Nile Explained

Nile River
Name Etymology:"The river"
Map:River Nile map.svg
Map Size:260px
Map Alt:inside river Nile map
Subdivision Type1:Countries
Subdivision Name1:Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi
Subdivision Type2:Major cities
Subdivision Name2:Jinja, Juba, Khartoum, Cairo
Discharge1 Location:Aswan, Egypt
Discharge2 Location:Cairo, Egypt
Discharge3 Location:Nile Delta, Egypt, Mediterranean Sea
Source1:White Nile
Source2:Blue Nile
Source2 Location:Lake Tana, Ethiopia
Mouth:Mediterranean Sea
Mouth Location:Nile Delta, Egypt
Mouth Elevation:Sea level
Tributaries Left:White Nile
Tributaries Right:Blue Nile, Atbara
Extra:
Wikidata:yes
Zoom:4
Height:250
Stroke-Width:1.5
Display:i

The Nile (also known as the Nile River) is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa. It flows into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile is the longest river in Africa. It has historically been considered the longest river in the world,[1] [2] though this has been contested by research suggesting that the Amazon River is slightly longer.[3] [4] Of the world's major rivers, the Nile is one of the smallest, as measured by annual flow in cubic metres of water.[5] About long, its drainage basin covers eleven countries: the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda, Kenya, Ethiopia, Eritrea, South Sudan, Sudan, and Egypt.[6] In particular, the Nile is the primary water source of Egypt, Sudan and South Sudan.[7] The Nile is an important economic driver supporting agriculture and fishing.

The Nile has two major tributaries: the White Nile and the Blue Nile. The White Nile is traditionally considered to be the headwaters stream. However, the Blue Nile is the source of most of the water of the Nile downstream, containing 80% of the water and silt. The White Nile is longer and rises in the Great Lakes region. It begins at Lake Victoria and flows through Uganda and South Sudan. The Blue Nile begins at Lake Tana in Ethiopia[8] and flows into Sudan from the southeast. The two rivers meet at the Sudanese capital of Khartoum.[9]

The northern section of the river flows north almost entirely through the Nubian Desert to Cairo and its large delta, and the river flows into the Mediterranean Sea at Alexandria. Egyptian civilization and Sudanese kingdoms have depended on the river and its annual flooding since ancient times. Most of the population and cities of Egypt lie along those parts of the Nile valley north of the Aswan Dam. Nearly all the cultural and historical sites of Ancient Egypt developed and are found along river banks. The Nile is, with the Rhône and Po, one of the three Mediterranean rivers with the largest water discharge.[10]

Etymology

The standard English names "White Nile" and "Blue Nile" refer to the river's source, derived from Arabic names formerly applied to only the Sudanese stretches that meet at Khartoum.

In the ancient Egyptian language, the Nile is called Ḥꜥpy (Hapy) or Jtrw (Iteru), meaning "river". In Coptic, the word ⲫⲓⲁⲣⲟ, pronounced piaro (Sahidic) or phiaro (Bohairic), means "the river" (lit. p(h).iar-o "the.canal-great"), and comes from the same ancient name.[11] In Nobiin, the river is called Áman Dawū, meaning "the great water". In Luganda, the river is called Kiira or Kiyira. In Runyoro, it is called Kihiira. In Egyptian Arabic, the Nile is called en-Nīl, while in Standard Arabic it is called an-Nīl. In Biblical Hebrew, it is, Ha-Ye'or or, Ha-Shiḥor.

The English name Nile and the Arabic names en-Nîl and an-Nîl both derive from the Latin Latin: Nilus and the Ancient Greek Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: Νεῖλος.[12] Beyond that, however, the etymology is disputed.[13] Homer called the river Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: Αἴγυπτος, Aiguptos, but in subsequent periods, Greek authors referred to its lower course as Neilos; this term became generalised for the entire river system.[14] Thus, the name may derive from Ancient Egyptian expression nꜣ rꜣw-ḥꜣw(t) (lit. 'the mouths of the front parts'), which referred specifically to the branches of the Nile transversing the Delta, and would have been pronounced ni-lo-he in the area around Memphis in the 8th century BCE.[14] Hesiod at his Theogony refers to Nilus (Νεῖλος) as one of the Potamoi (river gods), son of Oceanus and Tethys.[15]

Another derivation of Nile might be related to the term Nil (Sanskrit: नील|[[wikt:nila|nila]]; نيلة), which refers to Indigofera tinctoria, one of the original sources of indigo dye.[16] Another possible etymology derives from the Semitic term Nahal, meaning "river".[17] Old Libyan has the term lilu, meaning water (in modern Berber ilel ⵉⵍⴻⵍ means sea).[18]

Courses

With a total length of about between the region of Lake Victoria and the Mediterranean Sea, the Nile is among the longest rivers on Earth. The drainage basin of the Nile covers 3254555km2, about 10% of the area of Africa.[19] Compared to other major rivers, though, the Nile carries little water (5% of that of the Congo River, for example).[20] The Nile basin is complex, and because of this, the discharge at any given point along the main stem depends on many factors including weather, diversions, evaporation and evapotranspiration, and groundwater flow.

Upstream from Khartoum (to the south), the river is known as the White Nile, a term also used in a limited sense to describe the section between Lake No and Khartoum. At Khartoum, the river is joined by the Blue Nile. The White Nile starts in equatorial East Africa, and the Blue Nile begins in Ethiopia. Both branches are on the western flanks of the East African Rift.

Sources

The source of the Blue Nile is Lake Tana[21] in the Gish Abay region[22] in the Ethiopian Highlands.[23] [24]

The source of the White Nile, even after centuries of exploration, remains in dispute. The most remote source that is indisputably a source for the White Nile is the Kagera River; however, the Kagera has tributaries that are in contention for the farthest source of the White Nile. Two start in Burundi: the Ruvyironza River (also known as the Luvironza) and the Rurubu River.[25] In addition, in 2010, an exploration party in Rwanda[26] went to a place described as the source of the Rukarara tributary,[27] and by hacking a path up steep jungle-choked mountain slopes in the Nyungwe Forest found (in the dry season) an appreciable incoming surface flow for many kilometres upstream, and found a new source, giving the Nile a length of .

In Uganda

The White Nile leaves Lake Victoria at Ripon Falls near Jinja, Uganda, as the "Victoria Nile." It flows north for some 130km (80miles) to Lake Kyoga. The last part of the approximately 200km (100miles) river section starts from the western shores of the lake and flows at first to the west until just south of Masindi Port, where the river turns north, then makes a great half circle to the east and north to Karuma Falls. For the remaining part, it flows westerly through the Murchison Falls until it reaches the northern shores of Lake Albert where it forms a significant river delta. Lake Albert is on the border of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, but the Nile is not a border river at this point. After leaving Lake Albert, the river continues north through Uganda and is known as the Albert Nile.

In South Sudan

The White Nile flows into South Sudan just south of Nimule, where it is known as the Bahr al Jabal ("Mountain River"). Just south of the town is the confluence with the Achwa River. The Bahr al Ghazal, 716km (445miles) long, joins the Bahr al Jabal at a small lagoon called Lake No, after which the Nile becomes known as the Bahr al Abyad, or the White Nile, from the whitish clay suspended in its waters. When the Nile floods it leaves a rich silty deposit which fertilizes the soil. The Nile no longer floods in Egypt since the completion of the Aswan Dam in 1970. An anabranch river, the Bahr el Zeraf, flows out of the Nile's Bahr al Jabal section and rejoins the White Nile.

The flow rate of the Bahr al Jabal at Mongalla is almost constant throughout the year and averages . After Mongalla, the Bahr Al Jabal enters the enormous swamps of the Sudd region. More than half of the Nile's water is lost in this swamp to evaporation and transpiration. The average flow rate of the White Nile at the tails of the swamps is about . From here it meets with the Sobat River at Malakal. On an annual basis, the White Nile upstream of Malakal contributes about 15% of the total outflow of the Nile.[28]

The average flow of the White Nile at Lake Kawaki Malakal, just below the Sobat River, is ; the peak flow is approximately in October and minimum flow is about in April. This fluctuation is caused by the substantial variation in the flow of the Sobat, which has a minimum flow of about in March and a peak flow of over in October.[29] During the dry season (January to June) the White Nile contributes between 70% and 90% of the total discharge from the Nile.

In Sudan

Below Renk, the White Nile enters Sudan, it flows north to Khartoum and meets the Blue Nile.

The course of the Nile in Sudan is distinctive. It flows over six groups of cataracts, from the sixth at Sabaloka just north of Khartoum northward to Abu Hamad. The tectonic uplift of the Nubian Swell diverts the river south-west for over 300 km, following the structure of the Central African Shear Zone embracing the Bayuda Desert. At Al Dabbah it resumes its northward course towards the first cataract at Aswan forming the S-shaped Great Bend of the Nile[30] mentioned by Eratosthenes.[31]

In the north of Sudan, the river enters Lake Nasser (known in Sudan as Lake Nubia), the larger part of which is in Egypt.

In Egypt

Below the Aswan Dam, at the northern limit of Lake Nasser, the Nile resumes its historic course. North of Cairo, the Nile splits into two branches (or distributaries) that feed the Mediterranean: the Rosetta Branch to the west and the Damietta to the east, forming the Nile Delta.

Sediment transport

The annual sediment transport by the Nile in Egypt has been quantified.[32]

Tributaries

Red Nile

Below the confluence with the Blue Nile the only major tributary is the Atbarah River, also known as the Red Nile. Roughly halfway to the sea, it originates in Ethiopia north of Lake Tana, and is around 800km (500miles) long. The Atbarah flows only while there is rain in Ethiopia and dries very rapidly. During the dry period of January to June, it typically dries up north of Khartoum.

Blue Nile

See main article: Blue Nile. The Blue Nile (Amharic: ዓባይ, ʿĀbay[33] [34]) springs from Lake Tana in the Ethiopian Highlands. The Blue Nile flows about 1,400 kilometres to Khartoum, where the Blue Nile and White Nile join to form the Nile.[35] Ninety percent of the water and ninety-six percent of the transported sediment carried by the Nile[36] come from the Atbarah and Blue Nile, both of which originate in Ethiopia, with fifty-nine percent of the water coming from the Blue Nile. The erosion and transportation of silt only occurs during the Ethiopian rainy season when rainfall is especially high in the Ethiopian Highlands; the rest of the year, the great rivers draining Ethiopia into the Nile have a weaker flow. In harsh and arid seasons and droughts, the Blue Nile dries out completely.[37]

The flow of the Blue Nile varies considerably over its yearly cycle and is the main contribution to the large natural variation of the Nile flow. During the dry season the natural discharge of the Blue Nile can be as low as, although upstream dams regulate the flow of the river. During the wet season, the peak flow of the Blue Nile often exceeds in late August (a difference of a factor of 50).

Before the placement of dams on the river the yearly discharge varied by a factor of 15 at Aswan. Peak flows of over occurred during late August and early September, and minimum flows of about occurred during late April and early May.

Bahr el Ghazal and Sobat River

The Bahr al Ghazal and the Sobat River are the two most important tributaries of the White Nile in terms of discharge.

The Bahr al Ghazal's drainage basin is the largest of any of the Nile's sub-basins, measuring 520000km2 in size, but it contributes a relatively small amount of water, about annually, because tremendous volumes of water are lost in the Sudd wetlands.

The Sobat River, which joins the Nile a short distance below Lake No, drains about half as much land,, but contributes 412m3/s annually to the Nile.[38] When in flood the Sobat carries a large amount of sediment, adding greatly to the White Nile's color.[39]

Yellow Nile

The Yellow Nile is a former tributary that connected the Ouaddaï highlands of eastern Chad to the Nile River Valley to .[40] Its remains are known as the Wadi Howar. The wadi passes through Gharb Darfur near the northern border with Chad and meets up with the Nile near the southern point of the Great Bend.

History

The Nile has been the lifeline of civilization in Egypt since the Stone Age, with most of the population and all of the cities of Egypt developing along those parts of the Nile valley lying north of Aswan. However, the Nile used to run much more westerly through what is now Wadi Hamim and Wadi al Maqar in Libya and flow into the Gulf of Sidra.[41] As the sea level rose at the end of the most recent ice age, the stream which is now the northern Nile captured the ancestral Nile near Asyut.[42] This change in climate also led to the current extents of the Sahara desert, around 3400 BCE.[43]

Khufu branch

The Giza pyramid complex originally overlooked a branch of the Nile that no longer exists. This branch was highest during the African Humid Period.[44] [45]

Ancient Niles

The existing Nile has five earlier phases:

Flowing north from the Ethiopian Highlands, satellite imagery was used to identify dry watercourses in the desert to the west of the Nile. A canyon, now filled by surface drift, represents the Eonile that flowed during 23–5.3 million years before present. The Eonile transported clastic sediments to the Mediterranean; several natural gas fields have been discovered within these sediments.

During the late-Miocene Messinian salinity crisis, when the Mediterranean Sea was a closed basin and evaporated to the point of being empty or nearly so, the Nile cut its course down to the new base level until it was several hundred metres below world ocean level at Aswan and below Cairo.[48] [49] This created a very long and deep canyon which was filled with sediment after the Mediterranean was recreated.[50] At some point the sediments raised the riverbed sufficiently for the river to overflow westward into a depression to create Lake Moeris.

Lake Tanganyika drained northwards into the Nile until the Virunga Volcanoes blocked its course in Rwanda. The Nile was much longer at that time, with its furthest headwaters in northern Zambia. The currently existing Nile first flowed during the former parts of the Würm glaciation period.

Affad 23 is an archaeological site located in alluvial deposits formed by an ancient channel of the Nile in the Affad region of southern Dongola Reach, Sudan.[51]

Integrated Nile

There are two theories about the age of the integrated Nile. One is that the integrated drainage of the Nile is of young age and that the Nile basin was formerly broken into series of separate basins, only the most northerly of which fed a river following the present course of the Nile in Egypt and Sudan. Rushdi Said postulates that Egypt supplied most of the waters of the Nile during the early part of its history.[52]

The other theory is that the drainage from Ethiopia via rivers equivalent to the Blue Nile, the Atbara and the Takazze flowed to the Mediterranean via the Egyptian Nile since well back into Tertiary times.[53]

Salama suggests that during the Paleogene and Neogene Periods (66 million to 2.588 million years ago) a series of separate closed continental basins each occupied one of the major parts of the Sudanese Rift System: Mellut rift, White Nile rift, Blue Nile rift, Atbara rift and Sag El Naam rift.[54] The Mellut Basin is nearly 12sp=usNaNsp=us deep at its central part. This rift is possibly still active, with reported tectonic activity in its northern and southern boundaries. The Sudd swamp which forms the central part of the basin may still be subsiding. The White Nile Rift system, although shallower than the Bahr el Arab rift, is about 9sp=usNaNsp=us deep. Geophysical exploration of the Blue Nile Rift System estimated the depth of the sediments to be 5–. These basins were not interconnected until their subsidence ceased, and the rate of sediment deposition was enough to fill and connect them.

The Egyptian Nile connected to the Sudanese Nile, which captures the Ethiopian and Equatorial headwaters during the current stages of tectonic activity in the Eastern, Central and Sudanese Rift systems.[55] The connection of the different Niles occurred during cyclic wet periods. The Atbarah overflowed its closed basin during the wet periods that occurred about 100,000 to 120,000 years ago. The Blue Nile connected to the main Nile during the 70,000–80,000 years B.P. wet period. The White Nile system in Bahr El Arab and White Nile Rifts remained a closed lake until the connection of the Victoria Nile to the main system some 12,500 years ago during the African humid period.

Role in the founding of Egyptian civilization

See also: Ancient Egyptian agriculture. The Greek historian Herodotus wrote that "Egypt was the gift of the Nile". An unending source of sustenance, it played a crucial role in the development of Egyptian civilization. Because the river overflowed its banks annually and deposited new layers of silt, the surrounding land was very fertile. The Ancient Egyptians cultivated and traded wheat, flax, papyrus and other crops around the Nile. Wheat was a crucial crop in the famine-plagued Middle East. This trading system secured Egypt's diplomatic relationships with other countries and contributed to economic stability. Far-reaching trade has been carried on along the Nile since ancient times. A tune, Hymn to the Nile, was created and sung by the ancient Egyptian peoples about the flooding of the Nile River and all of the miracles it brought to Ancient Egyptian civilization.[56]

Water buffalo were introduced from Asia, and the Assyrians introduced camels in the 7th century BCE. These animals were raised for meat and were domesticated and used for ploughing—or in the camels' case, carriage. Water was vital to both people and livestock. The Nile was also a convenient and efficient means of transportation for people and goods.

The Nile was also an important part of ancient Egyptian spiritual life. Hapi was the god of the annual floods, and both he and the pharaoh were thought to control the flooding. The Nile was considered to be a causeway from life to death and the afterlife. The east was thought of as a place of birth and growth, and the west was considered the place of death, as the god Ra, the Sun, underwent birth, death, and resurrection each day as he crossed the sky. Thus, all tombs were west of the Nile, because the Egyptians believed that in order to enter the afterlife, they had to be buried on the side that symbolized death.

As the Nile was such an important factor in Egyptian life, the ancient calendar was even based on the three cycles of the Nile. These seasons, each consisting of four months of thirty days each, were called Akhet, Peret, and Shemu. Akhet, which means inundation, was the time of the year when the Nile flooded, leaving several layers of fertile soil behind, aiding in agricultural growth.[57] Peret was the growing season, and Shemu, the last season, was the harvest season when there were no rains.

European search for the source

Owing to their failure to penetrate the Sudd wetlands of South Sudan, the upper reaches of the White Nile remained largely unknown to the ancient Greeks and Romans. Vitruvius thought that source of the Nile was in Mauritania, on the "other" (south) side of the Atlas Mountains.[58] Various expeditions failed to determine the river's source. Agatharchides records that in the time of Ptolemy II Philadelphus, a military expedition had penetrated far enough along the course of the Blue Nile to determine that the summer floods were caused by heavy seasonal rainstorms in the Ethiopian Highlands, but no European of antiquity is known to have reached Lake Tana. The Tabula Rogeriana depicted the source as three lakes in 1154.

Europeans began to learn about the origins of the Nile in the 14th century when the Pope sent monks as emissaries to Mongolia who passed India, the Middle East and Africa, and described being told of the source of the Nile in Abyssinia (Ethiopia).[59] Later in the 15th and 16th centuries, travelers to Ethiopia visited Lake Tana and the source of the Blue Nile in the mountains south of the lake. Supposedly, Paolo Trevisani (–1483), a Venetian traveller in Ethiopia, wrote a journal of his travels to the origin of the Nile that has since been lost.[60] [61] Although James Bruce claimed to be the first European to have visited the headwaters,[62] modern writers give the credit to the Jesuit Pedro Páez. Páez's account of the source of the Nile[63] is a long and vivid account of Ethiopia. It was published in full only in the early 20th century, although it was featured in works of Páez's contemporaries, including Baltazar Téllez,[64] Athanasius Kircher[65] and Johann Michael Vansleb.[66]

Europeans had been resident in Ethiopia since the late 15th century, and one of them may have visited the headwaters even earlier without leaving a written trace. The Portuguese João Bermudes published the first description of the Tis Issat Falls in his 1565 memoirs, compared them to the Nile Falls alluded to in Cicero's De Republica.[67] Jerónimo Lobo describes the source of the Blue Nile, visiting shortly after Pedro Páez. Telles also uses his account.

The White Nile was even less understood. The ancients mistakenly believed that the Niger River represented the upper reaches of the White Nile. For example, Pliny the Elder writes that the Nile had its origins "in a mountain of lower Mauretania", flowed above ground for "many days" distance, then went underground, reappeared as a large lake in the territories of the Masaesyli, then sank again below the desert to flow underground "for a distance of 20 days' journey till it reaches the nearest Ethiopians."[68]

Modern exploration of the Nile basin began with the conquest of the northern and central Sudan by the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt, Muhammad Ali, and his sons from 1821 onward. As a result of this, the Blue Nile was known as far as its exit from the Ethiopian foothills and the White Nile as far as the mouth of the Sobat River. Three expeditions under a Turkish officer, Selim Bimbashi, were made between 1839 and 1842, and two got to the point about 30-1NaN-1 beyond the present port of Juba, where the country rises and rapids make navigation very difficult.

Lake Victoria was first sighted by Europeans in 1858 when British explorer John Hanning Speke reached its southern shore while traveling with Richard Francis Burton to explore central Africa and locate the great lakes. Believing he had found the source of the Nile on seeing this "vast expanse of open water" for the first time, Speke named the lake after Queen Victoria. Burton, recovering from illness and resting further south on the shores of Lake Tanganyika, was outraged that Speke claimed to have proven his discovery to be the true source of the Nile when Burton regarded this as still unsettled. A quarrel ensued which sparked intense debate within the scientific community and interest by other explorers keen to either confirm or refute Speke's discovery. British explorer and missionary David Livingstone pushed too far west and entered the Congo River system instead. It was ultimately Welsh-American explorer Henry Morton Stanley who confirmed Speke's discovery, circumnavigating Lake Victoria and reporting the great outflow at Ripon Falls on the lake's northern shore.

Since 1950

The Nile has long been used to transport goods along its length. Winter winds blow south, up river, so ships could sail up river using sails and down river using the flow of the river. While most Egyptians still live in the Nile valley, the 1970 completion of the Aswan Dam ended the summer floods and their renewal of the fertile soil, fundamentally changing farming practices. The Nile supports much of the population living along its banks, enabling Egyptians to live in otherwise inhospitable regions of the Sahara. The river's flow is disturbed at several points by the Cataracts of the Nile which form an obstacle to navigation by boats. The Sudd also forms a formidable navigation obstacle and impedes water flow, to the extent that Sudan had once attempted to build the Jonglei Canal to bypass the swamp.[69] [70]

Nile cities include Khartoum, Aswan, Luxor (Thebes), and the GizaCairo conurbation. The first cataract, the closest to the mouth of the river, is at Aswan, north of the Aswan Dam. This part of the river is a regular tourist route, with cruise ships and traditional wooden sailing boats known as feluccas. Many cruise ships ply the route between Luxor and Aswan, stopping at Edfu and Kom Ombo along the way. Security concerns have limited cruising on the northernmost portion for many years.

A computer simulation study to plan the economic development of the Nile was directed by H.A.W. Morrice and W.N. Allan, for the Ministry of Hydro-power of Sudan, during 1955–57[71] [72] [73] Morrice was their hydrological adviser, and Allan his predecessor. The calculations were enabled by accurate monthly inflow data collected for 50 years. The underlying principle was the use of over-year storage, to conserve water from rainy years for use in dry years. Irrigation, navigation and other needs were considered. Each computer run postulated a set of reservoirs and operating equations for the release of water as a function of the month and the levels upstream. The behavior that would have resulted given the inflow data was modeled. Over 600 models were run. Recommendations were made to the Sudanese authorities. The calculations were run on an IBM 650 computer. Simulation studies to design water resources are discussed further in the article on hydrology transport models, which have been used since the 1980s to analyze water quality.

Despite the development of many reservoirs, drought during the 1980s led to widespread starvation in Ethiopia and Sudan, but Egypt was nourished by water impounded in Lake Nasser. Drought has proven to be a major cause of fatality in the Nile river basin. According to a report by the Strategic Foresight Group, droughts in the last century have affected around 170 million people and killed half a million people.[74] From the 70 incidents of drought which took place between 1900 and 2012, 55 incidents took place in Ethiopia, Sudan, South Sudan, Kenya and Tanzania.

Water sharing dispute

The Nile's water has affected the politics of East Africa and the Horn of Africa for many decades. The dispute between Egypt and Ethiopia over the $4.5 billion Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam has become a national preoccupation in both countries, stoking patriotism, deep-seated fears and even murmurs of war.[75] Countries including Uganda, Sudan, Ethiopia and Kenya have complained about Egyptian domination of its water resources. The Nile Basin Initiative promotes a peaceful cooperation among those states.[76] [77]

Several attempts have been made to establish agreements between the countries sharing the Nile waters. On 14 May 2010 at Entebbe, Uganda, Ethiopia, Rwanda, and Tanzania signed a new agreement on sharing the Nile water even though this agreement raised strong opposition from Egypt and Sudan. Ideally, such international agreements should promote equitable and efficient usage of the Nile basin's water resources. Without a better understanding about the availability of the future water resources of the Nile, it is possible that conflicts could arise between these countries relying on the Nile for their water supply, economic and social developments.

Modern achievements and exploration

White Nile

In 1951, American John Goddard together with two French explorers became the first to successfully navigate the entire Nile from its source in Burundi at the potential headsprings of the Kagera River in Burundi to its mouth on the Mediterranean Sea, a journey of approximately . Their 9-month journey is described in the book Kayaks down the Nile.[78]

The White Nile Expedition, led by South African national Hendrik Coetzee, navigated the White Nile's entire length of approximately 3700km (2,300miles). The expedition began at the White Nile's beginning at Lake Victoria in Uganda, on 17 January 2004 and arrived at the Mediterranean in Rosetta, four and a half months later.[79]

Blue Nile

The Blue Nile Expedition, led by geologist Pasquale Scaturro and his partner, kayaker and documentary filmmaker Gordon Brown became the first known people to descend the entire Blue Nile, from Lake Tana in Ethiopia to the beaches of Alexandria on the Mediterranean. Their approximately 5230km (3,250miles) journey took 114 days, from 25 December 2003 to 28 April 2004. Though their expedition included others, Brown and Scaturro were the only ones to complete the entire journey.[80] Although they descended whitewater manually, the team used outboard motors for much of their journey.

On 29 January 2005, Canadian Les Jickling and New Zealander Mark Tanner completed the first human-powered transit of Ethiopia's Blue Nile. Their journey of over 5000km (3,000miles) took five months. They recount that they paddled through two war zones, regions notorious for bandits, and were arrested at gunpoint.[81]

Crossings

Crossings from Khartoum to the Mediterranean Sea

The following bridges cross the Blue Nile and connect Khartoum to Khartoum North:

The following bridges cross the White Nile and connect Khartoum to Omdurman:

The following bridges cross from Omdurman: to Khartoum North:

The following bridges cross to Tuti from Khartoum state's three cities

Other bridges

Crossings from Jinja, Uganda to Khartoum

See also

Notes and references

Notes
  • References
  • Sources

    • Further reading

    External links

    Notes and References

    1. Encyclopedia: Nile River . . https://web.archive.org/web/20150429130526/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/415347/Nile-River . 29 April 2015 . live .
    2. Liu . Shaochuang . Lu . P . Liu . D . Jin . P . Wang . W . 1 March 2009 . Pinpointing the sources and measuring the lengths of the principal rivers of the world . Int. J. Digital Earth . 2 . 1 . 80–87 . 2009IJDE....2...80L . 10.1080/17538940902746082 . 27548511 . 23 December 2018 . 23 December 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181223211543/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/220473241_Pinpointing_the_sources_and_measuring_the_lengths_of_the_principal_rivers_of_the_world . live .
    3. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/06/070619-amazon-river.html Amazon Longer Than Nile River, Scientists Say
    4. Web site: How Long Is the Amazon River? . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20181224171204/https://www.britannica.com/story/how-long-is-the-amazon-river . 24 December 2018 . 24 December 2018 . Encyclopedia Britannica .
    5. Book: Said, R . The Geological Evolution of the River Nile . 6 December 2012 . Springer . 9781461258414 . New York . 2012 . 4 . 23 May 2021 . Google .
    6. Oloo . Adams . 2007 . The Quest for Cooperation in the Nile Water Conflicts: A Case for Eritrea . live . African Sociological Review . 11 . 1 . 10.4314/asr.v11i1.51447 . https://web.archive.org/web/20110927144920/http://www.codesria.org/IMG/pdf/07_Oloo.pdf . 27 September 2011 . 25 July 2011 .
    7. Elsanabary . Mohamed Helmy Mahmoud Moustafa . Teleconnection, Modeling, Climate Anomalies Impact and Forecasting of Rainfall and Streamflow of the Upper Blue Nile River Basin . PhD . . 10.7939/R3377641M . 2012 . Canada . 10402/era.28151 .
    8. The river's outflow from that lake occurs at 12.0358°N 37.2647°W
    9. News: What's the Blue Nile and the White Nile? . The Times of India . live . 31 July 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170308001739/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/sunday-times/Whats-the-Blue-Nile-and-the-White-Nile/articleshow/4027990.cms . 8 March 2017 .
    10. Book: Mediterranean Basin Water Atlas . . Margat, Jean F. . 2004 . 4 . 9782951718159 . A basin of varied geometry: Area of the entire Mediterranean Basin, including the whole of the Nile Basin = 4,562,480 km2; Area of the 'conventional' Mediterranean Basin (i.e. counting only part of the Nile Basin in Egypt) = 1,836,480 km2 [...] There are few rivers with an abundant flow. Only three rivers have a mean discharge of more than 1000 m3/s: the Nile (at Aswan), the Rhône and the Po. . 18 May 2022 . 1 January 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240101145323/https://books.google.com/books?id=n5CGAAAAIAAJ . live .
    11. Book: Daniel Hillel . The Natural History of the Bible: An Environmental Exploration of the Hebrew Scriptures . Columbia University Press . 2007 . 978-0-231-13363-0 . 88 .
    12. Book: Oxford English Dictionary . Oxford English Dictionary . . 2009 . 3rd . Oxford . Nile .
    13. An overview is given by: Carles Múrcia (2006). http://www.aulaorientalis.org/AuOr%20escaneado/AuOr%2025-2007/AuOr%2025-2007-2/2/U-2-5-Murcia-Nil-amazic.pdfGreek, Modern (1453-);: Νεῖλος : El nom grec del riu Nil pot ser d'origen amazic? Aula Orientalis 24: 269–292
    14. Hans Goedicke . Spring 1979 . Νεῖλος - An Etymology . The American Journal of Philology . 100 . 69–72 . 10.2307/294226 . 294226 . 1 .
    15. "Τηθὺς δ᾽ Ὠκεανῷ Ποταμοὺς τέκε δινήεντας,
      Νεῖλόν τ᾽ Ἀλφειόν τε καὶ Ἠριδανὸν βαθυδίνην" (Hesiod, "Theogony", 337–338).
    16. Web site: Marijke Eken . 2012 . The origin of the word INDIGO and ANILA . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20180725153255/http://www.mekenart.com/CMS/docs/7208_1368446952.pdf . 25 July 2018 . 25 July 2018 . mekenart.com .
    17. Encyclopedia: Nile . Online Etymology Dictionary . 20 January 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130308080503/http://etymonline.com/index.php?term=Nile&allowed_in_frame=0 . 8 March 2013 . live .
    18. Werner Vycichl . January–December 1972 . L'origine du nom du Nil, Aegyptus . Vita e Pensiero . fr . Pubblicazioni dell'Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore . 52 . 8–18 . 1/4 .
    19. Web site: EarthTrends: The Environmental Information Portal . https://web.archive.org/web/20120527111237/http://earthtrends.wri.org/maps_spatial/maps_detail_static.php?map_select=299&theme=2 . dead . 27 May 2012 .
    20. Web site: 20 March 2019 . Bridging the Gap in the Nile Waters Dispute . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20190418073900/https://www.crisisgroup.org/africa/horn-africa/ethiopia/271-bridging-gap-nile-waters-dispute . 18 April 2019 . 6 April 2019 . Crisis Group .
    21. Book: Vijverberg . Jacobus . https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4020-9726-3_9 . Lake Tana: Source of the Blue Nile, in, The Nile . Sibbing . Ferdinand A. . Dejen . Eshete . Lake Tana: Source of the Blue Nile . Springer . 978-1-4020-9726-3 . Monographiae Biologicae . 2009 . 89 . 163–192 . Dordrecht . 10.1007/978-1-4020-9726-3_9 . 292 . 23 May 2021 . https://archive.today/20210523211656/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4020-9726-3_9%23citeas . 23 May 2021 . .
    22. Haile . A T . Rientjes . T H M . Habib . E . Jetten . V . Gebremichael . M . 24 March 2011 . Rain event properties at the source of the Blue Nile River . Hydrology and Earth System Sciences . 15 . 3 . 1023–1034 . 2011HESS...15.1023H . 10.5194/hess-15-1023-2011 . 23 May 2021 . free . 23 May 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210523214122/https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/15/1023/2011/ . live .
    23. Web site: Malone . Barry . 9 December 2013 . Next on Egypt's to-do: Ethiopia and the Nile . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20131209221555/http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2013/12/next-egypt-do-ethiopia-nile-201312872410501805.html . 9 December 2013 . Aljazeera .
    24. Book: Morbach . M . https://books.google.com/books?id=rEa9BAAAQBAJ&dq=Luvironza+River+source+of+Nile&pg=PA600 . Supporting the Development of Efficient and Effective River Basin Organisations in Africa: What Steps Can Be Taken to Improve Transboundary Water Cooperation Between Riparian States of the Nile? . Nile River Basin Ecohydrological Challenges, Climate Change and Hydropolitics . Ribbe . Lars . Pedroso . Lui . 2014 . Springer International Publishing . 9783319027203 . Melesse . Assefa M. . 13 February 2014 . 600 . 23 May 2021 . Setegn . Shimelis G. . Abtew . Wossenu . https://archive.today/20210523203455/https://paste.pics/41768bbd88a96572dcba6c609e71d6ce . 23 May 2021 .
    25. Web site: Aziz, Yehia Abdel . Irrigation Management Transfer: Development and Turnover to Private Water User Associations in Egypt . https://archive.today/20210523195629/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/6764832.pdf . 23 May 2021 . 23 May 2021 . core.ac.uk, USAID·assisted Irrigation Improvement Project. Ministry of Public Works and Water Resources (MPWWR), Cairo, Egypt .
    26. Described in Joanna Lumley's Nile, 7 pm to 8 pm, ITV, 12 August 2011.
    27. News: Journey to the source of the Nile . The Telegraph . live . 6 September 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120503050656/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/activityandadventure/734885/Journey-to-the-source-of-the-Nile.html . 3 May 2012 . subscription .
    28. Web site: Hurst H.E. . etal . 2011 . The Nile Basins |volume 1 The Hydrology of the Blue Nile and Akbara and the Main Nile to Aswan, with some Reference to the Projects Nile control Dept. paper 12 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20110726172514/http://www.ielrc.org/content/a0509.pdf . 26 July 2011 . Government Printing office . Cairo .
    29. Book: J. V. Sutcliffe & Y.P. Parks . The Hydrology of the Nile . IAHS Special Publication no. 5 . 1999 . 161 . 12 . http://iahs.info/bluebooks/SP005/BB_005_0161.pdf . https://web.archive.org/web/20101124102107/http://iahs.info/bluebooks/SP005/BB_005_0161.pdf . 24 November 2010 . dead .
    30. Stern . Robert J. . Abdelsalam . Mohamed Gamal . 1996 . The Origin of the Great Bend of the Nile from SIR-C/X-SAR Imaginary . Science . 274 . 5293 . 1696–1698 . 1996Sci...274.1696S . 10.1126/science.274.5293.1696 . 8939856 . 30460159 .
    31. Web site: LacusCurtius • Strabo's Geography — Book XVII Chapter 1 (§§ 1‑10) . penelope.uchicago.edu . 19 February 2021 . 13 October 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231013061712/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/17A1%2A.html . live .
    32. Hanibal Lemma . and colleagues . 2019 . Bedload transport measurements in the Gilgel Abay River, Lake Tana Basin, Ethiopia (Table 7) . Journal of Hydrology . 577 . 123968 . 10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.123968 . 199099061 .
    33. [United States Board on Geographic Names|BGN]
    34. See also: romanization.
    35. Encyclopedia: Blue Nile River river, Africa . Encyclopedia Britannica . 31 July 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170801185437/https://www.britannica.com/place/Blue-Nile-River . 1 August 2017 . live .
    36. Marshall et al.,Web site: Late Pleistocene and Holocene environmental and climatic change from Lake Tana, source of the Blue Nile . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20060928124412/http://www.holivar2006.org/abstracts/pdf/T1-026.pdf . 28 September 2006 . 30 September 2006 .
    37. Web site: 26 April 2013 . Two Niles Meet : Image of the Day . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20170415093951/https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=81186 . 15 April 2017 . 31 July 2017 . earthobservatory.nasa.gov .
    38. Book: Shahin, Mamdouh . Hydrology and Water Resources of Africa . Springer . 2002 . 1-4020-0866-X . 276, 287–288 . 25 July 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150905222900/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmdYFTlcSgEC . 5 September 2015 . live .
    39. Encyclopedia: Sobat River . Encyclopædia Britannica Online Library Edition . . 21 January 2008 .
    40. Book: Keding, B. . 2000 . New data on the Holocene occupation of the Wadi Howar region (Eastern Sahara/Sudan) . Recent research into the Stone Age of Northeastern Africa . L. . Krzyzaniak . K. . Kroeper . M. . Kobusiewicz . Studies in African Archaeology . 7 . Poznań . Poznań Archaeological Museum . 89–104 . 83-907529-6-4 .
    41. Carmignani, Luigi . Salvini, Riccardo . Bonciani, Filippo . 2009 . Did the Nile River flow to the Gulf of Sirt during the late Miocene? . Bollettino della Societa Geologica Italiana (Italian Journal of Geoscience) . 128 . 2 . 403–408 . 10.3301/IJG.2009.128.2.403 . 31 January 2024 .
    42. Salvini, Riccardo . Carmignani, Luigi . Francionib, Mirko . Casazzaa, Paolo . 2015 . Elevation modelling and palaeo-environmental interpretation in the Siwa area (Egypt): Application of SAR interferometry and radargrammetry to COSMO-SkyMed imagery . Catena . 129 . 46–62 . 10.1016/j.catena.2015.02.017 . 2015Caten.129...46S . free . 10871/20327 .
    43. Although the ancestral Sahara Desert initially developed at least 7 million years ago, it grew during interglacial periods and shrank during glacial ones. The growth of the current Sahara began about 6,000 years ago. Schuster, Mathieu . etal . 2006 . The age of the Sahara desert . Science . 311 . 5762 . 821 . 10.1126/science.1120161 . 16469920 . 206508108 .
    44. Sheisha, Hader . 2022 . Nile waterscapes facilitated the construction of the Giza pyramids during the 3rd millennium BCE . PNAS . 119 . 37 . e2202530119 . 10.1073/pnas.2202530119 . free . 36037388 . 9477388 . 2022PNAS..11902530S .
    45. Web site: Solis-Moreira . Jocelyn . A dried-up arm of the Nile provides another clue to how Egyptians built the pyramids . Popular Science . 31 August 2022 . 2 September 2022 .
    46. Book: Said, Rushdi . The River Nile Geology, Hydrology and Utilization . 22 October 2013 . Elsevier Science . 9781483287683 . 22 October 2013 . 1993 . 1 . Ebook . Rushdi Said . 23 May 2021 . 30 May 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230530130718/https://books.google.com/books?id=ekjgBAAAQBAJ&q=Nile . live .
    47. Book: Said, R . The Nile, Biology of an Ancient River . Springer . 1976 . 978-94-010-1563-9 . Rzóska . J. . Monographiae Biologicae . 29 . Dordrecht . 1976 . 2 . The Geological Evolution of the River Nile in Egypt . 10.1007/978-94-010-1563-9_1 . 23 May 2021 . https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-94-010-1563-9_1 . https://archive.today/20210523173149/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-010-1563-9_1%23citeas . 23 May 2021 . .
    48. Book: Warren, John . Evaporites: Sediments, Resources and Hydrocarbons . Springer . 2006 . 3-540-26011-0 . Berlin . 352 . registration .
    49. El Mahmoudi . A. . Gabr . A. . 2008 . Geophysical surveys to investigate the relation between the Quaternary Nile channels and the Messinian Nile canyon at East Nile Delta, Egypt . Arabian Journal of Geosciences . 2 . 1 . 53–67 . 10.1007/s12517-008-0018-9 . 1866-7511 . 128432827 .
    50. Book: Embabi, N.S. . Landscapes and Landforms of Egypt . 2018 . 978-3-319-65659-5 . World Geomorphological Landscapes . 39–45 . Remarkable Events in the Life of the River Nile . 10.1007/978-3-319-65661-8_4 . 1866-7538 . https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-65661-8 . 4 February 2020 . 4 February 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200204215026/https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-65661-8 . live .
    51. Osypiński . Piotr . Osypińska . Marta . Gautier . Achilles . Affad 23, a Late Middle Palaeolithic Site With Refitted Lithics and Animal Remains in the Southern Dongola Reach, Sudan . Journal of African Archaeology . 2011 . 9 . 2 . 177–188 . 10.3213/2191-5784-10186 . 1612-1651 . 7787802958 . 43135549 . 161078189 . 12 September 2023 . 1 August 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230801080857/https://www.jstor.org/stable/43135549 . live . subscription .
    52. Said, R. (1981). The geological evolution of the River Nile. Springer Verlag.
    53. Williams, M.A.J.; Williams, F. (1980). Evolution of Nile Basin. In M.A.J. Williams and H. Faure (eds). The Sahara and the Nile. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 207–224.
    54. Salama, R.B. . 1987 . The evolution of the River Nile, The buried saline rift lakes in Sudan . Journal of African Earth Sciences . 6 . 6 . 899–913 . 10.1016/0899-5362(87)90049-2 .
    55. Salama, R.B. (1997). Rift Basins of Sudan. African Basins, Sedimentary Basins of the World. 3. Edited by R.C. Selley (Series Editor K.J. Hsu) pp. 105–149. ElSevier, Amsterdam.
    56. Web site: Halsall . Paul . May 1998 . Hymn To The Nile . 20 November 2016 . Fordham University .
    57. Book: Springer . Lisa . Art and Culture of Ancient Egypt . Neil Morris . The Rosen Publishing Group . 2010 . 978-1-4358-3589-4 . 8 .
    58. Vitruvius, de Architectura, VII.2.7.
    59. Book: Yule, Henry . Sir Henry Yule, Cathay and the way thither: being a collection of medieval notices of China Vol. II (1913–16) . Hakluyt Society . London . 209–269 . 18 December 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190122140845/http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/marignolli.html . 22 January 2019 . live .
    60. https://books.google.com/books?id=hg5BAQAAMAAJ Dizionario biografico universale
    61. https://books.google.com/books?id=l3cvAQAAMAAJ Ten Centuries of European Progress
    62. [Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile]
    63. History of Ethiopia, circa 1622
    64. Historia geral da Ethiopia a Alta, 1660
    65. Mundus Subterraneus, 1664
    66. The Present State of Egypt, 1678.
    67. S. Whiteway, editor and translator, The Portuguese Expedition to Abyssinia in 1441–1543, 1902. (Nendeln, Liechtenstein: Kraus Reprint, 1967), p. 241. Referring to Cicero, De Republica, 6.19 .
    68. Natural History, 5.(10).51
    69. Book: Shahin, Mamdouh . Hydrology and Water Resources of Africa . Springer . 2002 . 1-4020-0866-X . 286–287 . 25 July 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150905222900/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmdYFTlcSgEC . 5 September 2015 . live .
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    73. D.F. Manzer and M.P. Barnett, Analysis by Simulation: Programming Techniques for a High-Speed Digital Computer, in Arthur Maas et al., Design of Water Resource Systems, pp. 324–390, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1962.
    74. http://www.strategicforesight.com/publication_pdf/11374Nile%20concise.pdf Blue Peace for the Nile, 2009
    75. News: Walsh . Decian . 9 February 2020 . For Thousands of Years, Egypt Controlled the Nile. A New Dam Threatens That . . live . 10 February 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200210015121/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/02/09/world/africa/nile-river-dam.html . 10 February 2020 .
    76. Web site: The Nile Basin Initiative . https://web.archive.org/web/20070627132253/http://www.nilebasin.org/aboutUs.htm . dead . 27 June 2007 .
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    78. [National Geographic Society|National Geographic]
    79. [National Geographic Society|National Geographic]
    80. They chronicled their adventure with an IMAX camera and two handheld video cams, sharing their story in the IMAX film Mystery of the Nile released in 2005, and in a book of the same title.
    81. Mark Tanner, Paddling the Blue Nile in Flood . Retrieved 1 November 2014
    82. ((Policy Assessment, Consultancy & Training (PACT))) . August 2010 . Socio-Economic Study of Business Opportunities and Support Services for DDR Participants in Khartoum State . United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) . 223 . 26 February 2024 . 26 February 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240226173441/https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/migration/arabstates/Socioeconomic-DDR-Khartoum-State-V1---W2003--30September2010.pdf . live .
    83. Web site: The battle over Khartoum's bridges . Dabanga Radio TV Online . 14 November 2023 . 26 February 2024 . 10 August 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240810092505/https://www.dabangasudan.org/en/all-news/article/the-battle-for-khartoums-bridges . live .
    84. Web site: Salih . Zeinab Mohammed . Sudan conflict: warring sides blame each other for strike on key bridge . the Guardian . 18 November 2023 . 26 February 2024 . 10 August 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240810092505/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/nov/18/sudan-conflict-strike-damages-dam-bridge-in-latest-key-infrastructure-damage . live .
    85. Web site: Fleming . Lucy . Sudan's Nile Island joins the 21st Century . BBC News . 18 May 2010 . 26 February 2024 . 30 September 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200930184149/https://www.bbc.com/news/10121573 . live .

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