Podoconiosis Explained

Podoconiosis
Synonyms:Nonfilarial elephantiasis
Field:Toxicology

Podoconiosis, also known as nonfilarial elephantiasis,[1] is a disease of the lymphatic vessels of the lower extremities that is caused by chronic exposure to irritant soils. It is the second most common cause of tropical lymphedema after lymphatic filariasis,[2] and it is characterized by prominent swelling of the lower extremities, which leads to disfigurement and disability. Methods of prevention include wearing shoes and using floor coverings. Mainstays of treatment include daily foot hygiene, compression bandaging, and when warranted, surgery of overlying nodules.

Signs and symptoms

Podoconiosis causes bilateral yet asymmetrical leg swelling with overlying firm nodules. Early on, symptoms may include itching, tingling, widening of the forefoot, and swelling which then progress to soft edema, skin fibrosis, papillomatosis, and nodule formation resembling moss, giving rise to the disease's alternate name of "mossy foot" in some regions of the world.[3] As with other forms of tropical lymphedema, chronic disease can lead to rigid toes, ulceration, and bacterial superinfection. During acute episodes of adenolymphangitis, patients may develops fevers, extremity warmth, redness, and pain. These episodes are extremely debilitating and account for many days of activity and productivity loss each year.[4]

Psychological consequences

As a result of its appearance, podoconiosis can cause social stigmatization and discrimination.[5] People with podoconiosis also report a lower quality of life than people in similar neighborhood circumstances except without podoconiosis[6] and also higher levels of mental distress[7] and depression.[8]

Pathophysiology

According to the World Health Organization "Evidence suggests that podoconiosis is the result of a genetically determined abnormal inflammatory reaction to mineral particles in irritant red clay soils derived from volcanic deposits".[9]

The pathophysiology of podoconiosis is a combination of genetic susceptibility, possibly through associations with HLA-DQA1, HLA-DQB1, and HLA-DRB1 variants, and a cumulative exposure to irritant soil.[10] [11] In susceptible individuals, irritant soil particles penetrate the feet and collect in lymphatic vessels.[12] Over time, chronic inflammation within the lymphatic vessels leads to fibrosis and occlusion.

Diagnosis

Differential diagnosis

The differential diagnosis for podoconiosis includes other causes of tropical lymphedema, such as filariasis or leprosy, and mycetoma pedis.[3] [12]

While filariasis is generally unilateral, podoconiosis affects the legs bilaterally albeit asymmetrically and in an ascending manner. Podoconiosis very rarely affects the groin while filariasis frequently involves the groin: a high ratio of lymphoedema/hydrocele cases in an area suggests podoconiosis as the dominant cause of lymphedema. In some cases, the history and clinical presentation alone are unable to differentiate between the two causes of tropical lymphedema. Local epidemiology can also be a clue to diagnosis, as podoconiosis is typically found in higher altitude areas with volcanic soils while filariasis is common in low-lying areas where mosquitos are prevalent. Blood smears for identification of microfilariae and antigen detection techniques can be helpful in the diagnosis of lymphatic filariasis.

Lepromatous lymphedema can also mimic podoconiosis clinically, but the former will have loss of sensation in the toes and feet, thickened nerves, and trophic ulcers. Other causes of lymphedema include Kaposi sarcoma, mycetoma, and elephantiasis nostras verrucosa.[13]

Prevention

Elimination of podoconiosis relies on prevention with widespread shoe implementation, stringent foot hygiene, and floor coverings. Community-based initiatives are crucial to achieving elimination of this disease. In Ethiopia, The Mossy Foot Treatment and Prevention Association (now Mossy Foot International) works to transform patients into community podoconiosis agents who in turn visit patients, teach basic treatment techniques such as foot hygiene, and educate families about the disease.[14] This model has been adapted by several other non-government groups as they have started programs in other regions of Ethiopia.[15]

In 2011, podoconiosis was added to the World Health Organization's neglected tropical diseases list, which was an important milestone in raising global awareness of the condition.[16] The efforts of the Global Programme to Eliminate LF are estimated to have prevented 6.6 million new filariasis cases from developing in children between 2000 and 2007, and to have stopped the progression of the disease in another 9.5 million people who had already contracted it.[17] Dr. Mwele Malecela, who chairs the programme, said: "We are on track to accomplish our goal of elimination by 2020."[18] In 2010, the WHO published a detailed progress report on the elimination campaign in which they assert that of the 81 countries with endemic LF, 53 have implemented mass drug administration, and 37 have completed five or more rounds in some areas, though urban areas remain problematic.[19]

Treatment

The cornerstone of prevention and treatment of podoconiosis is avoidance of exposure to irritant soils. Wearing shoes in the presence of irritant soils is the primary method of exposure reduction. In Rwanda, a country of high disease prevalence, the government has banned walking barefoot in public,[20] in order to prevent podoconiosis and other soil-borne diseases. Increasing the availability of footwear must be coupled with education on the benefits of wearing shoes as cultural influences, such as barefoot traditions, can hinder widespread use of footwear.[21]

Once the disease has developed, rigorous foot hygiene including daily washing with soap and water, application of an emollient, and nightly elevation of the affected extremity has been shown to reduce frequency of acute attacks.[22] Nodules will not resolve with these conservative measures, although surgical removal of the nodules can be performed.[23]

Epidemiology

Podoconiosis is most frequently seen in the highland areas of Africa, India, and Central America. The highest prevalence is seen in Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, Sudan, and Ethiopia.[12] A recent review has summarized the global distribution of podoconiosis.[24] In some areas of Ethiopia, the prevalence is as high as 4%.[25] The incidence of podoconiosis increases with age, likely due to cumulative exposure to irritant soil. It is very rare to see podoconiosis in the 0–5 year old age group, and the incidence rapidly rises from 6 to 20 years of age, with the highest prevalence after 45 years of age. Podoconiosis is most commonly seen in higher altitude areas with volcanic soil,[12] and it is estimated to affect 4 million people worldwide.[2] Productivity losses associated with the disease are significant. In Ethiopia (where 1.6 million people are estimated to be affected),[26] the condition is thought to have caused US $200 million in lost productivity per year in 2004.[27]

History

After parasitic filariae were discovered to be an important cause of tropical lymphedema in the 19th century, early investigators assumed that filariae were the sole cause of lymphedema in the tropics. It was later discovered that the distribution of tropical lymphedema and filariasis did not perfectly overlap, and researchers began to recognize that some forms of tropical lymphedema were not associated with filariasis. Ernest W Price, a British surgeon living in Ethiopia, discovered the true etiology of podoconiosis in the 1970s and 1980s by studying the lymph nodes and vessels of those afflicted with the disease.[28] Using light microscopy, he observed macrophage cells laden with micro-particles in lymph nodes of the affected extremity. After examining the same tissue using electron microscopy, he was able to identify the presence of silicon, aluminum, and other soil metals both in the phagosomes of macrophages and adhered to the surface of lymphocytes.[29] Price demonstrated that the lymphatic vessels of these patients experienced subendothelial edema and eventual collagenization of the lumen leading to complete blockage.[30] He wrote a monograph on podoconiosis which was published after his death in 1990.[31]

Current situation

Podoconiosis is now recognised as one of the WHO Neglected Tropical Diseases,[32] its importance as a public health problem is well recognised in Ethiopia.[33] Footwork[34] is a charity which bring together public and private partners to support prevention and treatment of podoconiosis. There is an active research group led by Gail Davey[35] at the Wellcome Trust Brighton and Sussex Centre for Global Health Research[36] which co-ordinates research worldwide. A recent article in The Lancet includes some excellent illustrations.[37]

External links

Notes and References

  1. Web site: Podoconiosis: endemic non-filarial elephantiasis. https://web.archive.org/web/20160428015548/http://www.who.int/lymphatic_filariasis/epidemiology/podoconiosis/en/. dead. April 28, 2016. World Health Organization. March 20, 2018.
  2. Molyneux DH . Tropical lymphedemas--control and prevention . The New England Journal of Medicine . 366 . 13 . 1169–71 . March 2012 . 22455411 . 10.1056/NEJMp1202011 .
  3. Korevaar DA, Visser BJ . Podoconiosis, a neglected tropical disease . The Netherlands Journal of Medicine . 70 . 5 . 210–4 . June 2012 . 22744921 .
  4. Bekele K, Deribe K, Amberbir T, Tadele G, Davey G, Samuel A . Burden assessment of podoconiosis in Wayu Tuka woreda, east Wollega zone, western Ethiopia: a community-based cross-sectional study . BMJ Open . 6 . 9 . e012308 . September 2016 . 27670520 . 5051403 . 10.1136/bmjopen-2016-012308 .
  5. Tora A, Franklin H, Deribe K, Reda AA, Davey G . Extent of podoconiosis-related stigma in Wolaita Zone, Southern Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study . SpringerPlus . 3 . 647 . 2014 . 25485190 . 4233027 . 10.1186/2193-1801-3-647 . free .
  6. Mousley E, Deribe K, Tamiru A, Davey G . The impact of podoconiosis on quality of life in Northern Ethiopia . Health and Quality of Life Outcomes . 11 . 122 . July 2013 . 23866905 . 3726315 . 10.1186/1477-7525-11-122 . free .
  7. Mousley E, Deribe K, Tamiru A, Tomczyk S, Hanlon C, Davey G . Mental distress and podoconiosis in Northern Ethiopia: a comparative cross-sectional study . International Health . 7 . 1 . 16–25 . January 2015 . 25062906 . 4236095 . 10.1093/inthealth/ihu043 .
  8. Bartlett J, Deribe K, Tamiru A, Amberbir T, Medhin G, Malik M, Hanlon C, Davey G . Depression and disability in people with podoconiosis: a comparative cross-sectional study in rural Northern Ethiopia . International Health . 8 . 2 . 124–31 . March 2016 . 26113669 . 4604655 . 10.1093/inthealth/ihv037 .
  9. Web site: Podoconiosis: endemic non-filarial elephantiasis. https://web.archive.org/web/20111015121900/http://www.who.int/neglected_diseases/diseases/podoconiosis/en/. dead. October 15, 2011. Neglected tropical diseases. World Health Organization. 27 April 2014.
  10. Tekola Ayele F, Adeyemo A, Finan C, Hailu E, Sinnott P, Burlinson ND, Aseffa A, Rotimi CN, Newport MJ, Davey G . HLA class II locus and susceptibility to podoconiosis . The New England Journal of Medicine . 366 . 13 . 1200–8 . March 2012 . 22455414 . 3350841 . 10.1056/NEJMoa1108448 .
  11. Web site: Lewis . Ricki . Vanquishing "Mossy Foot" with Genetic Epidemiology and Shoes . Scientific American . 25 March 2021.
  12. Davey G, Tekola F, Newport MJ . Podoconiosis: non-infectious geochemical elephantiasis . Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene . 101 . 12 . 1175–80 . December 2007 . 17976670 . 10.1016/j.trstmh.2007.08.013 .
  13. Arellano . Javier . Gonzalez . Ruben . Corredoira . Yamile . Nuñez . Roxana . Diagnosis of elephantiasis nostras verrucosa as a clinical mani-festation of Kaposi's sarcoma . Medwave . 2020 . 20 . 1 . e7767 . 10.5867/medwave.2020.01.7767 . 31999679 . free .
  14. Davey G, Burridge E . Community-based control of a neglected tropical disease: the mossy foot treatment and prevention association . PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases . 3 . 5 . e424 . May 2009 . 19479039 . 2682702 . 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000424 . free .
  15. Tomczyk S, Tamiru A, Davey G . Addressing the neglected tropical disease podoconiosis in Northern Ethiopia: lessons learned from a new community podoconiosis program . PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases . 6 . 3 . e1560 . 2012 . 22428078 . 3302806 . 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001560 . free .
  16. Visser BJ . How soil scientists help combat podoconiosis, a neglected tropical disease . International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health . 11 . 5 . 5133–6 . May 2014 . 24828083 . 4053901 . 10.3390/ijerph110505133 . free .
  17. Ottesen EA, Hooper PJ, Bradley M, Biswas G . The global programme to eliminate lymphatic filariasis: health impact after 8 years . PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases . 2 . 10 . e317 . October 2008 . 18841205 . 2556399 . 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000317 . free .
  18. News: 'End in sight' for elephantiasis . BBC News . 8 October 2008 . 29 March 2010 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20100504091705/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/7659222.stm . 4 May 2010 .
  19. Book: Progress report 2000-2009 and strategic plan 2010-2020 of the global programme to eliminate lymphatic filariasis: halfway towards eliminating lymphatic filariasis . 978-92-4-150072-2 . World Health Organization . 2010 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20130124082256/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241500722_eng.pdf . 24 January 2013 .
  20. Web site: Rwanda: From Nightmare Past to Hopeful Future . . 15 December 2015 . Tamara . Banks . vanc . December 1, 2011 .
  21. Kelemework A, Tora A, Amberbir T, Agedew G, Asmamaw A, Deribe K, Davey G . 'Why should I worry, since I have healthy feet?' A qualitative study exploring barriers to use of footwear among rural community members in northern Ethiopia . BMJ Open . 6 . 3 . e010354 . March 2016 . 27006343 . 4809094 . 10.1136/bmjopen-2015-010354 .
  22. Negussie H, Kassahun MM, Fegan G, Njuguna P, Enquselassie F, McKay A, Newport M, Lang T, Davey G . Podoconiosis treatment in northern Ethiopia (GoLBet): study protocol for a randomised controlled trial . Trials . 16 . 307 . July 2015 . 26177812 . 4504163 . 10.1186/s13063-015-0818-7 . free .
  23. Yeshanehe WE, Tamiru A, Fuller LC . Surgical nodulectomies can heal in patients with lymphoedema secondary to podoconiosis in resource-poor settings . The British Journal of Dermatology . 177 . 4 . e128–e129 . October 2017 . 28256715 . 10.1111/bjd.15420 . 30097328 .
  24. Deribe K, Cano J, Trueba ML, Newport MJ, Davey G . Global epidemiology of podoconiosis: A systematic review . PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases . 12 . 3 . e0006324 . March 2018 . 29494642 . 5849362 . 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006324 . free .
  25. Deribe K, Brooker SJ, Pullan RL, Sime H, Gebretsadik A, Assefa A, Kebede A, Hailu A, Rebollo MP, Shafi O, Bockarie MJ, Aseffa A, Reithinger R, Cano J, Enquselassie F, Newport MJ, Davey G . Epidemiology and individual, household and geographical risk factors of podoconiosis in Ethiopia: results from the first nationwide mapping . The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene . 92 . 1 . 148–58 . January 2015 . 25404069 . 4288951 . 10.4269/ajtmh.14-0446 .
  26. Deribe K, Cano J, Giorgi E, Pigott DM, Golding N, Pullan RL, Noor AM, Cromwell EA, Osgood-Zimmerman A, Enquselassie F, Hailu A, Murray CJ, Newport MJ, Brooker SJ, Hay SI, Davey G . 6 . Estimating the number of cases of podoconiosis in Ethiopia using geostatistical methods . Wellcome Open Research . 2 . 78 . 2017 . 29152596 . 5668927 . 10.12688/wellcomeopenres.12483.2 . free .
  27. Tekola F, Mariam DH, Davey G . Economic costs of endemic non-filarial elephantiasis in Wolaita Zone, Ethiopia . Tropical Medicine & International Health . 11 . 7 . 1136–44 . July 2006 . 16827714 . 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2006.01658.x . free .
  28. Vernon . Gervase . Dr E W Price, the discoverer of podoconiosis . Journal of Medical Biography . 2019 . 30 . 1 . 2–5 . Sage publications . 10.1177/0967772019888406 . 31735101 . 208142196 .
  29. Price EW, Henderson WJ . The elemental content of lymphatic tissues of barefooted people in Ethiopia, with reference to endemic elephantiasis of the lower legs . Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene . 72 . 2 . 132–6 . 1978 . 653784 . 10.1016/0035-9203(78)90048-2 .
  30. Price EW . The mechanism of lymphatic obstruction in endemic elephantiasis of the lower legs . Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene . 69 . 2 . 177–80 . 1975 . 1166487 . 10.1016/0035-9203(75)90150-9 .
  31. Book: Price . Dr E W . Podoconiosis . 1990 . Oxford University Press . Oxford . 0192620029.
  32. Davey . Gail . 35516740 . Podoconiosis: the most neglected tropical disease? . Lancet . 2007 . 369 . 9565 . 888–9 . 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60425-5 . 17368134 . 31 May 2019.
  33. Deribe . Kebede . Podoconiosis in Ethiopia: From Neglect to Priority Public Health Problem . Ethiop Med J. . 2017 . 55(Suppl 1): . . Suppl 1 . 65–74 . 5582632 . 28878431 .
  34. Web site: Footwork . Footwork; the international podoconiosis initiative . 31 May 2019.
  35. Web site: Professor Gail Davey . 31 May 2019.
  36. Web site: Wellcome Trust Brighton and Sussex Centre for Global Health Research . 31 May 2019.
  37. Alexander Kumar Kebede Deribe Nebiyu Negussu Gail Davey . 202583049 . Picturing health: podoconiosis—stepping out of neglect . The Lancet . 2019 . 394 . 10208 . 1499–1512 . 10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32129-4 . 32534625 . 18 December 2019.

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