is the generation of electricity. Worldwide, some 440 nuclear reactors in 32 countries generate 10 percent of the world's energy through nuclear fission.^[3] In the future, it is expected that nuclear fusion will add another nuclear means of generating energy.^[4] Both reactions make use of the nuclear binding energy released when atomic nucleons are either separated (fission) or brought together (fusion). The energy available is given by the binding energy curve, and the amount generated is much greater than that generated through chemical reactions. Fission of 1 gram of uranium yields as much energy as burning 3 tons of coal or 600 gallons of fuel oil,^[5] without adding carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.^[6]

What nuclear engineers do

Nuclear engineers work in such areas as the following:^{[7] [8] [9]}

• Nuclear reactor design, which has evolved from the Generation I, proof-of concept, reactors of the 1950s and 1960s,^[10] to Generation II, Generation III, and Generation IV concepts
• Thermal hydraulics and heat transfer. In a typical nuclear power plant, heat generates steam that drives a steam turbine and a generator that produces electricity
• Materials science as it relates to nuclear power applications
  • Managing the nuclear fuel cycle, in which fissile material is obtained, formed into fuel, removed when depleted, and safely stored or reprocessed Nuclear propulsion, mainly for military naval vessels, but there have been concepts for aircraft and missiles. Nuclear power has been used in space since the 1960s
• Plasma physics, which is integral to the development of fusion power
• Weapons development and management
• Generation of radionuclides, which have applications in industry, medicine, and many other areas
• Nuclear waste management
• Health physics
• Nuclear medicine and Medical Physics
• Health and safety
• Instrumentation and control engineering
• Process engineering
• Project Management
• Quality engineering
• Reactor operations^[11]
• Nuclear security (detection of clandestine nuclear materials)^[12]
• Nuclear engineering even has a role in criminal investigation,^[13] and agriculture.^[14]

Many chemical, electrical and mechanical and other types of engineers also work in the nuclear industry, as do many scientists and support staff. In the U.S., nearly 100,000 people directly work in the nuclear industry. Including secondary sector jobs, the number of people supported by the U.S. nuclear industry is 475,000.^[15]

History of nuclear engineering

Nuclear engineering was born in 1938, with the discovery of nuclear fission.^[16] The first artificial nuclear reactor, CP-1, was designed by a team of physicists who were concerned that Nazi Germany might also be seeking to build a bomb based on nuclear fission. (The earliest known nuclear reaction on Earth occurred naturally, 1.7 billion years ago, in Oklo, Gabon, Africa.) The second artificial nuclear reactor, the X-10 Graphite Reactor, was also a part of the Manhattan Project, as were the plutonium-producing reactors of the Hanford Engineer Works. The first nuclear bomb was code named Gadget which was used in the Trinity Nuclear Test. The weapon was believed to have a yield of around 20 kilotons of TNT.

The first nuclear reactor to generate electricity was Experimental Breeder Reactor I (EBR-I), which did so near Arco, Idaho, in 1951.^[17] EBR-I was a standalone facility, not connected to a grid, but a later Idaho research reactor in the BORAX series did briefly supply power to the town of Arco in 1955.

The first commercial nuclear power plant, built to be connected to an electrical grid, is the Obninsk Nuclear Power Plant, which began operation in 1954. The second appears to be the Shippingport Atomic Power Station, which produced electricity in 1957.

For a brief chronology, from the discovery of uranium to the current era, see Outline History of Nuclear Energy or History of Nuclear Power.

See List of Commercial Nuclear Reactors for a comprehensive listing of nuclear power reactors and IAEA Power Reactor Information System (PRIS) for worldwide and country-level statistics on nuclear power generation.

Where nuclear engineers work

In the United States, nuclear engineers are employed as follows:^[18]

• Electric power generation 25%
• Federal government 18%
• Scientific research and development 15%
• Engineering services 5%
• Manufacturing 10%
• Other areas 27%

Worldwide, job prospects for nuclear engineers are likely best in those countries that are active in or exploring nuclear technologies:

Country	Nuclear capabilities
Algeria	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Argentina	See Nuclear Power in Argentina.
Armenia	See Nuclear Power in Armenia.
Australia	See nuclear sector and Australia's Uranium.
Austria	"Austria operates one central radioactive waste management and interim storage facility –Nuclear Engineering Seibersdorf GmbH (NES) for pre-disposal management includingtreatment, conditioning and interim storage of low- and intermediate level radioactive waste (LILW)."^[19] Nuclear Engineering Seibersdorf GmbH (NES) collects, processes, conditions, and stores radioactive waste and does decontamination and decommissioning of nuclear facilities for the Republic of Austria.^[20]
Azerbaijan	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Bangladesh	See WNA:Bangladesh and Nuclear Power in Bangladesh.
Belarus	See WNA:Belarus and Nuclear Power in Belarus.
Belgium	See Nuclear Power in Belgium and nuclear sector.
Bolivia	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Botswana	See WNA: Uranium in Africa and Uranium in Africa.
Brazil	See nuclear sector and Nuclear Power in Brazil.
Bulgaria	See nuclear sector and Nuclear Power in Bulgaria.
Burundi	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Cambodia	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Canada	WNA: Nuclear Power in Canada, nuclear sector, andNuclear Power in Canada.
Central African Republic	See WNA: Uranium in Africa and Uranium in Africa.
Chile	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
China	See WNA:Nuclear Power in China, and Nuclear Power in China.
Congo, Democratic Republic	See WNA: Uranium in Africa and Uranium in Africa.
Croatia	See WNA:Nuclear Power in Slovenia and Nuclear Power in Croatia.
Czech Republic	See WNA: Nuclear Power in Czech Republic and Nuclear Power in the Czech Republic.
Cuba	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Denmark	See WNA:Nuclear Energy in Denmark and Nuclear Power in Denmark.
Ecuador	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Egypt	See Start of construction of Egypt's first nuclear power plant and El Dabaa Nuclear Power Plant.
Equatorial Guinea	See WNA: Uranium in Africa and Uranium in Africa.
Estonia	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Ethiopia	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Finland	See WPA:Nuclear Power in Finland and Nuclear Power in Finland.
France	See WPA:Nuclear Power in France and Nuclear Power in France.
Gabon	See WNA: Uranium in Africa and Uranium in Africa.
Georgia	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Germany	See WPA:Nuclear Power in Germany and Nuclear Power in Germany.
Ghana	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Guinea	See WNA: Uranium in Africa and Uranium in Africa
Guyana	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Hungary	See WNA:Nuclear Power in Hungary and Nuclear Power in Hungary.
India	See WNA:Nuclear Power in India and Nuclear Power in India.
Indonesia	See WNPA:Nuclear Power in Indonesia and Nuclear Power in Indonesia.
Iran	See WNA:Nuclear Power in Iran and Nuclear Power in Iran.
Israel	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Italy	See WNA:Nuclear Power in Italy and Nuclear Power in Italy.
Japan	See WNA:Nuclear Power in Japan and Nuclear Power in Japan.
Jordan	See WNA:Nuclear Power in Jordan and Nuclear Power in Jordan.
Kazakhstan	See WNA:Uranium and Nuclear Power in Kazakhstan and Nuclear Power in Kazakhstan.
Kenya	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Korea, North	See Nuclear power in North Korea.
Korea, South	See WNA:Nuclear Power in South Korea and Nuclear Power in South Korea.
Kyrgyzstan	See WNA:Uranium in Kyrgyzstan.
Laos	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Latvia	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Lithuania	See WNA:Nuclear Power in Lithuania and Nuclear Power in Lithuania.
Malawi	See WNA: Uranium in Africa and Uranium in Africa.
Malaysia	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Mali	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Mauritania	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Mexico	See WNA:Nuclear Power in Mexico and Nuclear Power in Mexico.
Mongolia	See WNA:Uranium in Mongolia.
Morocco	See WNA: Uranium in Africa and Uranium in Africa.
Myanmar	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Namibia	See WNA:Uranium in Namibia.
Netherlands	See WNA:Nuclear Power in the Netherlands and Nuclear Power in the Netherlands.
New Zealand	See WNA:Nuclear Energy Prospects in New Zealand.
Niger	See WNA:Uranium in Niger.
Nigeria	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Norway	See Nuclear power in Norway.
Oman	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Pakistan	See WNA:Nuclear Power in Pakistan and Nuclear Power in Pakistan.
Paraguay	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Peru	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Philippines	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Poland	See WNA:Nuclear Power in Poland and Nuclear Power in Poland.
Romania	See WNA:Nuclear Power in Romania and Nuclear Power in Romania.
Russia	See WNA:Nuclear Power in Russia and Nuclear Power in Russia.
Rwanda	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Saudi Arabia	See WNA:Nuclear Power in Saudi Arabia and Nuclear Power in Saudi Arabia.
Senegal	See WNA: Uranium in Africa and Uranium in Africa.
Serbia	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Singapore	See Singapore is considering the nuclear option for its energy transition... again.
Slovakia	See WNA:Nuclear Power in Slovakia and Nuclear Power in Slovakia.
Slovenia	See WNA:Nuclear Power in Slovenia and Nuclear Power in Slovenia.
South Africa	See WNA:Nuclear Power in South Africa and Nuclear Power in South Africa.
Spain	See WNA:Nuclear Power in Spain and Nuclear Power in Spain.
Sri Lanka	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Sudan	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Sweden	See WNA:Nuclear Power in Sweden and Nuclear Power in Sweden.
Switzerland	See WNA:Nuclear Power in Switzerland and Nuclear Power in Switzerland.
Syria	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Taiwan	See WNA:Nuclear Power in Taiwan and Nuclear Power in Taiwan.
Tajikistan	See WNA:Uranium in Tajikistan.
Tanzania	See WNA:Uranium in Africa.
Thailand	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Tunisia	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Turkey	See WNA:Nuclear Power in Turkey and Nuclear Power in Turkey.
Uganda	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Ukraine	See WNA:Nuclear Power in Ukraine and Nuclear Power in Ukraine
United Arab Emirates	See WNA:Nuclear Power in the United Arab Emirates and Nuclear Power in the United Arab Emirates.
United Kingdom	See WNA:Nuclear Power in the United Kingdom and Nuclear Power in the United Kingdom.
United States	See WNA:Nuclear Power in the USA and Nuclear Power in the USA.
Uzbekistan	See WNA:Uranium in Uzbekistan.
Venezuela	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Vietnam	See WNA:Nuclear Power in Vietnam and Nuclear Power in Vietnam.
Yemen	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Zambia	See Emerging Nuclear Energy Countries.
Zimbabwe	See WNA:Uranium in Africa.

Nuclear engineering schools and training

Organizations that provide study and training in nuclear engineering include the following:

Region/Country	Schools and Training
Africa	The IAEA has 45 Member States in Africa. "The IAEA's technical cooperation (TC) programme is the main mechanism for assisting Member States in the peaceful, safe and secure application of nuclear science and technology."^[21] Education in nuclear and radiation safety is a component.
Asia	Asian Network for Education in Nuclear Technology (ANENT).^[22]
Armenia	IAEA Technical Communication Program.^[23]
Australia	UNSW Nuclear Engineering.^[24]
Austria	EU Science Hub.^[25]
Bangladesh	University of Dhaka.^[26]
Belarus	Belarusian State University.^[27]
Belgium	EU Science Hub.^[28]
Brazil	COPPE UFRJ.
Brunei	See https://www-pub.iaea.org/mtcd/publications/pdf/pub1626web-52229977.pdf
Bulgaria	EU Science Hub.^[29]
Cambodia	See https://www.khmertimeskh.com/50896212/pride-of-cambodia-students-graduate-with-degrees-in-civil-nuclear-science/.
Canada	See Canadian-Universities.net.
China	Harbin Engineering University and Harbin Engineering University. North China Electric Power University and North China Electric Power University. Tsinghua University and Tsinghua University.
Croatia	EU Science Hub.^[30]
Cyprus	EU Science Hub.^[31]
Czech Republic	EU Science Hub.^[32]
Denmark	EU Science Hub.^[33]
Estonia	EU Science Hub.^[34]
Finland	EU Science Hub.^[35]
France	EU Science Hub.^[36]
Germany	EU Science Hub.^[37]
Greece	EU Science Hub.^[38]
Hungary	EU Science Hub.^[39]
IAEA	STAR-NET: Regional Network for Education and Training in Nuclear Technology, https://www.star-net.online/en/?page_id=16, universities:National Polytechnic University of ArmeniaRepublic of Armenia Baku State University, Republic of Azerbaijan Belarusian State University of Informatics and Radioelectronics, Republic of Belarus Belarusian National Technical University, Republic of Belarus Belarusian State University, Republic of Belarus L.N. Gumilev Eurasian National University, Republic of Kazakhstan Sarsen Amanzholov East Kazakhstan State University, Republic of Kazakhstan D. Serikbayev East Kazakhstan Technical University (EKTU), Republic of Kazakhstan AGH University of Science and Technology (Akademia Górniczo-Hutnicza im. Stanisława Staszica w Krakowie), Republic of Poland National Research Nuclear University «MEPhI», Russian Federation Nizhny Novgorod State Technical University n.a. R.E. Alekseev, Russian Federation The National Research Tomsk Polytechnic University, Russian Federation Odessa National Polytechnic University (OPNU), Ukraine Samarkand State University, Republic of Uzbekistan The IAEA also provides guidance for nuclear engineering curricula: https://www-pub.iaea.org/mtcd/publications/pdf/pub1626web-52229977.pdf
India	https://www.iitk.ac.in/net/old/onp.htm and IIT Kanpur.
Indonesia	See https://tf.ugm.ac.id/2014/04/19/developing-nuclear-education-in-indonesia/
Iran	13 atomic energy primary schools /high schools, more schools being built,^[40] Isfahan University of Technology,^[41] See https://www.nti.org/education-center/facilities/amir-kabir-university-of-technology-2/
Ireland	EU Science Hub.^[42]
Israel	See https://in.bgu.ac.il/en/engn/nuclear/Pages/default.aspx
Italy	EU Science Hub.^[43]
Japan	https://www.ne.t.kyoto-u.ac.jp/enhttps://www.nuclear.sci.waseda.ac.jp/index_en.html
Jordan	https://www.just.edu.jo/FacultiesandDepartments/FacultyofEngineering/Departments/NuclearEngineering/Pages/Nuclear%20Engineering.aspx
Latin America	Latin American Network for Education in Nuclear Technology (LANENT) https://www.iaea.org/services/networks/lanent
Latvia	EU Science Hub.^[44]
Lithuania	EU Science Hub.^[45]
Luxembourg	EU Science Hub.^[46]
Malaysia	Universiti Teknologi Malaysia^[47] ^[48]
Malta	EU Science Hub.^[49]
Mexico	https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/41/133/41133846.pdf
Netherlands	EU Scienc Hub.^[50]
Norway	https://www.ntnu.edu/
Philippines	https://ansn.iaea.org/Common/topics/OpenTopic.aspx?ID=13280
Poland	EU Science Hub.^[51]
Portugal	EU Science Hub.^[52]
Romania	EU Science Hub.^[53]
Russia	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Research_Nuclear_University_MEPhI_(Moscow_Engineering_Physics_Institute)https://tpu.ru/en/about/department_links_and_administration/department/view/?id=7863
Saudi Arabia	https://ne.kau.edu.sa/Default-135008-EN
Serbia	https://www.bg.ac.rs/en/members/institutes/Vinca.php
Slovakia	EU Science Hub.^[54]
Slovenia	EU Science Hub.^[55]
South Korea	TBA
Spain	EU Science Hub.^[56]
Sweden	EU Science Hub.^[57]
Switzerland	https://ethz.ch/en/studies/master/degree-programmes/engineering-sciences/nuclear-engineering.html
Taiwan	https://www.studyintaiwan.org/university/program/2565
Thailand	https://www.eng.chula.ac.th/en/department/department-of-nuclear-technology
Turkey	https://nuke.hacettepe.edu.tr/en/department-69http://nukbilimler.ankara.edu.tr/en/nuclear-research-and-technologies-department/http://www.nuce.boun.edu.tr/
Ukraine	https://www.uatom.org/en/training-of-nuclear-specialists
United Arab Emirates	https://www.ku.ac.ae/academics/college-of-engineering/department/department-of-nuclear-engineering#about
United Kingdom^[58]	University of Birmingham University of Bristol University of Cambridge University of Central Lancashire University of Cumbria Defence Academy of the United Kingdom University of Dundee Imperial College London Lancaster University University of Leeds University of Liverpool The University of Manchester Nottingham Trent University Nuclear Technology Education Consortium (NTEC) The Open University University of Sheffield University of Surrey University of the West of Scotland
United States^[59]	Air Force Institute of Technology Abilene Christian University Clemson University Colorado School of Mines Georgia Institute of Technology Idaho State University Kansas State University Louisiana State University Massachusetts Institute of Technology Missouri University of Science and Technology North Carolina State University Ohio State University Oregon State University Penn State University Purdue University Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute South Carolina State University Texas A&M University United States Military Academy at West Point University of California, Berkeley University of Florida University of Idaho University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign University of Maryland University of Massachusetts Lowell University of Michigan University of Missouri University of Nevada, Las Vegas University of New Mexico University of Pittsburgh University of South Carolina University of Tennessee University of Texas University of Utah University of Wisconsin-Madison Virginia Commonwealth University Virginia Tech

Nuclear engineering organizations

• American Nuclear Society
• Asian Network for Education in Nuclear Technology (ANENT) https://www.iaea.org/services/networks/anent
• Canadian Nuclear Association
• Chinese Nuclear Society
• International Atomic Energy Agency
• International Energy Agency (IEA)
• Japan Atomic Industrial Forum (JAIF)
• Korea Nuclear Energy Agency (KNEA)
• Latin American Network for Education in Nuclear Technology (LANENT) https://www.iaea.org/services/networks/lanent
• Minerals Council of Australia
• Nucleareurope
• Nuclear Institute
• Nuclear Energy Institute (NEI)
• Nuclear Industry Association of South Africa (NIASA)
• Nuclear Technology Education Consortion https://www.ntec.ac.uk/
• OECD Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA)
• Regional Network for Education and Training in Nuclear Technology (STAR-NET) https://www.iaea.org/services/networks/star-net
• World Nuclear Association
• World Nuclear Transport Institute

See also

• Atomic physics
• Chernobyl nuclear disaster
• Fukushima nuclear disaster
• International Nuclear Event Scale
• List of books about nuclear issues
• Lists of nuclear disasters and radioactive incidents
• List of nuclear reactors
• List of nuclear power stations
• Nuclear energy policy
  • Nuclear fuel
• Nuclear criticality safety
• Nuclear material
• Nuclear physics
• Nuclear power
• Nuclear reactor technology
• Nuclear renaissance
• Safety engineering
• Thermal hydraulics
• Waste Isolation Pilot Plant

Further reading

• Ash, Milton, "Nuclear reactor kinetics", McGraw-Hill, (1965)
• Cravens, Gwyneth. Power to Save the World (2007)
• Gowing, Margaret. Britain and Atomic Energy, 1939–1945 (1964).
• Gowing, Margaret, and Lorna Arnold. Independence and Deterrence: Britain and Atomic Energy, Vol. I: Policy Making, 1945–52; Vol. II: Policy Execution, 1945–52 (London, 1974)
• Johnston, Sean F. "Creating a Canadian Profession: The Nuclear Engineer, 1940–68," Canadian Journal of History, Winter 2009, Vol. 44 Issue 3, pp 435–466
• Johnston, Sean F. "Implanting a discipline: the academic trajectory of nuclear engineering in the USA and UK," Minerva, 47 (2009), pp. 51–73

External links

• Electric Generation from Commercial Nuclear Power
• Hacettepe University Department of Nuclear Engineering
• Nuclear Engineering International magazine
• Nuclear Safety Info Resources
• Nuclear Science and Engineering technical journal
• Science and Technology of Nuclear Installation Open-Access Journal

Notes and References

1. Web site: Nuclear engineering, going forward . NuclearNewswire . American Nuclear Society . 21 April 2023.
2. Web site: Nuclear Engineering . Britannica . 19 April 2023.
3. Web site: Nuclear Power in the World Today . World Nuclear Association . 6 April 2023.
4. News: Thompson . Jess . When Can We Expect Nuclear Fusion? . 6 April 2023 . Newsweek.
5. Web site: Nuclear Fission Energy . Lawrence Livermore . 6 April 2023.
6. Web site: Nuclear power and the environment . EIA . U.S. Energy Information Administration . 7 April 2023.
7. News: Martin and Bornstein . Nuclear Engineering . 6 April 2023 . Britannica.
8. Web site: Nuclear engineer job profile Prospects.ac.uk. www.prospects.ac.uk. 2019-12-13.
9. Web site: What Nuclear Engineers Do . Occupational Outlook Handbook . U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics . 16 April 2023.
10. Web site: Goldberg and Rosner . The History of Reactor Generations . American Academy of Arts and Sciences . 9 April 2023.
11. Web site: Operation and maintenance of nuclear power plants . IAEA . 13 April 2016 . 9 April 2023.
12. Web site: Environmental Detection of Clandestine Nuclear Weapon Programs . MIT . 21 April 2023.
13. Web site: Nuclear Techniques Help to Solve Crimes . EIA . 23 December 2003 . 7 April 2023.
14. Web site: 5 Incredible Ways Nuclear Powers Our Lives . Energy.gov . US Department of Energy . 6 April 2023.
15. Web site: Jobs . NEI . 9 April 2023.
16. Web site: The Discovery of Fission . The Manhattan Project: an interactive history . US Department of Energy . 7 April 2023.
17. Web site: The World's First Nuclear Power Plant . Idaho National Engineering Laboratory . US Department of Energy . 7 April 2023.
18. Nuclear engineering workforce in the United States . 2022 . 9880971 . Townsend . L. W. . Brady . L. . Lindegard . J. . Hall . H. L. . McAndrew-Benavides . E. . Poston . J. W. . Journal of Applied Clinical Medical Physics . 23 . Suppl 1 . e13808 . 10.1002/acm2.13808 . 36305037 .
19. Web site: Austria JRC Report . IAEA . 10 April 2023.
20. Web site: Experience Creates Safety . Nuclear Engineering Siebersdorf . 10 April 2023.
21. Web site: IAEA Technical Cooperation in Africa . 19 April 2023.
22. Web site: IAEA Banner Asian Network for Education in Nuclear Technology (ANENT) . IAEA . 18 April 2019 . 19 April 2023.
23. Web site: IAEA Technical Communication Program . IAEA . 19 April 2023.
24. Web site: Nuclear Engineering Help create the technologies of the future . UNSW Sydney . 19 April 2023.
25. Web site: Austria . EU . 19 April 2023.
26. Web site: Department of Nuclear Engineering . University of Dhaka . 19 April 2023.
27. Web site: Department of Nuclear Physics . Belarusian University . 19 April 2023.
28. Web site: Belgium . EU . 19 April 2023.
29. Web site: Bulgaria . EU . 19 April 2023.
30. Web site: Croatia . EU . 19 April 2023.
31. Web site: Cyprus . EU . 19 April 2023.
32. Web site: Czech Republic . EU . 19 April 2023.
33. Web site: Denmark . EU . 19 April 2023.
34. Web site: Estonia . EU . 19 April 2023.
35. Web site: Finland . EU . 19 April 2023.
36. Web site: France . EU . 19 April 2023.
37. Web site: Germany . EU . 19 April 2023.
38. Web site: Greece . EU . 19 April 2023.
39. Web site: Hungary . EU . 19 April 2023.
40. News: 2023-08-02 . ۱۳ مدرسه اتمی در کشور داریم/ برنامه ریزی برای احداث مدارس جدید . 2023-08-02 . خبرگزاری ایلنا . fa.
41. Web site: 2020-11-22 . طرح محققان دانشگاه صنعتی اصفهان در بزرگترین پروژه علمی دنیا پذیرفته شد . 2023-08-02 . ایمنا . fa.
42. Web site: Ireland . EU . 19 April 2023.
43. Web site: Italy . EU . 19 April 2023.
44. Web site: Latvia . EU . 19 April 2023.
45. Web site: Lithuania . EU . 19 April 2023.
46. Web site: Luxembourg . EU . 19 April 2023.
47. Web site: BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (NUCLEAR). UTM Faculty of Chemical and Energy Engineering. 7 June 2017 . 19 May 2023.
48. Web site: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM). Malaysian Qualifications Register. 19 May 2023.
49. Web site: Malta . EU . 19 April 2023.
50. Web site: Netherlands . EU . 19 April 2023.
51. Web site: Poland . EU . 19 April 2023.
52. Web site: Portugal . EU . 19 April 2023.
53. Web site: Romania . EU . 19 April 2023.
54. Web site: Slovakia . EU . 19 April 2023.
55. Web site: Slovenia . EU . 19 April 2023.
56. Web site: Spain . EU . 19 April 2023.
57. Web site: Sweden . EU . 19 April 2023.
58. Web site: Universities . The Nuclear Institute . 19 April 2023.
59. Web site: Nuclear Engineering Department Heads . NEDHO . 19 April 2023.