Nipo Strongheart Explained

Nipo Strongheart
Native Name Lang:Sahaptin language
Birth Name:George Mitchell Jr.
Birth Date:15 May 1891
Birth Place:White Swan, Washington, U.S.
Death Place:Motion Picture Country Hospital, Woodland Hills, Los Angeles, California, U.S.
Resting Place:Smohalla Cemetery, Toppenish, Washington, U.S.
Nationality:American
Known For:Native American activism,
Lyceum and Chautauqua performance-lectures, and technical advisor for films with Native American themes

Nipo T. Strongheart (May 15, 1891 – December 31, 1966) was an American performer in Wild West shows, technical advisor to Hollywood film producers, and lecturer on the Chautauqua circuit. Throughout his life, which spanned several careers, he was an advocate for Native American issues. He spoke on religious issues several times, and late in life he became a member of the Baháʼí Faith.

Strongheart's mother, Chi-Nach-Lut Schu-Wah-Elks, was reportedly of Native American descent; his father was European American. According to some sources, Strongheart lived with his white father for most of his childhood away from the reservation and Indian culture.[1] Another source says he was adopted after his mother's death by a Yakama woman and brought up and educated in her family on the reservation.[2] Although there was no written proof of his tribal membership, the tribe granted him "honorary" membership and he proudly carried around his card displaying his status.[3] Strongheart performed with his father in Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show. His public performances began in 1917, when he was in his twenties and worked for the YMCA War Work Council. He toured military camps across New England, where he gave presentations on Native American culture and praised military service. His recruiting talks encouraged hundreds of men to volunteer for war service. After World War I and his job ended, Strongheart moved briefly to the Yakama Indian Reservation.

He soon left and had a successful career in the Lyceum and Chautauqua circuits of fairs. He gave presentations on Native American culture and often spoke against the problems of life of reservations as enforced by government policy. He played an important role in the development of the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924, which granted citizenship to all Native Americans who did not already have it; the bill was signed by President Calvin Coolidge. Strongheart believed the bill would help end reservations and empower Indian culture.

In his early youth, Strongheart had some experience with the fledgling film industry. As the audiences for the lecture circuit declined, he became involved in filmmaking. He was involved in a number of projects in silent film (especially Braveheart) and the developing talkies (Pony Soldier).

He also helped develop or found a number of organizations to support or represent Native Americans, including the Los Angeles Indian Center for urban Indians and the National Congress of American Indians (NCAI). Through Strongheart's involvement in film production, he countered stereotypes about Native Americans; he helped translate movie scripts into the languages of the Native American peoples portrayed. He also dealt with wardrobe and props.

When Strongheart died, his will included provisions for seed money and materials to enable the Yakama Nation to build a library and museum; they developed the Yakama Cultural Center. In 2014 the Yakama established a permanent exhibition about Strongheart. Scholarly interest in him arose in 1997 when researchers were studying military service by Native Americans and in 2006 when other scholars analyzed issues related to portrayal of and participation by Native Americans in the Hollywood film industry.

Biography

Named George Mitchell Jr. by his European-American father, also George Mitchell, and later known as Strongheart, the boy was believed to have been born to a Native American mother named Chi-Nach-Lut Schu-Wah-Elks.[4] [5] [6] She was also known as Lenora (née Williams) Mitchell.[7] Strongheart's mother reportedly died when he was a young boy.

According to an article in the Encyclopedia of the American Indian in the Twentieth Century, after his mother's death, Strongheart was adopted or raised by one of his mother's relatives for several years, living with them and attending the reservation boarding school at Fort Simcoe. This was in keeping with Yakama tradition.[8]

These biographies - and others - agree that Strongheart and his father were employed as bareback trick riders for Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show and Pawnee Bill traveling shows.[9] [10] Full families, including women and children, were employed by these shows and traveled on tour. They often set up and lived in encampments on the road similar to the traditional Indian camps. In a sense this helped them preserve their culture at a time when it was being suppressed elsewhere.[11] One biography[12] states that he acquired the name Nipo (short for Nee-Ha-Pouw) during a show after he fainted and regained consciousness. It was as if he had risen from the dead, and the name is interpreted as "he lives!" or the imperative "live!" He added "Nipo" to his Yakama name, Chtu-Tum-Nah, which he translated as "Strongheart". Another biography states that the name "Nipo" was given to Strongheart in his infancy by his adoptive mother.[8]

At some point his official status as a member of the Yakama Nation ended. At a performance in 1927, he said that when his military service ended, he had been given the choice of returning to the reservation or losing his tribal rights.[13] He did return but soon left the reservation again.[14]

In the 1930s, when the government was encouraging tribes to reorganize their governments under the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, Strongheart attempted to document his Yakama lineage.[4]

Strongheart was an honorary member of the Yakama tribe [7] [12] during the administration of the 1946 Yakima Enrollment Act [7] after having helped the Tomaskin family.[12] [15] Leonard Tomaskin would have been 22 years old in 1946. Some 22 years later, he was elected Chairman of the General Council of the Yakama Nation, their tribal government, serving from 1968 to 1983.[16]

Strongheart wrote an article in 1954 that dates his involvement in what he called "historical ethnological studies"[5] to around 1905, perhaps between seasons of the Buffalo Bill show. He claimed to have attended Carlisle Indian Industrial School in Pennsylvania.[17] He also claimed to have participated in a Lubin film company production of the silent film The White Chief.[5] [18] Because he spoke enough English and a smattering of other Indian languages to act as a translator, he played a crucial role as a liaison between the non-Indian production staff and the Indian children they had picked for the movie.[5]

In 1910, Strongheart was reported to be in Oklahoma, which had recently been admitted to the Union. He was serving in the 5th Cavalry Regiment during the period of the United States' Border War (1910–1919) with Mexico, when it was engulfed in its own civil war.[19] In 1910–12,[5] he again worked in the Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show and Pawnee Bill traveling shows as a bareback trick rider.[12]

Later newspaper coverage reports that Strongheart was serving in the military in the West in 1914; it may have been with the 16th Infantry Regiment, which was stationed there. Strongheart was reportedly wounded and his service ended.[19] [20] [21]

Strongheart said that in 1915 he advised David Belasco on the story used in the production of the silent film Heart of Wetona (1919), played the part of Nipo the Medicine Man, and appeared on stage between acts to tell the audience a portion of the true story.[5] [22] A May 1916 Logansport, Indiana newspaper article reported an Indian actor named Strongheart in connection with a silent movie variously named Indiana, Historic Indiana, or The Birth of Indiana, which was released in mid-1916.[23] [24]

In 1916, Strongheart joined the Society of American Indians, a progressive group composed mostly of Native Americans. It was organized to improve health, education, civil rights, and local government, and address the problems they faced.[12]

YMCA War Work Council

On May 18, 1917, a person referred to as "George Strongheart" tried to volunteer for service in Roosevelt's World War I volunteers as "an expert rider, a sharpshooter and wanted to go in any capacity".[25] Reportedly he was refused the chance to serve further because he was wounded.[19] [21] The attempt to form what were known as the Roosevelt Roster failed. The Sixteenth Infantry was committed to fight in World War I in France, leaving in June 1917.[26]

For World War I, Strongheart was employed by the YMCA War Work Council, which was established in May 1917 [27] supporting the Red Cross, Liberty Loan and Thrift Stamp projects in support of the war effort. He toured the eastern United States giving talks to support the war effort and encourage enlistment, apparently with some success.[8] [19] [21] He discussed the injustice of foreigners being granted citizenship through naturalization only after a few years of residence while Indians on the reservations, whose ancestors had been on the continent for thousands of years, were not given "the same liberty and power".[28] (This was prior to passage of the citizenship act.)

During this work, he was presented as "Chief Strongheart", with a false lineage.[7] [12] [29] He went on to tour over 200 soldiers' camps.[19] [21] Several of the events were reported in newspapers.[30] A part of his 1919 presentation about Indians, who he said "invented" camouflage, was picked up in several newspapers.[31] Newspapers also reported that he returned to Yakama in February 1919.[14] He was back in the New York area in early 1920.[32] Around 1920, he married Inez Wiley, daughter of a Calusa nation chief,[33] [34] in accordance with tribal custom and law, as arranged by her father.[35] As early as 1919 Strongheart knew of Melville Clyde Kelly and his efforts in Congress on behalf of Indians, even though Kelly had no Indian constituents or political relationships with Indians.[7] In December 1920 Strongheart met with the Bureau of Indian Affairs commissioner, Cato Sells, but did not find a partner in advocacy for change.[7]

Lyceum and Chautauqua

Strongheart had read The Discards by Lucullus Virgil McWhorter, which dealt with troubles among Indians in the Pacific Northwest, around January 17, 1921.[7] He wrote to McWhorter and told him of his commitment to help the Indians and teach non-Indian audiences about their culture and their contributions to their country. Strongheart and McWhorter carried on a correspondence until the latter died in 1944.[7]

Beginning in 1921, Strongheart embarked on an extended series of lectures-cum-performances as part of the Lyceum and Chautauqua fairs held across the United States. The Lyceum movement " ... reflected the increasing value Americans placed on public education ... [and] became a site for public discussion, debate, and controversy."[36] Chautauqua events were called "the most American thing in America" and according to Andrew C. Rieser, were tailored to "appeal to the patriotic, churchgoing, white, native-born, mostly Protestant, northern and Midwestern middle classes".[37] His tour included Pennsylvania,[38] Ohio[39] and Indiana.[40] One of Strongheart's programs, entitled "From Peace Pipe to War Trail and Back Again", highlighted the "nobility, patience, inherent goodness, romance, traditions, faith and suffering of his people".[41] Other programs he developed were "Tales of the First Americans", "The Past and Present of a Vanishing Race"  - in which he dwelt on the effects of many decades under the Bureau of Indian Affairs,  - and "My People the Yakima". Each lasted between one and two hours.[7]

Strongheart worked for two film production companies: Famous Players Film Company and Essanay Studios.[42] [43] During his trip to California from March to May,[44] he promoted petitions in favor of Indian citizenship. The tour included the state of Washington,[45] where he visited the Yakima reservation on July 3, 1921.[7] On one occasion, in Washington, he did not wear the Native regalia and was still well received, though most of the time his advertising said he would be wearing the Native regalia so he did. However, the ornamentation he wore was appropriate to an actual chief which he was not[7] - being only the son of a daughter of a chief.[8] In mid-1922 he embarked on a tour of British Columbia[46] and Alberta, Canada.[47] In October 1922, he mainly appeared at Society of American Indians meetings, including those in Kansas,[48] Utah,[49] and Illinois.[50] A Lyceum performance was held in November in Illinois,[51] at which he accepted an invitation on behalf of the Society of American Indians to be hosted in one year's time.[52] During this period Strongheart's first daughter was born.[34]

From late 1922 to early 1923, there is a break in Strongheart's activities. A story was circulated based on a comment he made in 1918 concerning rights given to foreigners rather than Indians; this was published in several newspapers. In March 1923 he was in Wisconsin,[53] in April in New York,[54] May in Pennsylvania[55] North Dakota,[56] Illinois,[57] then California in July.[58] Strongheart's petitions and other advocacy work helped get the Indian Citizenship Act passed in 1924.[7] In 1924 he toured North Carolina[59] and Texas,[60] followed by an extended tour of California in May.[61] A story about his Chautauqua shows was published in California, Texas, and Washington[62] and he went to Utah,[63] where he made an impassioned plea for better treatment of Indians.[64] In July he went to the state of Washington[65] and Montana.[66] During this period his first son was born.[34]

In 1925, Strongheart became involved in a film project by Cecil B. DeMille.[5] [8] Initially it was named Strongheart after a play written by DeMille's brother William C. deMille 1904 and produced on Broadway in 1905[18] as his first major success.[67] The play had been made into a film in 1914.[7] [68] [69] As the play's success continued, a remake of the film was undertaken and Strongheart was asked to serve as a technical advisor. He included elements referring to the Yakama nation and had the hero succeed in preserving Indian fishing rights,[5] a topic of some recent interest.[70] The original film was 30 minutes long; the revised movie ran for 71 minutes. As the project was nearing completion, a canine star named Strongheart rose to prominence.[18] The DeMille film was renamed and released as Braveheart (1925), just as the silent film era was drawing to a close. Strongheart had a part in the film, once again as a medicine man and Rod LaRocque played the character Strongheart.[7] [8] [71] [72] News stories covering the work were published in New York[73] and California.[74] During this time, he encouraged a boys' group, similar to boy scouts, in Woodland, California to rename themselves after the Yakimas rather than the (eastern) Mohawks.[75] From then on, advertising sometimes depicted Strongheart wearing Indian regalia and sometimes dressed in normal attire as shown in a scene from the movie.[7]

In 1926, Strongheart again went on tour, giving one show in California in February,[76] followed by a break until July, when he appeared in Missouri.[77] He took another break until October, when he appeared in Ohio.[78] In August that year, during that break between shows, he visited playgrounds in Los Angeles at the request of the city.[79]

Strongheart's first marriage ended in divorce around October 1926,[35] being effected in Los Angeles California.[33] In January 1927 he was scheduled to perform at a Pennsylvania high school.[80] He campaigned for amendment of the Citizenship Bill of 1924, which had not implemented the full citizenship rights for which he had campaigned. In February Strongheart appeared at an Ohio high school,[81] and in December in Connecticut.[82] This show resulted in an extended story covering the sufferings of Indians.[83] He then returned to New York for the rest of the year,[84] before going to Pennsylvania in January 1927.[85] This coverage also prompted a broader call for changes in the treatment of Indians.[86] In February Strongheart continued in Pennsylvania,[87] before going to Ohio to promote the film Braveheart and to give a performance at the theatre[88] and the local high school,[89] which resulted in further publicity for his cause.[90]

A performance-cum-lecture in West Virginia resulted in more publicity: "Indians are held in abject slavery says Strongheart".[91] More performances in Ohio in April/May[92] yielded more publicity for the suffering of Indians on reservations.[93] In late May he attended a pow wow in the Culver City area in honor of Oglala Lakota Chief[94] Luther Standing Bear.[95] Then there was a break until November, when he appeared in Oregon.[96] [97]

After another break of several months, with several "warm up" stories that sometimes also pleaded for the suffering Indians,[98] he made several appearances and performances in late June 1928 in Texas,[99] which resulted in a long news story about the enfranchisement of Indians.[100] His talks received glowing reviews, one of which said:[7]

For the rest of the year, Strongheart made only a few appearances, one in Pennsylvania in July,[101] and in Nebraska in October.[102] 1929 continues with appearances from February to December – mostly in Pennsylvania,[103] which also resulted in coverage of Indian advocacy and the dispelling of stereotypes.[104] [105] [106] He toured in Maine,[107] Nebraska,[108] Missouri,[109] and went back to Pennsylvania,[110] where again some news stories about problems faced by Indians were published.[111] Then he undertook an extended tour of Ohio[112] calling for a change in the treatment of Indians.[113] An event in Massachusetts was scheduled for November.[114] There were further meetings in Pennsylvania[115] [116] and Ohio.[117]

Time in Los Angeles

In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, the market for lectures declined. He became more active in the Greater Los Angeles Area. The national Chautauqua audiences were dwindling with the rise in popularity of radio programs and movie-going. Classical Hollywood cinema was well underway and most studios had changed to producing talkies.[7] He gave a few performance-lectures in early 1930: one in Pennsylvania[118] and two in Wisconsin.[119] In July 1930, Strongheart attended a congress of Native Americans from the United States and Canada.[120]

In October 1930, he joined the Izaak Walton League chapter in Los Angeles. He gave a talk in support of their call for protection of game animals. He recounted having served as an assistant State Humane Society officer in Washington State, where he personally saw 21 of 127 cases of elk that had been crippled or maimed by hunters. He said one of the Indians' grievances against white culture was the "wanton and ruthless destruction of animals essential to man's sustenance".[121]

Possibly in late 1930, Strongheart married Marion Campbell Winton, whom he met in Florida among the Seminole. They divorced in 1933.[122] In April 1931 he and his wife gave a joint performance-lecture at a church in Los Angeles.[123] In July he took some time off to visit friends in Woodland, California, and traveled to Washington for a brief stay at Yakima.[124] In August he tried to register for a police badge in Los Angeles, for managing employment of Indians for film production.[125] In August 1932, on the occasion of the 1932 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles, he was employed to create an exhibition about Indians at a store.[126] In November 1932, he gave a presentation titled "Design and Color in the Art of the American Indian" at the Central Library.[127] In December 1932, he performed a show in Pennsylvania.[128] In January 1933 he spoke to a Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR) meeting at the Hollywood Studio Club,[129] followed by a series of performances in April,[130] May[131] and August[132] in Eagle Rock, California, while he was in the process of divorcing Marion Campbell.[122]

In 1933, he suffered a robbery-cum-assault in Los Angeles, which may have affected his touring.[33] Strongheart had begun to give talks in libraries and at cultural arts events. After 1933, his public talks were few in number, with one each in 1945,[133] 1957,[134] 1963,[135] and 1964.[136] In June 1934, he chaired an Indian arts exhibition at an arts festival.[137]

1936 was a year of transition for Strongheart. In August 1936 he hosted a pow wow associated with a community event in Hawthorne[138] and co-founded the Los Angeles Indian Center.[12] [139] Strongheart gained publicity from his consulting work, and in late 1936 he was thanked for assisting Dan L. McGrath in a major biography of Chief Joseph.[140] [141] [142] [143] Around the same time in late 1936, there are reports of him operating a casting bureau for Indians in Hollywood.[144] In 1940, McWhorter thanked Strongheart for researching records of the Nez Perce in his "acknowledgments" in "Yellow Wolf His Own Story".[145]

Development of work in Hollywood films

Strongheart was increasingly integrated into the Hollywood studio system. In 1946 he was contracted as a talent scout to hire 100 Indians for the première of the movie Canyon Passage in Portland, Oregon. It was also attended by several Yakama chiefs after the studio representatives failed to find opportunities with Indians in 1945.[5] [146] In 1947, he was listed in the credits of Black Gold (Indian history and ethnology)[147] and in the R. G. Springsteen production of Oregon Trail Scouts.[148] Strongheart hired 50 Indians, translated the script into an Indian language, and coached the non-Indian actors on their lines. A newspaper carried his critique on Hollywood standards of beauty and roles of women in 1949.[149] In 1950, he was involved in an MGM production of The Outriders[5] [150] [151] He appeared in Young Daniel Boone as an actor and worked as a technical advisor for the film.[152]

In 1951, Strongheart worked briefly on the production of The Painted Hills, liaising with the Miwok people.[5] Next came Across the Wide Missouri,[5] [153] Strongheart translated the script, coached the stars, and worked with Lakota actors representing the nations of Blackfoot, Shoshone and Nez Perce.[5] Also in 1951 he worked on Westward the Women, which required Ute people to be portrayed by non-Indians and Navajos. Lone Star involves a group of Coushatta people, a group with whom Strongheart had dealings during his Lyceum tour in Texas.[5] In the 1952 movie Pony Soldier, he worked with the Cree people and their language, and toured to promote the movie.[5] [72] He made a number of suggestions that resulted in corrections and improvements to the script.[68] After Pony Soldier he worked on Captain John Smith and Pocahontas (also known as Burning Arrow), Take the High Ground! (1953), and Rose Marie (1954).[5]

Post-Hollywood

In the last years of Strongheart's career, he taught Indian arts and crafts for the University of Southern California and the University of Alaska.[136]

Religion

At times in his performing career, Strongheart had appeared at lyceums held at several Christian church venues[93] [105] [154] and Jewish temples,[119] as well as Theosophical[133] and Masonic lodges.[155] He made connections between Native American beliefs in the Great Spirit and certain Christian concepts. In 1918, explaining the use of the calumet in Indian cultures, he is reported to have said: He also talked about the calumet, or peace pipe, in lectures in 1925 in California[156] and in New York in 1926.[157] He continued to express his views of moral conduct and spiritual life.[100] During an appearance at the Yakama reservation in 1921, he said "that the 'Great Spirit' and 'Jesus Christ' were different names for the same God, who looked upon all His children" (paraphrased by scholar Lori Lynn Muntz).[7]

Strongheart's first known encounter with the Baháʼí Faith was February 27, 1932, at an inter-racial meeting and dinner in Los Angeles sponsored by the religion. The speakers included Chief Luther Standing Bear.[158] In late February 1963, in a private capacity rather than as a performer, Strongheart attended a gathering of Indian Baháʼís in Arizona for a "Great Council Fire." Hand of the Cause Dhikru'llah Khadem attended, at a time when members of 34 American tribes had joined the Bahái faith and twenty six Native Americans were present.[159] [160] Asking attendees who had most recently joined the religion to speak up, and expressing a Baháʼí teaching on the unity of religions, Strongheart said he was making:

He was speaking, as a new Baháʼí, of a Native American religion. Later in October Strongheart addressed a public gathering sponsored by the Baháʼís, speaking on themes of race unity and citizenship.[135] In 1965 Strongheart, with other Baháʼís, took part in an event sponsored by the United Nations Association on the 20th anniversary of the United Nations, performing the Lord's Prayer in a Plains Indian Sign Language.[161] In 1965 the Baháʼís held a meeting of the religion on the Yakama reservation.[162] In 1969 the first Yakama Baháʼí community of nine adults  - the number required to form a Baháʼí Spiritual Assembly  - was inaugurated on the reservation.[163]

Death and legacy

Strongheart died on December 31, 1966, aged 75, at the Motion Picture Country Hospital[33] [164] in Woodland Hills, California and was buried with a Yakima ceremony at Smohalla Cemetery on the reservation.[165] He had requested to be buried near Kate Williams,[166] a relative of his mother who may have cared for him in his infancy and called a foster mother,[8] and was buried next to the site where many of the Tomaskin family were later buried.[166] Some brief obituaries were printed in January 1967; it was reported that some of Strongheart's legacy was to be used for a Yakima library and museum, with the rest of the estate going mostly to his son Daniel F. Strongheart.[167] The LA Times printed a slightly longer obituary titled "Services Set Today for Chief Strongheart  - Colorful Yakima Indian Was Lecturer, Actor and Adviser on Numerous Films",[33] and Variety also published an obituary.[168] The painter Chief Silver Moon of the Caddo nation was commissioned to paint a portrait of him.[169]

Though his will included money and materials for the Yakama Nation, many developments were delayed. The main effort began in 1970 when three vans of building materials arrived at the Yakama nation.[170] However, in 1972 Strongheart was still being called a "white man" by the cemetery manager.[166] The approval to move ahead with the idea of a Cultural Center with a museum was voted on in 1973,[171] and construction started in 1978.[172] Development continued in 1979,[173] [174] and the Cultural Center, without the museum, was opened in 1980.[175] The museum followed in 1982.[176] These developments occurred while Strongheart's adopted kin, Leonard Tomaskin, was chairman of the General Council of the Yakama Nation.[16] Some materials did not reach the Center until 2003.

Some of the donated materials were later stolen; the curator arrested in 2008[177] and most of the items were recovered. One of them, a basket understood to have been gathered by the Lewis and Clark expedition,[178] was returned to the museum voluntarily in 2011 when it was identified. The total donation included about 7,000 reference books and a variety of other materials Strongheart had gathered during his lifetime and travels.[170]

A 1997 work noted his military service as part of a wider review of Native American participation.[19] Since 2005, he has been mentioned in a number of books or academic papers on Indians in Hollywood,[7] [18] [179] most recently in 2013.[68] A restoration of Braveheart from 1925 was done by the "Washington Film Preservation Project" and the film shown at a Yakama Nation Native American Film Festival in 2006[180] and 2007.[181] A scholar began to give talks on Strongheart's life in 2013.[12] A permanent exhibition based on his collections and work was established in 2014.[8] [15]

Advocacy

Advocacy through talks

Strongheart's talks often used local references and criticized named officials, earning him the censure of the Indian Office and his employers.[12] But these difficulties were overcome and Strongheart was able to continue, though not "naming names" as much.[7] Overall he gathered tens of thousands of signatures in support of Indian rights in the petitions he presented at his traveling performances.[15] Some of his trips into Pennsylvania were in support of Melville Clyde Kelly, who had a district there.[7] The petitions and other advocacy work helped pass the Indian Citizenship Act in 1924, but[7] he continued to campaign for the abolition of supervision by the Bureau of Indian Affairs, something largely achieved with Native American self-determination in the 1970s.

In one of Strongheart's first talks that were reported in newspapers, held on August 10, 1918, he shook hands with a Chippewa soldier and other servicemen. Later, when interviewed by the reporter, he quoted government figures indicating a broad nationalism among the Indians – that 10,000 of the roughly 100,000 Indians had volunteered for war service, and that Indians at home had subscribed to Liberty Loans for ten million dollars to support the war effort. Thousands served in the Red Cross, and by making clothing and bandages. He also said the Indians had used camouflage long before its alleged invention by the French, but others had misinterpreted it as the body painting of savages.[182] In Rhode Island, he addressed the Newport Tower mystery, saying, "the red man has always been a believer in education and civilization". He referred to the Great Spirit guiding Indians to peace and the ceremony of the Peace Pipe and suggested that the tower was such a temple, comparing it with other Native American structures across North and South America.

An article from 1919 states, "With all the eloquence of his race ... [he] pleaded ... for the freedom of his people and advocated the right of citizenship for them ... Strongheart flayed the white race for its treatment of the red man, advocated allowing his people to leave the reservations and told with pardonable pride, of their fine war record".[183] Possibly alluding to the Mountain Meadows Massacre, he blamed some of the history of Indian violence on Mormons who dressed as Indians and set off a chain of events leading to military conflict culminating in Custer's last stand. After that the Indians just protested being restricted to reservations, all of which was made even more troublesome when gold was found in the Black Hills.[184]

To an audience in 1921 he "revealed many appalling facts regarding the present day treatment of Indians ... Following the lecture many people signed a petition asking Congress to give the Indians the right to vote" according to the newspaper report. His performance piece "From Peace Pipe to War Trail and Back Again" was characterized as evoking the "nobility, patience, inherent goodness, romance, traditions, faith and suffering of his people." In another instance he was reported as saying that he was "...  spending his life in a work that would tend to bring about a better understanding between the white man and his people".[185]

Another report of Strongheart's talk said he criticized white education, saying:

"[it] ... deprives the child of individuality and that too many subjects are taught and not taught thoroughly; that education is delayed too long; while the Indian child learns from earliest infancy. ... Indians were more strict in the matter of morals, the Indian boys as well as the girls being taught to keep themselves pure and to honor and protect women ... The [Indian] only killing for food while the [white man] kills for the fun of the thing. This has resulted in the loss of vast quantities of game. ... showed why the placing of the Indians on reservations had resulted in their impaired health ... canned food had proved to be detrimental to the health. ... Many injustices had been perpetrated as the shutting off of irrigation water ... The custom of sending children away from their parents to boarding schools has been fatal to the children and resulted in tragedies. ... 'sixty years ago the government granted the franchise to the colored race which is denied to the original Americans which now owing to their enforced stay on reservations have now dwindled to 196,000 Indians. The alien and colored children are in the white men's schools while the Indian children are required to be in separate schools. We believe if we are good enough to fight for you we have a right to be free. We ask for franchise and release from the reservations.[186]
Many attendees to that talk signed two petitions (House/Senate).In January 1922, Jane Zane Gordon sought to establish an "American Indian Arts & Crafts Foundation"[187] and met with President Warren Harding. A story about her effort was published in The Washington Times, quoting a letter from Strongheart:

At Stratford High School (Connecticut) in 1926, Strongheart's talk began with some introductory remarks about early history and then began to:

In a 1927 talk to a church group Strongheart " ... made an eloquent appeal that the Indian now be given the same chance in life as the white man, in education, in freedom, and in opportunity ... He ... [had] not difficulty in expressing the most minute shades of meaning. Incidentally he had a fund of humor which caught his hearers by surprise from time to time, and occasionally he found opportunity for a little satire and sarcasm at some of the Caucasian follies."[93]

In 1928, he more than once urged support of a bill "that would aid the 200 Alabama Coushatta people living in a swamp near Livingston, Texas. This tribe came at the request of General Sam Houston to aid in the fight for Texas Independence in 1836,"[188] which was recognized in May 1928.[189] He also garnered several columns of space and two articles reviewing his views of Native culture and standards:

Advocacy through Hollywood

Strongheart practised his activism broadly across his career, addressing stereotypes about indigenous peoples of North America and racism in early American film.According to Michelle H. Raheja, "Strongheart played primarily uncredited minor roles in films; however, his work off-screen is critical to understanding how Native American actors operated within a visual sovereignty paradigm. ... Strongheart ... used his position as an actor to propel his activism. He hosted Native American students from Sherman Institute ...".[179] Scholar Joanna Hearne wrote, "Throughout his career in Hollywood, he worked as a translator, language coach, and casting agent for Westerns when directors sought to include realistic elements in their films ... in some cases he was able to use this position to agitate for changes, even suggesting the additions of specific characters".[68]

The first specific case mentioned by scholars was his involvement in the 1925 remake of Braveheart, where he was able to include Indians who were not dressed in regalia and succeeded in redressing wrongs done to them; the lead role, however, was still played by a white man in Indian costume.[5] [7] [8] [69] Hearne said of the film, "The court sequence is heavily and multiply textualized ... conveying legal arguments and judgements that refer to treaties ... the judge's decision parses the meaning of the treaty text itself: 'We have examined the Federal treaty with the Indians and find that it gives them the right to fish where and when they please, without limitation by State tax or private ownership.'"[68] A second specific case came late in Strongheart's career, on Pony Soldier, for which he wrote a critical review of the proposed screenplay, even though other departments of the studio had begun work on it. This led to a meeting with studio executives, resulting in major changes to the project.[5] [68]

Advocacy through associations

Visiting reservations gave Strongheart a chance to learn from different nations and let him report to the Society of American Indians on the conditions in reservations, which he was doing actively by 1921.[12] Through the Society he reported on investigations of land grabs against Paiutes and advocated for the unrecognized tribes of the Calusa and Pitt River peoples.[12]

Early in his transition to working in Los Angeles, Strongheart co-founded the Los Angeles Indian Center[12] in 1936.[179] [139] Joan Weibel-Orlando, quoting Bramstedt (1977:93) said, "the Los Angeles Indian Center was "the most widely known Indian institution in Los Angeles and 'played an integral role in the formation of service organizations. In fact, if the history of [Los Angeles] Indian groups had any common thread, it was produced by this organization'"[139]

Still early in his transition to Hollywood Strongheart also aided directly in the founding of the National Congress of American Indians in 1944, in response to termination and assimilation policies that the U.S. government forced upon the tribal governments in contravention of their treaty rights and status as sovereign entities.[12] The organization continues to be an association of federally recognized and state recognized American Indian tribes.

See also

Further reading

External links

Notes and References

  1. Web site: Nipo Strongheart exhibit shows pride for his people. Kate Prengaman. Yakima Herald. 10 August 2014. 18 November 2014. 29 November 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20141129042734/http://www.yakimaherald.com/photosandvideos/localphotos/2398419-8/nipo-strongheart-exhibit-shows-pride-for-his-people. dead.
  2. Book: http://www.fofweb.com/History/HistRefMain.asp?iPin=ENAIT489&SID=2&DatabaseName=American+Indian+History+Online&InputText=%22scout%22&SearchStyle=&dTitle=Strongheart%2C+Nipo&TabRecordType=Biography&BioCountPass=227&SubCountPass=220&DocCountPass=7&ImgCountPass=13&MapCountPass=1&FedCountPass=&MedCountPass=14&NewsCountPass=0&RecPosition=191&AmericanData=&WomenData=&AFHCData=&IndianData=Set&WorldData=&AncientData=&GovernmentData=. Encyclopedia of the American Indian in the Twentieth Century. Nipo Strongheart. Alexander Ewen and Jeffrey Wollock. Facts On File, Inc. 2014. 2014-08-19. 2014-08-24. https://web.archive.org/web/20140824102245/http://www.fofweb.com/History/HistRefMain.asp?iPin=ENAIT489&SID=2&DatabaseName=American+Indian+History+Online&InputText=%22scout%22&SearchStyle=&dTitle=Strongheart%2C+Nipo&TabRecordType=Biography&BioCountPass=227&SubCountPass=220&DocCountPass=7&ImgCountPass=13&MapCountPass=1&FedCountPass=&MedCountPass=14&NewsCountPass=0&RecPosition=191&AmericanData=&WomenData=&AFHCData=&IndianData=Set&WorldData=&AncientData=&GovernmentData=. dead.
  3. Yakima Nation Media Services, "Nipo Strongheart Chronology", published by the Yakima Nation Cultural Center, 1980s.
  4. Strongheart's Lineage. Sin-Wit-Ki. 11. 3. 12. Yakama Nation Fish and Wildlife Resource Management Program. Yakima, Washington. Fall–Winter 2006. August 24, 2014. August 21, 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140821073236/http://www.streamnetlibrary.org/streamnetlibrary/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/SinWitKi-2006-Fall-Winter.pdf. dead.
  5. Strongheart . Nipo T.. Autumn 1954. History in Hollywood. The Wisconsin Magazine of History. 38 . 1 . 10–16, 41–46. 4632754.
  6. The tribe has recognized various spellings of his mother's name at various times – see Book: Louis Fiset. Gail M Nomura. Nikkei in the Pacific Northwest: Japanese Americans & Japanese Canadians in the twentieth century. July 1, 2005. University of Washington Press. 978-0-295-80009-7. 76.
  7. Lori Lynn Muntz . Representing Indians: The Melodrama of Native Citizenship in United States Popular Culture of the 1920s . 265 . Department of English, University of Iowa. May 2006. UMI3225654. 978-0-542-79588-6. August 26, 2014 .
  8. Encyclopedia: Alexander Ewen. Jeffrey Wollock. Strongheart, Nipo. Encyclopedia of the American Indian in the Twentieth Century. online. Facts On File, Inc.. 2014. August 19, 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140824102245/http://www.fofweb.com/History/HistRefMain.asp?iPin=ENAIT489&SID=2&DatabaseName=American+Indian+History+Online&InputText=%22scout%22&SearchStyle=&dTitle=Strongheart%2C+Nipo&TabRecordType=Biography&BioCountPass=227&SubCountPass=220&DocCountPass=7&ImgCountPass=13&MapCountPass=1&FedCountPass=&MedCountPass=14&NewsCountPass=0&RecPosition=191&AmericanData=&WomenData=&AFHCData=&IndianData=Set&WorldData=&AncientData=&GovernmentData=. August 24, 2014. dead.
  9. Web site: STRONG HEART. EXHIBITS. Yakama Nation Museum. August 19, 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120519132653/http://www.yakamamuseum.com/museum-exhibits-strong-heart.php . May 19, 2012.
  10. Strongheart's Treasures in YN Museum. Sin-Wit-Ki. 11. 3. 11–12. Yakama Nation Fish and Wildlife Resource Management Program. Yakima, Washington. Fall–Winter 2006. August 19, 2014. August 21, 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140821073236/http://www.streamnetlibrary.org/streamnetlibrary/wp-content/uploads/2012/05/SinWitKi-2006-Fall-Winter.pdf. dead.
  11. Book: Linda Scarangella McNenly. Native Performers in Wild West Shows: From Buffalo Bill to Euro Disney. October 29, 2012. University of Oklahoma Press. 978-0-8061-8808-9. 61–69.
  12. Fisher . Andrew H. . Speaking for the First Americans: Nipo Strongheart and the campaign for American Indian citizenship. . Oregon Historical Quarterly . 114 . 4 . 441–452. Winter 2013. 0030-4727 . August 22, 2014. 10.5403/oregonhistq.114.4.0441 . 159734621 .
  13. News: Chief Strongheart is Indians' Bolivar . The Philadelphia Inquirer . Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 24, col 2–3 . January 9, 1927 . September 5, 2014.
  14. News: Indian chief was recruiter. Spokane Chronicle . Spokane Washington . 3. February 10, 1919 . August 24, 2014. News: Indians in the war . Utica Herald-Dispatch . Utica, NY . 6, 2nd col . February 24, 1919 . August 30, 2014 .
  15. News: Prengaman . Kate . Nipo Strongheart exhibit shows pride for his people . Yakima Herald-Republic . August 10, 2014 . November 18, 2014 . November 29, 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20141129042734/http://www.yakimaherald.com/photosandvideos/localphotos/2398419-8/nipo-strongheart-exhibit-shows-pride-for-his-people . dead .
  16. News: Associated Press. Yakama Nation leader Leonard Tomaskin dies . Seattle Post-Intelligencer . C7 . October 11, 1996. November 18, 2014.
  17. Web site: Landis . Barbara . Tribal Enrollment Tally . Carlisle Indian Industrial School (1879–1918) . August 27, 2014.
  18. For more on the movie see Book: Angela Aleiss. Making the White Man's Indian: Native Americans and HollywoodMovies. January 1, 2005. Greenwood Publishing Group. 978-0-275-98396-3. 7, 25–29.
  19. Book: Thomas A. Britten. American Indians in World War I: At Home and at War. 1997. UNM Press. 978-0-8263-2090-2. 63, 118.
  20. News: Citizenship for Indians sought. Fitchburg Sentinel . Fitchburg, Massachusetts. 2 . December 12, 1919 . August 19, 2014.
  21. News: How Indian Chief helped Uncle Sam . The New York Times . New York, New York . 35 . January 26, 1919 . August 19, 2014.
  22. Web site: The Heart of Wetona (1919). The Normal Talmadge Website . December 23, 2008 .
  23. News: Stage Indian Massacre for Centennial Films . Logansport Pharos-Tribune . Logansport, Indiana. 11 . May 28, 1916 . August 19, 2014.
  24. Book: The Moving Picture World. 1916. World Photographic Publishing Company. 1805.
  25. News: 3000 Applicants are added to the Roosevelt Roster . New York Herald . New York, New York. 12, 2nd col below middle. May 18, 1917 . August 29, 2014.
  26. Web site: Coffman . Frank . And then the war began (1917) – A Man Who Was There Tells the Story of the First German Raid upon American Trenches in France . WAR HISTORY ONLINE . April 9, 2014 . August 24, 2014 .
  27. Web site: Tate . Cassandra. YMCA organizes Washington War Work Council in May 1917. . Timeline Library . History Ink . March 26, 2001. August 23, 2014 .
  28. News: Strongheart's experiences interesting . The Portsmouth Herald . Portsmouth, New Hampshire . 4. August 10, 1918 . August 19, 2014.
  29. See News: (photo and caption) . The New York Times . New York, New York . 55 . May 20, 1917 . August 19, 2014. and Web site: Nipo Strongheart, c.1915. Archives & Special Collections. Dickinson College . August 23, 2014.
  30. News: Strongheart in town . The Portsmouth Herald . Portsmouth, New Hampshire . 1. August 5, 1918 . August 20, 2014 . News: Strongheart's experiences interesting. The Portsmouth Herald. Portsmouth, New Hampshire . 4 . August 10, 1918 . August 20, 2014 . News: Strongheart to give talks here. The Day. New London Connecticut. 4. August 20, 1918. August 20, 2014. News: A tradition of peace. Newport Mercury. Newport, Rhode Island. 8. September 6, 1918. August 20, 2014 . News: War work inactive. Newport Mercury. Newport, Rhode Island. 3. September 27, 1918. August 20, 2014. News: Strongheart back again, receives warm welcome. The Portsmouth Herald. Portsmouth, New Hampshire. 7. October 30, 1918. August 20, 2014. News: Soldiers hear Strongheart at Fort Stark. The Portsmouth Herald. Portsmouth, New Hampshire. 5. October 30, 1918. August 20, 2014 . News: Work concluded in Portsmouth – Strongheart pleased with this city and its people. The Portsmouth Herald. Portsmouth, New Hampshire. 8. November 2, 1918. August 20, 2014.
  31. News: Indians invented camouflage . The Chanute Daily Tribune. Chanute, Kansas. 4. February 14, 1919. August 20, 2014 . News: Old story to the Indian . The Waterville Times and Oriskjany Falls News. Waterville NY. 1, 1st col. October 22, 1920 . August 29, 2014. News: Old story to the Indian . The Auburn Citizen. 5, 3rd col bottom. September 16, 1920. August 29, 2014. News: Old story to the Indian. The Canaseraga Times. 4, 2nd col. September 17, 1920. August 29, 2014. News: Old story to the Indian. The Evening News . North Tonawanda. 2, 5th col. September 23, 1920. August 29, 2014. News: Art of Camouflage old to the Indian. The Daily News. Batavia, NY. 2, 6th col. September 23, 1920. August 29, 2014. News: Old story to the Indian. Daily Sentinel. Rome NY. 6. September 23, 1920. August 29, 2014. News: Old story to the Indian. The Mahoning Dispatch. Canfield Ohio . 1, 2nd col below top. October 8, 1920. August 26, 2014 . News: Old story to the Indian . Essex County Herald. Island Pond Vermont. 1, 3rd col. November 11, 1920. August 26, 2014. News: Old story to the Indian . The Evening Herald. Klamath Falls Oregon. 4, 2nd col. November 22, 1920. August 26, 2014. News: Old story to the Indian. St. Johnsville Enterprise and News. 3, 4th col. mid . November 24, 1920. August 29, 2014. News: Nothing new under the sun. The Duluth Herald. 8, 1st col. bottom. December 3, 1920. August 29, 2014. News: Old story to the Indian . The Lake Shore News. 3, 7th col. bottom. February 17, 1921 . August 29, 2014.
  32. News: Clinton Corners . The Rhinebeck Gazette. Rhinebeck NY. 11, left col top. March 20, 1920. August 30, 2014.
  33. News: Services Set Today for Chief Strongheart- Colorful Yakima Indian Was Lecturer, Actor and Adviser on Numerous Films. Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles, California. a10. January 5, 1967.
  34. Web site: KERNS. Donna (WATTS). Inez (WILEY), STRONGHEART, SINGH. (1903–1967). Singh Family Genealogy Forum. The Generations Network. October 16, 2006. August 20, 2014.
  35. News: Royal romance on rocks. Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles, California. 14. October 3, 1926.
  36. Book: Hannum, Dustin E. . Rubin . Joan Shelley . Boyer. Paul S. . Casper. Scott E.. Lyceum Movement . https://books.google.com/books?id=_-lMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA677 . The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Cultural and Intellectual History. 14 March 2013. Oxford University Press. 978-0-19-976435-8. 677.
  37. Book: Rieser , Andrew C. . Kutler. Stanley I.. Chautauqua Movement. Dictionary of American History. Charles Scribner's Sons. 2. 3rd. 2003. 113–114. 9780684805337.
  38. News: Jamestown. The Record-Argus. Greenville, Pennsylvania. 2. January 19, 1921. August 21, 2014.
  39. News: Indian Chief Strongheart ... . Wilmington News-Journal. Wilmington, Ohio. 8. February 9, 1921. August 21, 2014.
    News: Life of the Indians described by Chief. Wilmington News-Journal. Wilmington, Ohio. 4. February 12, 1921. August 21, 2014 .
    News: Strongheart speaks. Wilmington News-Journal. Wilmington, Ohio. 2. February 15, 1921. August 21, 2014 .
    News: Adams Township. Wilmington News-Journal. Wilmington, Ohio. 3. February 18, 1921. August 21, 2014 .
  40. News: Indian Chief thrills with romance and Legend of great by vanishing Yakimas. The Huntington Press. Huntington, Indiana. 9. February 27, 1921. August 21, 2014 .
    News: Chief Strongheart to lecture at H. S.. The Huntington Herald. Huntington, Indiana. 7. February 28, 1921. August 21, 2014 .
    News: Big audience hears Chief Strongheart. The Huntington Herald. Huntington, Indiana. 3. March 1, 1921. August 21, 2014 .
  41. News: Indian Chief thrills with romance and Legend of great by vanishing Yakimas. The Huntington Press. Huntington, Indiana. 9. February 27, 1921. August 21, 2014 .
  42. News: Chief Strongheart leaves films for Chautauqua. Press-Courier. Oxnard, California. 3. March 31, 1921. August 20, 2014.
  43. Web site: Kiehn. David. Essanay Studios Staff Directory – Niles Essanay Silent Film Museum. St. Augustine's College 2013. 2013. August 25, 2014. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20150211065016/http://essanaystudios.org/about-us/employees/. February 11, 2015.
  44. News: Chief Strongheart leaves films for Chautauqua. Press-Courier. Oxnard, California. 3. March 31, 1921. August 20, 2014.
    News: What Chautauqua brings this year. Santa Cruz Evening News. Santa Cruz, California. 5. April 4, 1921. August 20, 2014 .
    News: Chief Strongheart ... . Press-Courier. Oxnard, California. 1. April 20, 1921. August 20, 2014 .
    News: Strongheart makes strong racial plea. Press-Courier. Oxnard, California. 1. April 21, 1921. August 20, 2014 .
    News: Chief Strongheart ... . Santa Cruz Evening News. Santa Cruz, California. 5. April 30, 1921. August 20, 2014 .
    News: Tomorrow's bill is notable ... . Woodland Daily Democrat. Woodland, California. 1. May 11, 1921. August 20, 2014 .
  45. News: Chautauqua at Coeur D'Alene. The Colville Examiner. Colville, Washington. 5, 5th col below top. June 25, 1921. August 20, 2014 .
    News: Chautauqua program will be a good one. The Leavenworth Echo. Leavenworth Washington. 1, 6th col. July 1, 1921. August 20, 2014 .
    News: Chautauqua program will be a good one. The Leavenworth Echo. Leavenworth, Washington. 1. July 1, 1921. August 21, 2014 .
    News: Chief Strongheart leaves films for Chautauqua. The Leavenworth Echo. Leavenworth, Washington. 3. July 8, 1921. August 21, 2014 .
    News: First Chautauqua number at the gym Sunday at 2:30. The Leavenworth Echo. Leavenworth, Washington. 1. July 22, 1921. August 21, 2014 .
    News: The Chautauqua. The Leavenworth Echo. Leavenworth Washington. 1, 5th col. July 29, 1921. August 20, 2014 .
  46. News: 1922 Chautauqua programs excel. Creston Review. Creston, British Columbia. 1. May 12, 1922. September 23, 2014.
    News: Chautauqua has finished lectures. Creston Review. Creston, British Columbia. 3. May 26, 1922. September 23, 2014. October 24, 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20141024234135/http://historicalnewspapers.library.ubc.ca/view/collection/crestonrev/date/1922-05-26/query/chief+strongheart/mode/all/in/all/result/2#4!chief+strongheart. dead.
  47. News: Chautauqua – June 19th to 24th. Blairmore Enterprise. Blairmore, Alberta. 4. June 1, 1922. September 23, 2014.
    News: Red Deer Chautauqua. Red Deer News. Red Deer, Alberta. 7. June 21, 1922. September 23, 2014 .
    News: Chautauqua. Blairmore Enterprise. Blairmore, Alberta. 4. June 29, 1922. September 23, 2014.
    News: People who will take part in Chautauqua. Gleichen Call. Gleichen, Alberta. 1. July 19, 1922. September 23, 2014.
  48. News: Society American Indians. Arkansas City Daily Traveler. Arkansas City, Kansas. 3. October 17, 1922. August 20, 2014 .
    News: Indians hold meeting. The Coffeyville Daily Journal. Coffeyville, Kansas. 1. October 17, 1922. August 20, 2014 .
  49. News: Indians desire rights of citizens. The Ogden Standard-Examiner. Ogden, Utah. 6. October 17, 1922. August 20, 2014 .
    News: Indians discuss enfranchisement. Ellensburg Daily Record. Ellensburg, Washington. 1. October 17, 1922. August 20, 2014 .
  50. News: Society of American Indians holds meeting. Alton Evening Telegraph. Alton, Illinois. 7. October 17, 1922. August 23, 2014 .
  51. News: Lyceum Course. The Decatur Daily Review. Decatur, Illinois. 2. November 18, 1922. August 23, 2014 .
  52. Book: Chicago Association of Commerce and Industry. Chicago Commerce. 1922. 6.
  53. News: Indian here to plead cause. The Capital Times. Madison, Wisconsin. 1. March 13, 1923. August 23, 2014 .
  54. News: Strongheart sees city. The New York Times. New York, New York. 18, col. 8 near bottom. April 19, 1923. August 30, 2014.
    News: Wisdom and humor. Times Herald. Olean, New York. 26. April 25, 1923. August 23, 2014 .
  55. News: Sense of humor. Reading Times. Reading, Pennsylvania. 14. May 2, 1923. August 23, 2014 .
  56. News: Humor. The Bismarck Tribune. Bismarck, North Dakota. 6. May 3, 1923. August 23, 2014 .
  57. News: Sense of humor ... . Freeport Journal-Standard. Freeport, Illinois. 4. May 4, 1923. August 23, 2014 .
  58. News: In England a labor ... . Santa Ana Register. Santa Ana, California. 20. July 6, 1923. August 23, 2014 .
  59. News: Lyceum Attraction. The News Reporter. Whiteville, North Carolina. 5. February 7, 1924. August 23, 2014 .
  60. News: Tonight Chautauqua. The Eagle. Bryan, Texas. 2. April 9, 1924. August 23, 2014 .
  61. News: Wednesday. The San Bernardino County Sun. San Bernardino, California. 4. May 1, 1924. August 23, 2014 .
    News: Monday May 5. The San Bernardino County Sun. San Bernardino, California. 12. May 2, 1924. August 23, 2014 .
    News: Chief Strongheart will be Chautauqua feature. The San Bernardino County Sun. San Bernardino, California. 3. May 7, 1924. August 23, 2014 .
    News: Chautauqua this year ... . Ukiah Republican Press. Ukiah, California. 6. May 14, 1924. August 23, 2014 .
    News: Six Lectures ... . The Bakersfield Californian. Bakersfield, California. 8 4. May 14, 1924. August 23, 2014 .
    News: Chautauqua lining for fine program for season. Ukiah Dispatch Democrat. Ukiah, California. 4. May 30, 1924. August 23, 2014 .
  62. News: "A real American" gives entertaining lecture. Woodland Daily Democrat. Woodland, California. 3. June 11, 1924. August 23, 2014 .
    News: "A real American" gives entertaining lecture. The Eagle. Bryan, Texas. 10. June 25, 1924. August 23, 2014 .
    News: "A real American" gives entertaining lecture. The Chehalis Bee-Nugget. Chehalis, Washington. 2. July 18, 1924. August 23, 2014 .
  63. News: Here are a few of them ... . The Ogden Standard-Examiner. Ogden, Utah. 4. June 16, 1924. August 23, 2014 .
    News: The program this afternoon ... . The Ogden Standard-Examiner. Ogden, Utah. 8. June 21, 1924. August 23, 2014 .
    News: Strongheart will give talk to Methodists. The Ogden Standard-Examiner. Ogden, Utah. 8. June 22, 1924. August 23, 2014 .
    Web site: Chief Strong Heart at Indian Hannah Dedication. P. S. du Pont/Longwood Collection. Hagley Museum and Library. 1924. photograph. August 23, 2014.
  64. News: At our recent Chautauqua ... . The Ogden Standard-Examiner. Ogden, Utah. 8. July 1, 1924. August 23, 2014 .
  65. News: Indian is Chautauqua speaker. The Spokesman-Review. Spokane Washington. 14. June 12, 1924. August 23, 2014 .
    News: Chautauqua performers ... . The Chehalis Bee-Nugget. Chehalis, Washington. 2. July 11, 1924. August 23, 2014 .
  66. News: Nipo Strongheart's great lecture ... . The Billings Gazette. Billings, Montana. 2. August 10, 1924. August 23, 2014 .
  67. Book: Thomas S. Hischak. The Oxford Companion to American Theatre. May 6, 2004. Oxford University Press. 978-0-19-516986-7. 171.
  68. Book: Joanna Hearne. Native Recognition: Indigenous Cinema and the Western. January 25, 2013. SUNY Press. 978-1-4384-4399-7. 78, 107.
  69. Book: John E. Conklin. Campus Life in the Movies: A Critical Survey from the Silent Era to the Present. October 15, 2008. McFarland. 978-0-7864-5235-4. 119–120.
  70. News: Yakima Indians see governor and get old fishing rights. The Oregon Daily Journal. Portland, Oregon. 1. January 9, 1920. August 23, 2014 .
  71. News: Chapel speaker is Yokima Chief – Chief Strongheart, notable Indian, is warrior, lecturer, and picture star. Daily Trojan, Vol. 17, No. 46. Los Angeles, California. 1, (bottom left). November 18, 1925. August 25, 2014.
    This report contains a number of errors.
  72. News: Film Actor works with Ty Jr, now. Deseret News. Salt Lake City, Utah. 4. August 31, 1952. August 25, 2014 .
  73. News: "Braveheart" at the American. The Troy Times. Troy, NY. February 20, 1926. August 25, 2014 .
  74. News: Nipo Strongheart is "Braveheart" is Real Medicine Man. Covina Argus. Covina, California. 3. February 12, 1926. August 23, 2014 .
  75. News: Letter sent to Yakimas from Strongheart. Woodland Daily Democrat. Woodland, California. 3. May 25, 1925. August 23, 2014 .
  76. News: Free seats to Covina Theater. Covina Argus. Covina, California. 1. February 12, 1926. August 23, 2014 .
  77. News: The Stage and Screen. The Sedalia Democrat. Sedalia, Missouri. 5. July 2, 1926. August 23, 2014 .
  78. News: The high school has contracted ... . The Evening Review. East Liverpool, Ohio. 5. October 2, 1926. August 23, 2014 .
  79. News: Brave tells Indian Lore for children. Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles, Calif. A5. August 4, 1926.
  80. News: Local and Foreign Talent. The Gettysburg Times. Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. 5. October 6, 1926. August 23, 2014 .
  81. News: Irondale school to show third feature of picture series. The Evening Review. East Liverpool, Ohio. 7. November 4, 1926. August 23, 2014 .
  82. News: The first of a series of concerts ... . The Bridgeport Telegram. Bridgeport, Connecticut. 6. November 9, 1926. August 23, 2014 .
  83. News: Indian Chief is speaker. The Bridgeport Telegram. Bridgeport, Connecticut. 9. December 8, 1926. August 23, 2014 .
  84. News: Fellowcraft Club makes Fall plans. Schenectady Gazette. Schenectady New York. 7, 3rd col, below mid. September 9, 1926. August 30, 2014. News: Chief Strongheart to entertain at Lyceum Course. Harlem Valley Times. Amenia, N.Y.. 1, left. November 4, 1926. August 30, 2014. News: Indian Chief will speak at Herkimer. Utica Daily Press. Utica, New York. 21, 7th col. mid. November 11, 1926. August 30, 2014 . News: Chief Strongheart to be speaker at the dinner. Amsterdam Evening Recorder. Amsterdam, New York. 14, 4th col. November 16, 1926. August 30, 2014. News: Minstrel Show at St. Mary's Academy-Personal. The Troy Times . Troy, New York. November 30, 1926. August 30, 2014. News: New Paltz ... Monday evening Chief Strongheart ... . The Kingston Daily Freeman. Kingston, New York. 7, 5th col, below mid. December 2, 1926. August 30, 2014.
    News: Life of American Indian described by Strongheart. The Saratogian. Saratoga Springs, New York. 6, 3rd col top. December 18, 1926. August 30, 2014 .
  85. News: Arrange Course. New Castle News. New Castle, Pennsylvania. 16. November 17, 1926. August 23, 2014 . News: Students at Bessemer enjoy many activities. New Castle News. New Castle, Pennsylvania. 13. December 16, 1926. August 23, 2014 .
  86. News: Indian Chief seeks citizenship for American Indians. New Castle News. New Castle, Pennsylvania. 8. January 22, 1927. August 23, 2014 .
  87. News: Indian to speak at Arendtsville. The Gettysburg Times. Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. 2. January 4, 1927. August 23, 2014 .
  88. News: Noted Indian to give talk. The Evening Review. East Liverpool, Ohio. 11. February 4, 1927. August 23, 2014 .
  89. News: Irondate to see noted Indian. The Evening Review. East Liverpool, Ohio. 2. February 7, 1927. August 23, 2014 .
  90. News: Chief Strongheart delivered a ... . The Evening Review. East Liverpool, Ohio. 2. February 14, 1927. August 23, 2014 .
  91. News: Indians are held in abject slavery says Strongheart. The Raleigh Register. Beckley, West Virginia. 3. April 10, 1927. August 23, 2014 .
  92. News: Chief Strongheart will speak here. Portsmouth Daily Times. Portsmouth, Ohio. 5. April 30, 1927. August 23, 2014 .
    News: Strongheart will address club tonight. Portsmouth Daily Times. Portsmouth, Ohio. 8. May 3, 1927. August 23, 2014 .
  93. News: Life of Indian interestingly reviewed in address Strongheart made to local club. Portsmouth Daily Times. Portsmouth, Ohio. 12. May 4, 1927. August 23, 2014 .
  94. Book: Luther Standing Bear. My People the Sioux. 1 November 2006. U of Nebraska Press. 0-8032-9361-5. 269.
  95. News: Spears. Raymond S. illustrated by Criswell. Ralph C.. You may specialize in California. Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles, California. K8–K9 (see K9 for his mention). May 22, 1927.
  96. Web site: Ancient Indian pictures on dry river reveal tale of central Oregon warfare. A 75-year-old newspaper clipping reports The Badlands pictographs. TraditionalMountaineering.org. November 23, 1927. August 25, 2014.
    News: Ancient Indian batter told in hieroglyphs. Tyrone Daily Herald. Tyrone, Pennsylvania. 6. December 30, 1927. August 22, 2014.
    News: Ancient Indian batter told in hieroglyphics. Newport Mercury. Newport, Rhode Island. 8. December 31, 1927. August 22, 2014.
  97. For more on the hieroglyphs see Book: Brogan , Phil F. . Visitor information service book for the Deschutes National Forest. Deschutes National Forest Service, US Dept. of Agriculture. 1969. 50–51.
  98. News: Chautauqua will be in Corsicana June 14th to 20th. Corsicana Daily Sun. Corsicana, Texas. 4. May 10, 1928. August 22, 2014.
    News: Indian Chief will be feature coming Chautauqua here. Corsicana Daily Sun. Corsicana, Texas. 14. May 28, 1928. August 22, 2014.
    News: Chief Strongheart will be heard here coming Chautauqua. Corsicana Daily Sun. Corsicana, Texas. 16. June 8, 1928. August 22, 2014.
    News: Strongheart Yakima Chief Premier. Corsicana Daily Sun. Corsicana, Texas. 4. June 9, 1928. August 22, 2014 .
    News: Chief Strongheart tells story early of Indians. Corsicana Daily Sun. Corsicana, Texas. 16. June 12, 1928. August 22, 2014.
  99. News: Third Day; Night. Corsicana Daily Sun. Corsicana, Texas. 7. June 13, 1928. August 22, 2014.
    News: Zoom! Zoom! What's coming ... . The Cameron Herald. Cameron, Texas. 1. June 14, 1928. August 22, 2014. News: In the histories of ... . The Cameron Herald. Cameron, Texas. 4. June 14, 1928. August 22, 2014. News: Chautauqua High School Auditorium. Corsicana Daily Sun. Corsicana, Texas. 3. June 15, 1928. August 22, 2014. News: Indian leader is principal feature program Saturday. Corsicana Daily Sun. Corsicana, Texas. 3. June 18, 1928. August 22, 2014 .
  100. News: Strongheart pleads for Indians here. The Vernon Daily Record. Vernon, Texas. 1. July 9, 1928. August 22, 2014.
    News: Strongheart – continued from page 1. The Vernon Daily Record. Vernon, Texas. 4. July 9, 1928. August 22, 2014.
    News: Give the Indian a chance. The Vernon Daily Record. Vernon, Texas. 4. July 9, 1928. August 27, 2014.
  101. News: There will be ... . The Indiana Gazette. Indiana, Pennsylvania. 1. July 3, 1928. August 22, 2014.
  102. News: Club Women lay plans – Chief Strongheart to give program at Temple Oct 8. Lincoln Evening Journal. Lincoln, Nebraska. 6. September 25, 1928. August 22, 2014.
  103. News: Indian to speak. Reading Times. Reading, Pennsylvania. 10. February 6, 1929. August 22, 2014.
    News: The last of the number of the Lyceum course ... . The Scranton Republican. Scranton, Pennsylvania. 5. February 6, 1929. August 22, 2014.
    News: Woman's club to head American Indian at meeting today. Reading Times. Reading, Pennsylvania. 9. February 9, 1929. August 22, 2014.
    News: Woman's club favors almshouse improvements. Reading Times. Reading, Pennsylvania. 11. February 11, 1929. August 22, 2014.
    News: Schools to have Lyceum course. Reading Times. Reading, Pennsylvania. 19. September 22, 1928. August 22, 2014.
    News: Movie actor coming here – Chief Strongheart will give lecture in Willsborough February 23. The Wellsboro Gazette. Wellsboro, Pennsylvania. 1. February 13, 1929. August 22, 2014.
    News: Indian Chief speaks. Harrisburg Telegraph. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. 2. February 27, 1929. August 22, 2014.
    News: Interesting lecture. The Daily Notes. Canonsburg, Pennsylvania. 6. February 28, 1929. August 22, 2014.
  104. News: Indian Chief deplores failure of US to give citizenship to Red Men. Reading Times. Reading, Pennsylvania. 12. February 9, 1929. August 22, 2014.
  105. News: Indian Chief made address – interesting lecture by Chief Strongheart enjoyed by large audience. The Wellsboro Gazette. Wellsboro, Pennsylvania. 1. February 27, 1929. August 22, 2014.
  106. News: High school news. The Daily Notes. Canonsburg, Pennsylvania. 6. March 6, 1929. August 22, 2014.
  107. News: Chautauqua has same officials. The North Adams Transcript. North Adams, Massachusetts. 11. March 8, 1929. August 22, 2014.
  108. News: Chief Strongheart appears ... . Lincoln Evening Journal. Lincoln, Nebraska. 3. March 9, 1929. August 22, 2014.
  109. News: Chief Strongheart to give a lecture tonight. Joplin Globe. Joplin, Missouri. 3. March 19, 1929. August 22, 2014.
  110. News: There will be a big day for junior chautauquans ... . The Morning Herald. Uniontown, Pennsylvania. 3. May 8, 1929. August 22, 2014. News: Chautauqua Beaver, PA. The Daily Times. Beaver, PA. 4. June 17, 1929. August 25, 2014.
  111. News: Says Indian lacks chance – Strongheart, lecturer, sees unfairness in confinement to Reserves. Lincoln Evening Journal. Lincoln, Nebraska. 14. March 14, 1929. August 22, 2014.
  112. News: Official Program Portsmouth Redpath Chautauqua. Portsmouth Daily Times. Portsmouth, Ohio. 11. June 10, 1929. August 22, 2014.
    News: Chief Nipo Strongheart of the Yakima .... Portsmouth Daily Times. Portsmouth, Ohio. 15. June 17, 1929. August 22, 2014.
    News: Complete plan for Chautauqua. Wilmington News-Journal. Wilmington, Ohio. 8. June 21, 1929. August 22, 2014.
    News: Chautauqua brings Indian who starred in Picture, "Braveheart". Portsmouth Daily Times. Portsmouth, Ohio. 5. June 24, 1929. August 22, 2014. which is similar to Web site: Strongheart: an American. Circuit Chautauqua in the Twentieth Century. Iowa Digital Library. 1929. August 25, 2014. September 3, 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140903151440/http://digital.lib.uiowa.edu/cdm/ref/collection/tc/id/45131. dead.
    News: Zanesville Redpath Chautauqua. The Times Recorder. Zanesville, Ohio. 9. July 9, 1929. August 22, 2014.
    News: Aug 7 – Afternoon .... The Evening Review. East Liverpool, Ohio. 10. July 9, 1929. August 22, 2014.
    News: Chief Strongheart .... The Times Recorder. Zanesville, Ohio. 4. July 18, 1929. August 22, 2014.
  113. News: Indian chieftain seeks freedom in his own country. The Times Recorder. Zanesville, Ohio. 2. July 19, 1929. August 22, 2014.
  114. News: Lyceum course dates arranged. The North Adams Transcript. North Adams, Massachusetts. 16. June 13, 1929. August 22, 2014 .
  115. News: Chronology of local happenings (July) Chief Nipo Strongheart ... . The Coshocton Tribune. Coshocton, Ohio. 6. December 31, 1929. August 22, 2014.
    News: Building your Chautauqua program. The Morning Herald. Uniontown, Pennsylvania. 15 . July 27, 1929. August 22, 2014.
  116. News: Indian Chief on program at Chautauqua. The Morning Herald. Uniontown, Pennsylvania. 3. August 3, 1929. August 22, 2014.
  117. News: The program for Wednesday ... . The Evening Review. East Liverpool, Ohio. 3. August 6, 1929. August 22, 2014.
    News: Looking Back by Mary Allen; "40 yrs ago". The Bryan Times. Bryon Ohio. 3. August 20, 1969. August 22, 2014 .
  118. News: The mountain Indians' Carries; Two centuries before Captain Smith -"Entertains Chief". Reading Eagle. Reading, Pennsylvania. 19 (far right). March 2, 1930. August 22, 2014.
  119. News: Jewish Council lists program. The Milwaukee Journal. Milwaukee Wisconsin. August 18, 1929. 28. August 22, 2014. also in News: on March 11 ... . The Wisconsin Jewish Chronicle. Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 5. September 20, 1929. August 22, 2014 . News: Jewish Council to hear talk by Chieftain. The Milwaukee Sentinel. Milwaukee Wisconsin. 14. March 9, 1930. August 22, 2014.
  120. News: Indians holding congress. The Champion Chronicle. Champion, Alberta . 7. July 24, 1930. September 23, 2014.
  121. News: Indian Chief joins League: Nipo Strongheart, Yakima Leader, Speaks at Izaak Walton Gathering; Urges Game Protection. Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles, California. 6. October 26, 1929.
  122. News: Insull named in divorce trial. The Daily Plainsman. Huron, South Dakota. 6. April 21, 1933. August 22, 2014. News: Stronheart's ex-wife seeks deed to home. Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles, California. A5. May 2, 1933. News: Sad, sad ending of her venture in Indian romance. The Ogden Standard-Examiner. Ogden, Utah. 23. June 11, 1933. August 22, 2014 .
  123. News: Indian Chief will be church speaker. Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles, California. A9. April 27, 1931.
  124. News: L. V. McWhorter of Yakima ... . Woodland Daily Democrat. Woodland, California. 8. July 7, 1931. August 22, 2014.
  125. News: Indian's badge plea brings voting quiz. Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles, California. A2. August 25, 1931.
  126. News: Artcraft by Indians on display. Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles, California. A8. August 3, 1932.
  127. News: Library plans book and Indian art talks. Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles, California. A3. November 20, 1932.
  128. News: The assembly room of the Civic Club ... . The Evening News. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. 3. December 13, 1932. August 22, 2014.
  129. News: Patriotic Societies meet. Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles, California. B12. January 8, 1933.
  130. News: Mix, Biscailuz, Jessup at Scout Ceremony Here. Eagle Rock Advertiser. Eagle Rock, California. 1. April 6, 1933. September 23, 2014 .
  131. News: Little Theater to give 3 plays. Eagle Rock Advertiser. Eagle Rock, California. 6 sec B. May 4, 1933. September 13, 2014.
  132. News: Crowd of 5,000 at Kids Circus. Eagle Rock Advertiser. Eagle Rock, California. 1. August 31, 1933. September 13, 2014.
  133. News: Theosophical News and Notes . Covina Argus. Covina, California. 12. August 3, 1945. August 22, 2014 .
  134. News: Indian will speak on WKFL program . Press-Courier. Oxnard, California. 3. November 29, 1957. August 22, 2014.
  135. News: Baha'i Leader to speak tomorrow. Pasadena Independent. Pasadena, California. 83. October 17, 1963. August 19, 2014.
  136. News: Indian Chief to speak on Tribal Rites. Pasadena Independent. Pasadena, California. 4. May 9, 1964. August 22, 2014.
  137. News: Art Festival to be elaborate. Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles, California. 18. June 17, 1934.
  138. News: Pet Parade Opens Powwow. Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles, California. 10. August 28, 1936.
  139. Book: Joan Weibel-Orlando. Indian Country, L.A.: Maintaining Ethnic Community in Complex Society. 1999. University of Illinois Press. 978-0-252-06800-3. 84–85.
  140. News: In Hollywood by Paul Harrison . The Edwardsville Intelligencer. Edwardsville, Illinois. 4. October 12, 1936. August 22, 2014. News: Idaho graduate writes biography of famous leader of Nez Perces. Lewiston Tribune. Spokane Washington. ?. December 2, 1936. August 24, 2014. News: Was Red Napoleon master mind? Idahoan probes history for clue. Oregonian. ?. December 7, 1936. August 24, 2014.
  141. Book: Helen Addison Howard. Dan L. Mcgrath. War Chief Joseph. Assisted in the Research by Dan L. Mcgrath. Maps and Illustrations by George D. Mcgrath. 1941. University of Nebraska Press.
  142. Book: Helen Addison Howard. Saga of Chief Joseph. 1971. U of Nebraska Press. 0-8032-7202-2. 29, 86.
  143. Web site: Guide to the Lucullus Virgil McWhorter Papers 1848–1945. Washington State University Libraries – Manuscripts, Archives, and Special Collections. August 25, 2014 .
  144. News: Johnson. Erskine. Hollywood News and Gossip. The Morning Herald. Gloversville and Johnstown NY. 31a. October 12, 1936. August 30, 2014.
  145. Book: McWhorter , Lucullus Virgil . Lucullus Virgil McWhorter. Yellow Wolf His Own Story. The Caxton Printers, Ltd. 1940. Acknowledgements.
  146. News: News of the Studios – Nipo Strongheart. The New York Sun. New York, New York. 15, 2nd col. July 8, 1946. August 30, 2014 . News: Maxwell. Elsa. Elsa Maxwell's Week-end Round-up: The day of the premiere ... . New York Post. San Francisco, California. 8. July 20, 1946. August 30, 2014.
  147. Book: Walter E. Hurst. D. Richard Baer. Film Superlist: 1940–1949. March 1993. Hollywood Film Archive. 978-0-913616-27-7. 38.
  148. Web site: Anderson. Chuck. Nipo Strongheart and John War Eagle. The Indians; A tribute to the many Native Americans who toiled in the B-western and serial. August 26, 2014. News: Indians, Black Mare teaming to bring "Black Gold" to varsity. The Lincoln Star. Lincoln, Nebraska. 27. September 7, 1947. August 19, 2014 .
  149. News: MacPherson. Virginia. Stars are too skinny to arouse the interest of Indians, says Chief. Binghamton Press. Binghamton NY. 45. April 6, 1949. August 30, 2014.
  150. Book: American Film Institute. Afi: American Film Institute Catalog of Motion Pictures Produced in the United States : Feature Films 1941–1950 Indexes. 1999. University of California Press. 978-0-520-21521-4. 659–660.
  151. Book: Jane Ellen Wayne. The Leading Men of MGM. March 27, 2006. Da Capo Press, Incorporated. 978-0-7867-1768-2. 419.
  152. Encyclopedia: Young Daniel Boone. Production Encyclopedia (1947–1951). 495. The Hollywood Reporter. 1952. August 25, 2014 .
  153. News: Wood. James S.. RIP, Ricardo – The memorable Montalban. Eugene Weekly. February 24, 2012. August 25, 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140825232240/http://www.eugeneweekly.com/2009/01/22/views4. August 25, 2014 . News: Indian will give his lore to Gable. Buffalo Courier-Express. 15B, 6th col. July 9, 1950. August 30, 2014 .
  154. News: Strongheart will give talk to Methodists. The Ogden Standard-Examiner. Ogden, Utah. 8. June 22, 1924. August 23, 2014 .
  155. News: Indian Chief to visit local lodge Saturday. Schenectady Gazette. 5, col 1 below mid. November 12, 1926. August 29, 2014.
  156. News: Chief Strongheart speaks in Chapel. Daily Trojan, Vol. 17, No. 47. Los Angeles, California. 1, (bottom right). November 19, 1925. August 25, 2014.
  157. News: Tells story of Indian's life. Amsterdam Evening Recorder. Amsterdam NY. 2, left half. November 19, 1926. August 29, 2014.
  158. Book: Baháʼí World; A Biennial International Record. Bahai Publishing Committee. VII. April 1936 - 1938. 1939. 663. The Far West. https://archive.org/stream/bahaiworldvolvii029810mbp#page/n689/mode/2up/ .
  159. News: Great Council Fire. Baháʼí News. 17. National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of the United States. April 1963. 0195-9212. August 19, 2014 .
  160. News: Baha'i Conference on Papago Land in Arizona. Baháʼí News. 16. National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of the United States. April 1963. 0195-9212. August 19, 2014 .
  161. Baháʼís celebrate the twentieth anniversary of the United Nations. Baháʼí News. 6. 413. 7–9 (mentioned on page 8, mid-right). January 1966. 0195-9212. September 22, 2014.
  162. News: Works for Bahai faith . Port Angeles Evening News. Port Angeles, Washington. 6. October 18, 1965. August 26, 2014.
  163. The Proclamation of Baháʼu'lláh is presented to Indian Leaders. National Baháʼí Review. 19. 7. National Assembly of the Baháʼís of the United States. July 1969. August 26, 2014.
  164. News: June 19 opening for Indian center. The Spokesman-Review. Spokane Washington. 55 . March 4, 1980. August 26, 2014.
  165. The most recent mention of the cemetery is News: Yang. Mengni. Columbia man returns rare Native American artifact to Washington state museum. Columbia Missourian. Columbia, Missouri. January 8, 2012. October 25, 2014 . other older ones noting other cemetery is News: Strongheart to be buried by Yakimas. The Spokesman-Review. Spokane Washington. 1 . January 9, 1967. August 26, 2014.
  166. Book: Mary Dodds Schlick. Coming to Stay: A Columbia River Journey. 2006. Oregon Historical Society Press. 978-0-295-98670-8. 147–148.
  167. News: Memorial rites planned tonight for indian actor. Valley News. Van Nuys, California. 45. January 5, 1967. August 19, 2014. News: News shorts; (2nd) Los Angeles (AP). Lewiston Evening Journal. Lewiston-Auburn Maine. 9. September 28, 1967. August 26, 2014. News: Actor wills money for Indian museum. The Tuscaloosa News. Tascaloosa-Northport Alabama. 18. October 1, 1967. August 26, 2014. News: Chief Strongheart; Appeared in Movies. The Washington Post and Times-Herald. Washington, D.C.. C6. January 6, 1967.
  168. Variety Obituaries January 11, 1967
  169. News: Painting of First Indian Actor Unveiled . Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles, California. sf2. March 23, 1967.
  170. Ronnie Washines. Nipo Strongheart. video. NorthWest Indian news. Yakima Washington. August 2007.
  171. News: Coker Jr. Edward. Yakimas O.K. cultural center plans. The Spokesman-Review. Spokane Washington. 9. May 23, 1976. August 26, 2014.
  172. News: Yakimas gain new facility. Spokane Daily Chronicle. Spokane Washington. 32. July 19, 1978. August 26, 2014.
  173. News: Prater. Yvonne. Yakima Nation's center toured. Ellensburg Daily Record. Ellensburg Washington. 4 . April 12, 1979. August 26, 2014.
  174. Book: Mary Dodds Schlick. Columbia River Basketry: Gift of the Ancestors, Gift of the Earth. 1994. University of Washington Press. 978-0-295-97289-3. 191, 227.
  175. News: Yakimas gain new facility. Spokane Daily Chronicle. Spokane Washington. 2. July 19, 1978. August 26, 2014 . News: Indians build Cultural Center. Spokane Daily Chronicle. Spokane Washington. 7. March 4, 1980. August 26, 2014. News: June 19 opening for Indian center. The Spokesman-Review. Spokane Washington. 55. March 4, 1980. August 26, 2014.
  176. News: Arthur. Allison. Yakima Indian museum opened. Ellensburg Daily Record. Ellensburg Washington. 5. June 10, 1982. August 26, 2014.
  177. News: Yakama museum curator sentenced for artifact thefts. News from Indian Country (AP). Yakima, Washington. June 13, 2008. August 25, 2014. News: Yakama museum curator sentenced for artifact thefts. (AP) carried by MyNorthwest.com. online. June 6, 2008. August 30, 2014 .
  178. Anne Laure Bandle . Raphaël Contel . Marc-André Renold . Wasco Sally Bag – American dealer and Paul Cary and the Yakama Nation Museum. Platform ArThemis. 1–4. ART-LAW CENTRE – UNIVERSITY OF GENEVA. March 2012. September 1, 2014.
  179. Book: Michelle H. Raheja. Reservation Reelism: Redfacing, Visual Sovereignty, and Representations of Native Americans in Film. January 1, 2011. U of Nebraska Press. 978-0-8032-6827-2. 28, 153–154.
  180. News: Nowacki. Kim. Native American Film Festival – Preservation celebration. Yakima Herald-Republic. Yakima Washington. ?. November 10, 2006. https://web.archive.org/web/20140921200904/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-9635079.html. dead. September 21, 2014. August 26, 2014.
  181. News: Nowacki. Kim. Indian filmmakers getting their stories out. Yakima Herald-Republic. Yakima Washington. ?. November 9, 2007. https://web.archive.org/web/20140921200902/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-10208040.html. dead. September 21, 2014. August 26, 2014.
  182. News: Strongheart's experiences interesting. The Portsmouth Herald. Portsmouth, New Hampshire. 4. August 10, 1918. August 19, 2014 .
  183. News: Citizenship for Indians sought. Fitchburg Sentinel. Fitchburg, Massachusetts. 2. December 12, 1919. August 19, 2014.
  184. News: Citizenship for Indians sought – continued from page 2. Fitchburg Sentinel. Fitchburg, Massachusetts. 6. December 12, 1919. August 19, 2014.
  185. News: Big audience hears Chief Strongheart. The Huntington Herald. Huntington, Indiana. 3. March 1, 1921. August 19, 2014.
  186. News: Strongheart makes strong racial plea. Press-Courier. Oxnard, California. 1. April 21, 1921. August 19, 2014.
  187. Web site: Andrews. Sallie Cotter. Jane Zane Gordon. wyandotte-nation.org. August 27, 2014 .
  188. Web site: "Tommy" and "Shepherd of the Hills" / 1928 (quoting Waxahachie Daily Light June 21, 1928). Bayes-Yeager Online Archive of the Performing Arts, by Harold Lang. 1928. August 26, 2014. September 3, 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140903091606/http://www.performingartsarchive.com/Other-shows/Tommy-Shepherd_1928/Tommy-Shepherd_1928.htm. dead.
  189. Web site: A Brief History Of The Alabama-coushatta Tribe Of Texas. The Alabama-Coushatta Tribe of Texas. August 27, 2014. January 3, 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180103144129/http://www.alabama-coushatta.com/History/TribalHistory.aspx. dead., see also Book: Prairie View Malone. Sam Houston's Indians: The Alabama-Coushatti. 1960. Naylor Company.

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Nipo Strongheart".

Except where otherwise indicated, Everything.Explained.Today is © Copyright 2009-2024, A B Cryer, All Rights Reserved. Cookie policy.