Korean People's Army Air Force Explained

Unit Name:Korean People's Army Air Force
Native Name:
Allegiance:Workers' Party of Korea
Type:Air force
Space force
Command Structure:Korean People's Army
Garrison:Pyongyang
Garrison Label:Headquarters
Commander1:GeneralKim Kwang-hyok[1]
Commander1 Label:Commander
Identification Symbol Label:Roundel
Identification Symbol 2:Front:

Back:
Identification Symbol 2 Label:Flag
Aircraft Attack:Su-25, Su-7, Nanchang Q-5
Aircraft Bomber:Harbin H-5
Aircraft Fighter:Shenyang J-5, Shenyang J-6, Chengdu F-7, MiG-21, MiG-23, MiG-29,
Aircraft Helicopter:MD 500, Mi-2, Mi-8, Mi-14, Mi-24, Mi-26
Aircraft Trainer:FT-2, FT-5
Aircraft Transport:An-24, PAC P-750

The Korean People's Army Air Force (KPAF; ; Hanja: 朝鮮人民軍 空軍) is the unified military aviation force of North Korea. It is the second largest branch of the Korean People's Army comprising an estimated 110,000 members.[2] As of 2024, it is estimated to possess some 570 combat aircraft, 200 helicopters, and a few transporters, mostly of decades-old Soviet and Chinese origin.[3] Its primary task is to defend North Korean airspace.In April 2022, the Korean People's Army Air and Anti-Air Force name was changed to Korean People's Army Air Force.[4]

History

Early years (1945–1949)

The Korean People's Army Air Force began as the "Korean Aviation Society (조선 항공대)" in 1945. It was organized along the lines of flying clubs in the Soviet Union. In 1946, the society became a military organization and became an aviation division of the Korean People's Army (KPA). It became a branch of the army in its own right in November 1948.[5] Training personnel for what was now known as the "Korean People's Air Force Air Corps" was a major hurdle, with the Soviets reporting in May 1950 that of the 120 trained pilots, only 32 were combat qualified.[6] The only experienced pilots in North Korea before this were those who flew for the IJAAF. These pilots were however rejected by society and the regime. Nevertheless, on June 25, 1950, the KPAF started flying support missions for the Invasion of South Korea.

Korean War: Invasion of South Korea and UN Offensive (June – November 1950)

During the early period of the war, the Il-10 Beasts were the main bombers used in the strikes against airfields in South Korea, while Yak-9/9P Franks as well other trainer and fighter aircraft were used in CAP and Strafing attacks. North Korea's Air Force also at that time had many Japanese aircraft including a Ki-54 transport. Only one encounter with USAF aircraft occurred when two unknown North Korean aircraft attacked two F-82 Twin Mustangs. The KPAF aircraft were out of range and thus failed to score any kills.

On June 27, a USAF F-82 shot down a Yak-11 Trainer that was escorted by four Yak-9s. On the 29th, after Seoul fell, a strike was conducted on Suwon Airfield by 3 Il-10s and 6 Yak-9s, destroying an American C-54 Skymaster on the ground. A second strike on Suwon was however intercepted by F-80C Shooting Stars.

Throughout July and August, the KPAF continued in supporting the ground offensive near the Pusan Perimeter. During that time, they came into increasing contact with USAF and USN jet aircraft, resulting in more losses.[7] During the first-ever strike by carrier-borne jet aircraft on July 3, 1950, VF-51, from USS Valley Forge CV-45, claimed the first kill by a naval jet when an F9F-3 Panther shot down a KPAF Yak-9P. On that day, many KPAF Yak-9Ps were caught on the ground scrambling, with many reportedly taking off towards each other. In the end, the Pyongyang, Pyongyang East and Onjong-Ni Airfields (which were targeted in the strike), were hit successfully while the KPAF lost many of their aircraft. At the same time, USAF B-29 Superfortresses, P-80Cs, F-51 Mustangs and B-26 Invaders began to attack ground targets inside North Korea, encountering very little resistance from the KPAF.

Soviet sources reported that the KPAF was no longer operating after August 10 and was finally wiped out by a strike by USN aircraft on August 22. For their part, the KPAF only shot down 3 US aircraft in air combat (a B-29, an L-4 and an L-5). On November 6, 1950, two Yak-9Ps shot down by F-51Ds from 67th FBS became the last KPAF propeller aircraft lost.

Reorganization (November 1950–1953)

After the heavy losses encountered in July and August 1950, the Soviets began to train the North Koreans to fly the MiG-15 Fagot, although the Soviets were the first to fly the MiG against the UN Forces.[8] Although many North Korean pilots were experienced when they flew the MiG-15, the Soviets admitted that most were highly inexperienced.[9]

Post-Korean War

The KPAF has on occasion deployed abroad.[10] It deployed a fighter squadron to North Vietnam during the Vietnam War.[11] Kim Il Sung reportedly told the North Korean pilots "to fight in the war as if the Vietnamese sky were their own."[12]

On April 15, 1969, MiG-21s of the KPAF shot down a Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star in international waters, in the Sea of Japan.[13] In 1973, a North Korean flight of MiG-21s deployed to Bir Arida to help defend southern Egypt during the October 1973 War.[14] In 1990–91, North Korea activated four forward air bases near the Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ).

Organization

Capabilities

The KPAF operates a wide range of fighters and attack aircraft. North Korea is one of the few nations still operating the obsolete MiG-17, MiG-19, MiG-21 and MiG-23 fighters, yet it operates more modern and fairly capable MiG-29 fighters. Analysts have also long speculated whether the KPAF fields the MiG-25,[15] however no evidence has yet emerged as to whether they do field MiG-25s. The KPAF's most numerous fighter is the MiG-21, which is essentially obsolete. According to a 2021 report from the US Defense Intelligence Agency, the North Korean air force would be unable to prevail in combat against US forces "overwhelming advantages in power projection, strategic air superiority, and precision-guided standoff strike capability," and would face "considerable difficulty" against South Korean air defences, relying mostly on Antonov An-2 transports for inserting special forces into South Korea and UAVs for intelligence gathering and supplementing the air force ground attack capabilities.[16]

North Korea operates a wide variety of air defense equipment, from short-range MANPADS such as 9K34 Strela-3, 9K38 Igla and ZPU-4 heavy machine guns, high-altitude upgraded S-75 Dvina,[17] to long-range SA-5 Gammon and Pon'gae-5 SAM systems and large-calibre AA artillery guns.[18] [19] North Korea has one of the densest air defence networks in the world.[18] [17] Ilyushin Il-28 Beagle bombers provide a medium-range attack platform, despite being generally obsolete, although it is likely they have the ability to launch Kh-35 and P-15 Termit missiles.[20] A large part of the ground attack aircraft are kept in heavily fortified hangars, some of which are capable of withstanding a nearby nuclear blast. Stealth capacity is known in the KPAF through researching in radar-absorbing paint and inventory deception.[21]

It has been noted that the North Korean Air Force operates a few MD-500 helicopters that were exported to North Korea by West German merchants through Soviet vessels in the 1980s.[22] Several were seen equipped with Soviet AT-3 anti-tank missiles during a military parade commemorating 60 years since Korean War armistice.[23] They later made another public appearance at the Wonsan Air Festival in which they were seen sporting the new green camouflage paint scheme that has also been incorporated on An-2s and Mi-17s that have also been displayed at the air show.[24]

The KPAF possesses precision guided munitions such as Kh-25 and Kh-29 air to ground missiles along jamming pods such as SPS-141 for SAM suppression.[25] At least some of Il-28's/H-5's bombers are capable of launching air launched variant of Kumsong-3 anti-ship cruise missiles with known flight tests done in 2008 and 2011.[26] Ground launched coastal defense variant of Kumsong-3 has range of 240 kilometers.[27] The KPAF still incorporates many of the original Soviet air tactics, as well as North Korean experience from the UN bombings during the Korean War.

Personnel

From 1978 to 1995, General Jo Myong-rok was the commander of the air force. In October 1995, he was promoted to vice-marshal and appointed Chief of the KPA General Political Bureau and a member of the Korean Workers' Party Central Military Committee. His place as commander of the Air Force was taken by Colonel General O Kum-chol.

Annual flying hours

The number of annual flying hours (AFH) per pilot is, like almost every other aspect of the KPAF, very hard to estimate. Most sources on the subject abstain from giving hard numbers, but all of them estimate the average annual flying hours per pilot as being 'low' to 'very low'. The number of annual flying hours is very important in estimating the individual skill and experience of the pilots of an air force: more annual flying hours suggests better trained pilots. Most estimates present a rather grim picture: AFH per pilot for the KPAF are said to be only 15 or 25[28] hours per pilot each year - comparable to the flying hours of air forces in ex-Soviet countries in the early 1990s. In comparison, most NATO fighter pilots fly at least 150 hours a year. Ground training, both in classrooms, on instructional airframes or in a flight simulator can only substitute for 'the real thing' to a certain degree, and the low number of modern jet trainers in the KPAF arsenal points to a very modest amount of flying time for the formation of new pilots.

There are a number of possible explanations for the low AFH: concern over the aging of equipment, scarcity of spare parts - especially for the older aircraft - difficulties with worn airframes, fear of defection and the scarcity of fuel are all contributing factors. It is very likely however that some 'elite' pilots and regiments receive considerably more flying hours. Especially those equipped with modern aircraft and tasked with homeland defence - like the 57th regiment flying MiG-29s and the 60th regiment flying MiG-23s - are receiving multiple times the average AFH per pilot; however, aging equipment, the scarcity of fuel and the general economic crisis in North Korea will affect these regiments as well, and keep their AFH low compared to NATO AFH.

Agence France-Presse reported on January 23, 2012, that the KPAF had conducted more flight training than average in 2011.

The Chosun Ilbo reported on March 29, 2012, that the KPAF had dramatically increased the number of flights to 650 per day.[29]

Tongil News reported on July 20, 2013, that the KPAF's fighter jets and helicopters had conducted 700 sorties a day for 11 days as reported by a source in South Korean government on March 13 after the Key Resolve military exercise started on March 11. Seven hundred hours of sorties is considered by the United States military as the capability to wage all-out war.[30]

Structure

Following is a list of bases where North Korean Army Air Force aircraft are permanently based.[31] [32]

Air bases

Northwestern area (1st Air Combat Division, HQ Kaechon)
Base Location Units Notes
Uiju County 40.1497°N 124.4981°W 24th Bomber Regiment Il-28 (Harbin H-5s)
39.9326°N 125.2069°W 49th Fighter Regiment F-5A(MiG-17F)
39.9033°N 125.4869°W 5th Air Transport Wing
39.7458°N 125.8953°W HQ, 1st Air Combat Command
35th Fighter Regiment
HQ
MiG-19/J-6.
Fighter base with 2500 m runway.
39.4972°N 125.9756°W 60th Air Fighter Wing (1 ACC)
Air Transport Wing (5 TD)
MiG-23ML/MiG-23UB/Mig-29Bs/MiG-29SEs/MiG-15UTI/Mig-21[33]
H500D/H500E/500D.
This base was where most new Soviet fighter
aircraft were delivered during the 1960s.[34]
Samjangkol Air Transport Wing (6 TD) Mi-2
South Pyongan Province 39.4119°N 125.8903°W 55th Air Fighter Wing (1 ACC) Su-25K/Su-25UBK/Su-7BMK
MiG-29/MiG-29UB[35]
Kanch'on Air Transport Wing (6 TD) Mi-4/Z-5/Mi-8/Mi-17/Mi-2
West Coast and Pyongyang area (1st Air Combat Division) - HQ: KaechonPyongyang is also the location of HQ, KPAAF[36]
West coast and Pyongyang area (5th Transport Division) - HQ: Taechon
DMZ area (3rd Air Combat Division) - HQ: Hwangju
East Coast area (2nd Air Combat Division) - HQ: Toksan
East Coast area (6th Transport Division) - HQ: Sondok
Far Northeast area (8th Training Division) - HQ: Orang

Aircraft

Current inventory

AircraftOriginTypeVariantIn serviceNotes
Combat Aircraft
MiG-29Russiamultirole35[42]
MiG-21Soviet Unionfighter26
MiG-23Soviet Unionfighter-bomber56
Sukhoi Su-7Soviet Unionfighter-bomber18
Sukhoi Su-25Russiaattack38
Ilyushin Il-28Soviet Unionmedium bomberH-580Chinese-built variant designated the H-5
Shenyang F-5Chinafighter106derivative of the MiG-17
Shenyang J-6China fighterF-697license built MiG-19
Chengdu J-7China fighterF-7120license built MiG-21
Transport
PAC P-750New Zealandtransport 3illegally imported via China[43]
Antonov An-24Ukraineheavy transport 1
Helicopters
PZL Mi-2Polandutility48
Mil Mi-8Soviet Unionutility41
Mil Mi-14Soviet UnionASW / SAR8
Mil Mi-24Russiaattack20
Mil Mi-26Russiatransport4
MD Helicopters MD 500United Stateslight utility 84illegally obtained by circumventing U.S. export controls[44]
Trainer Aircraft
Shenyang F-5China jet trainerFT-5135
Shenyang FT-2China jet trainer30Chinese produced MiG-15UTI
MiG-15Soviet Unionjet trainer4
UAV
Tupolev Tu-143Soviet Unionsurveillance obtained from Syria[45]
Yakovlev PchelaRussiareconnaissance10
Saetbyol-4North KoreareconnaissanceCopy of RQ-4 Global Hawk[46]
Saetbyol-9North Koreamulti-purpose attackCopy of MQ-9 Reaper

Armament

NameOriginTypeInventory
Air-to-air missile
K-13Soviet Unionair-to-air missile1050 missiles
R-23Soviet Unionair-to-air missile250 missiles
R-27Soviet Unionair-to-air missile60 medium range missiles[47]
R-60Soviet Unionair-to-air missile190 missiles
R-73Soviet Unionair-to-air missile
KN-05Russia / North Koreaair-launched cruise missile[48]
AGP-250North Koreaglide bomb250 kg GNSS guided bomb[49]

Air defence

NameOriginTypeIn serviceNotes
SAM
S-75Soviet UnionSAM system1950 missiles
S-125Soviet UnionSAM system 300 missiles
S-200Soviet UnionSAM system 75 missiles
Pon'gae-5North KoreaSAM system Unknown quantity of missilesBased on S-300 PMU/PMU-1
Pyoljji 1-2North KoreaSAMsystem Tested in 2022. Based on S-400
KN-13Soviet Union / North KoreaSAM systemS-75 with infrared seeker.[50]

Military satellites

Ranks and uniforms

Ranks

The Korean People's Air Force has five categories of ranks: general officers, senior officers, junior officers, non-commissioned officers, and airmen.

Enlisted

Officers

Marshals

Occasionally KPA Air Force officers are promoted above General of the Air Force. In that case, they wear an army-style uniform, since ranks from Vice-Marshal and above are not divided into army, navy and air force.[51]

Supreme commandersMarshals
Ranks in Korean Tae wonsu
대원수
Konghwaguk Wonsu
공화국원수
Wonsu
원수
Ch'asu
차수
Ranks GeneralissimoMarshal of the DPRKMarshal of the KPAVice Marshal

Uniforms

Generally as a separate service in the KPA, the service wears the same KPA uniforms but with air force blue peaked caps (especially for officers) or kepi-styled caps for men and berets for women, worn with their full dress uniforms. Pilots wear helmets and flight suits when on parade and when in flight duty while air defense personnel wear the same duty dress uniforms as their ground forces counterparts but with air force blue borders on the caps.

Defections

Due to the political condition of North Korea, several North Korean pilots from the KPAF defected with their jets. These incidents include:

See also

External links

Notes and References

  1. https://dprktoday.com/great/songun/2069 A KCNA Report calls Kim Kwang Hyok "Commander of the KPA Air Force"
  2. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/North_Korea.pdf North Korea Country Study
  3. Web site: Jo . Haena . North Korea's air force . Military Balance Blog . International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) . 20 September 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230427055722/https://www.iiss.org/online-analysis//military-balance/2020/02/north-korea-air-force . 27 April 2023 . en . 10 February 2020.
  4. Web site: 2022 Defense White Papers (South Korea). 23 February 2022. 26 November 2023. dmy-all. 25 November 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20231125084410/https://www.mnd.go.kr/cop/pblictn/selectPublicationUser.do?siteId=mndEN&componentId=51&categoryId=0&publicationSeq=1057&pageIndex=1&id=mndEN_031300000000. dead.
  5. Book: Edwards, Paul M.. Historical Dictionary of the Korean War. https://books.google.com/books?id=scZN59DXeOwC&pg=PA151. 2nd. 2010. Scarecrow Press. Lanham. 978-0-8108-7461-9. 151. Korean People's Air Force (KPAF).
  6. C. Dildy . Douglas . Fall 2012 . THE KOREAN PEOPLE'S AIR FORCE IN THE FATHERLAND LIBERATION WAR: PART I . Air Power History . 59 . 28–37 . JSTOR.
  7. C. Dildy . Douglas . Winter 2012 . THE KOREAN PEOPLE'S AIR FORCE IN THE FATHERLAND LIBERATION WAR: PART II . Air Power History . 59 . 4–13 . JSTOR.
  8. Web site: The Russians in MiG Alley . 2022-04-04 . Air Force Magazine . en-US.
  9. Web site: [1.0] Mikoyan MiG-15 ]. 2022-04-04 . www.airvectors.net.
  10. News: Bennett . Richard . August 18, 2006 . Missiles and madness . . October 17, 2017 .
  11. Gady, Franz-Stefan War of the Dragons: Why North Korea Does Not Trust China September 29, 2017 The Diplomat Retrieved September 29, 2017
  12. Gluck, Caroline N Korea admits Vietnam war role July 7, 2001 BBC News Retrieved September 30, 2017
  13. News: N Korea in 'US spy plane' warning. 11 June 2006. news.bbc.co.uk. 5 March 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180306025158/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/5068662.stm. 6 March 2018. live. dmy-all.
  14. Web site: Leone. Dario. An unknown story from the Yom Kippur war: Israeli F-4s vs North Korean MiG-21s. The Aviationist. 24 June 2013 . 4 April 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140407084018/http://theaviationist.com/2013/06/24/iaf-f-4-vs-nk-mig21/. 7 April 2014. live. dmy-all.
  15. Web site: Military Watch Magazine. 2021-10-14. militarywatchmagazine.com.
  16. News: Waldron . Greg . North Korean air force faces resources, obsolescence issues: DIA . 19 September 2023 . Flight Global . en . https://web.archive.org/web/20220926180619/https://www.flightglobal.com/defence/north-korean-air-force-faces-resources-obsolescence-issues-dia/145955.article . 26 September 2022 . 18 October 2021.
  17. News: Developments of North Korea's Land-based Air Defense Systems . Xu . Tianran . The Henry L. Stimson Center . 38 North . 19 July 2024 . 30 July 2024.
  18. Defense Intelligence Agency . North Korea Military Power: A growing regional and global threat . 2021 . U.S. Government Publishing Office . Washington, DC . 978-0-16-095606-5 . 31, 45–47 . 24 September 2023 . Defense Intelligence Agency .
  19. Web site: North Korea Country Handbook 1997 . US Department of Defense .
  20. Web site: ALCMs in Uiju. 2021-07-20. www.armscontrolwonk.com.
  21. Web site: North Korea 'develops stealth paint to camouflage fighter jets'. 23 August 2010. www.telegraph.co.uk. 5 April 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20140916214022/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/northkorea/7960218/North-Korea-develops-stealth-paint-to-camouflage-fighter-jets.html. 16 September 2014. live. dmy-all.
  22. Web site: The Strange Story of How North Korea Smuggled in 87 U.S. Scout Helicopter. War Is Boring. 13 October 2017 . Roblin. Sebastien.
  23. Web site: North Korea's (illegally supplied) armed Hughes 500E helicopters emerge after 30 years in the dark. The Aviationist. 30 July 2013. Cenciotti. David .
  24. Web site: Airshow Review – Wonsan Air Festival, North Korea. Filmer. Paul . 30 September 2016. Global Aviation Resource.
  25. Web site: D'Urso. Stefano. Rare photo of North Korean fighter jet firing air-to-air missile emerges after Kim Jong Un visits air base. 2021-07-20. Business Insider. en-US.
  26. Web site: Air-Launched Cruise Missiles in Uiju, DPRK. 2020-10-04. 2021-01-13. Scott. LaFoy. Arms Control Wonk.
  27. Web site: North Korea's New KN19 Coastal Defense Cruise Missile: More Than Meets the Eye . The Diplomat . Ankit. Panda. 2017-07-26. 2021-01-13.
  28. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/7951771/Intelligence-experts-analyse-North-Korean-fighter-jet-crash.html Intelligence experts analyse 'North Korean fighter jet crash'
  29. Web site: N.Korea Steps Up Air Force Training Flights . North Korea has stepped up the number of training flights since last month to as many as 650 sorties a day. The North Korean air force is conducting training flights even on weekends [...] . 2012-03-29 . 2013-03-24 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20120330043151/http://english.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2012/03/29/2012032901309.html . March 30, 2012 .
  30. Web site: http://www.tongilnews.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=103371. ko:하루 700회 출격한 북한군 항공기. Tongil News. 20 July 2013. ko.
  31. http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/dprk/facility/air_base.htm North Korean Special Weapons Facilities
  32. http://www.scramble.nl/kp.htm North Korean Air Forces
  33. Web site: 39°29'50.0"N 125°58'32.0"E · Pukchang Airport, South Pyongan, North Korea . 39°29'50.0"N 125°58'32.0"E · Pukchang Airport, South Pyongan, North Korea . en.
  34. http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0001474986/DOC_0001474986.pdf Preliminary Assessment of BLACK SHIELD Mission 6847 over North Korea
  35. Web site: MIG 29 in Sunchon. 12 August 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110930064436/http://maps.google.nl/maps?q=Sunchon++Airfield,+North+Korea&hl=nl&sll=39.510845,125.95657&sspn=0.001676,0.002411&t=h&z=19. 30 September 2011. live. dmy-all.
  36. Book: Green. William. Fricker. John. The air forces of the world, their history, development and present strength. 1958. Macdonald. London. 671468610. 189. The Korean People's Armed Forces Air Force.
  37. 57th Fighter Regiment reported at Onchon with 29 MiG-29s by "Concern over Underground Runway," Jane's Defence Weekly, 9 October 1993, p.5.
  38. Toksan reported as home to 56th Fighter Regiment with 49 MiG-21s by "Concern over Underground Runway," Jane's Defence Weekly, 9 October 1993, p.5.
  39. Web site: The North Korean Air Force by Google Earth. freekorea.us. 29 April 2007 . 2007-04-30. https://web.archive.org/web/20070927011941/http://freekorea.us/2007/04/29/the-north-korean-air-force-by-google-earth/. 2007-09-27. live.
  40. Web site: North Korea's Secret Strategy in a War with America: Go Underground. Kyle. Mizokami. The National Interest. 6 May 2017 . 2017-09-10. https://web.archive.org/web/20170911024401/http://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/north-koreas-secret-strategy-war-america-go-underground-20525. 2017-09-11. live.
  41. Web site: North Korea's Thunderbird Runways. 19 May 2008. 10 September 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170911024627/http://googlesightseeing.com/2008/05/north-koreas-thunderbird-runways/. 11 September 2017. live. dmy-all.
  42. News: World Air Forces 2024. Flight Global. flightglobal.com . 2023 . 3 January 2024.
  43. News: Pacific Aerospace guilty of planning unlawful export to North Korea . Stuff . 11 Oct 2017.
  44. Web site: North Korea’s Illegally Supplied Helicopters Emerge . businessinsider.com . 5 June 2015.
  45. Web site: Inside North Korea's secret UAV program . 2022-12-03 . DefenceTalk . en-US.
  46. Web site: North Korea plays an imitation game with new UAVs. Joseph . 2012-08-18. 2024-01-06. Dempsey. International Institute for Strategic Studies.
  47. http://armstrade.sipri.org/armstrade/page/trade_register.php Trade Registers
  48. Book: Kim Jong Un and the Bomb: Survival and Deterrence in North Korea . 978-0-19-006036-7 . Panda . Ankit . 15 July 2020 . Oxford University Press .
  49. Web site: Sudan says it has ceased all military cooperation with North Korea | NK News . 7 June 2018 .
  50. Book: Kim Jong Un and the Bomb: Survival and Deterrence in North Korea . 978-0-19-006036-7 . Panda . Ankit . 15 July 2020 . Oxford University Press .
  51. Web site: North Korea's baffling personalized rank insignia, explained. Tertitskiy. Fyodor. March 14, 2017. NK News. https://web.archive.org/web/20170319113704/https://www.nknews.org/2017/03/north-koreas-baffling-personalized-rankings-explained/?t=1489885329050. March 19, 2017. live. mdy-all.
  52. Web site: NK pilot defector promoted to colonel. 16 November 2010. 16 November 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20101125165846/http://koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2010/11/205_76423.html. 25 November 2010. live. dmy-all.