New York Central College Explained

New York Central College
Other Name:Central College, McGrawville
Motto Lang:Latin
Established:1849
Closed:1860
Founder:Cyrus Pitt Grosvenor
Religious Affiliation:Baptist
Students:100–200
City:McGraw (at the time called McGrawville), Cortland County
State:New York
Country:United States
Postcode:13101
Coordinates:42.5961°N -76.0931°W

New York Central College, commonly called New York Central College, McGrawville, and simply Central College, was the first college in the United States founded on the principle that all qualified students were welcome. It was thus an abolitionist[1] institution. It was founded by Cyrus Pitt Grosvenor and other anti-slavery Baptists in McGraw, New York (at the time called McGrawville; not modern McGrawville, New York). The sponsoring organization was the American Baptist Free Mission Society, of which Grosvenor was a vice-president.[2] It was chartered by New York State in April 1848, laid the cornerstone of its main building on July 4, and opened in September 1849. Its "prominent features" were "Radical Anti-Slavery, and Equality of the Sexes". It has been called a predecessor of Cornell University.[3]

The college lasted about 10 years. As put by the author of a modern study, "A little town tried to create a place without any prejudice, and it did make a difference. It created humanitarians and heroes in a time where nothing else existed like this."[4] While Oberlin and Oneida had accepted African-American students, and Oberlin female students, New York Central College was the first institution in the country founded to accept all students, which it did from its very first day. This was the vision of its founder, Cyrus Pitt Grosvenor.[5]

Central had a large preparatory, or high school, division. Students at the college level were never more than a small minority of the student body. At the first commencement in 1855, there were five graduates, with a student body of well over 100. There were some students at the primary level. Yet there was no question that Central was a college, whatever the ratio of students, and not an academy, whose studies ended at the high school level (typically including Latin and Greek).

The American Baptist Free Mission Society

Abolitionism

The American Baptist Free Mission Society broke away from its parent, the American Baptist Home Mission Society, over the issue of slavery, more specifically whether slaveowners could be members, missionaries, or donors to the society. From the beginning, the College was to be open to all, whatever the "race" or gender. At the presentation to the citizens of McGrawville, its description begins by atatinflg it will differ from the Hamilton Literary & Theological Institution (now Colgate University) in only one feature: "it lays down as a broad platform, the rights and privileges of all classes of citizens as of paramount importance. It will be an Institution of Learning from which no individual will be rejected."[6] Hamilton had a reputation for not opposing slavery; Gerrit Smith resigned from their Board of Trustees "on the grounds that the school was insufficiently anti-slavery".[7] When Hamilton students sent a petition to the New York Legislature "in behalf of the oppressed free colored citizens of the state",[8] this made them "guilty of the awful crime of abolitionism",[9] and the Legislature almost immediately withdrew the College's $5,000 appropriation.[10] The President and five professors, with the support of "citizens of Oneida County", informed the legislature than an outsider (a legislator) had misled the students, who "disclaim all sympathy with abolition societies". The anti-slavery petition was unauthorized by the faculty, and "at variance with the principles of the college government, and with the judgment and feeling of every officer of the institution".[11] The appropriation was immediately restored.[12] [13]

Founding of its college

The College was founded in McGrawville, "a quiet and healthy place" according to the college's advertisement in the abolitionist National Era,[14] because of a pledge by the village of $12,000 towards construction costs; Perry, New York, had offered $10,000.[15] The initial community meeting in McGrawville to discuss the proposed college was held on November 22, 1847. It already had a board of trustees, with Reverend Cyrus Pitt Grosvenor of Utica, who spoke at the meeting, as President. Its location not yet determined, it was referred to as the "Baptist Free Mission Institution".[16] Construction commenced on June 26, 1848, and the cornerstone was laid on July 4. In the cornerstone was a box with 20 items, many of them abolitionist newspapers or pamphlets.[17] By then it was referred to as the Free Central College.[18]

Speaking at the laying of the cornerstone, Grosvenor "vindicated the character of Women, repelled the idea of her inferiority to man, and maintained the necessity of giving to our daughters an education equal to that given to our sons."[18] Of the students whose gender can be determined, 35% were women.[19]

The Bible was "to be introduced as a text-book and test-book from beginning to end of the course of instruction."[18] Manual labor, including farmwork, was to be part of students' daily activities.[20] [21] This was not just for finances, although it brought in a little money, nor to prepare students for careers, to which the labor was usually unrelated, but was seen as psychologically and spiritually beneficial. At the time, this was an innovative view.

Some opposition from those with means of the labor requirement was met with a stinging reply:

New York Central College was the name decided on, and the College was chartered by the New York State Legislature on April 12, 1848. The Board of Trustees had 24 members.[22]

The College began activities on September 4, 1849. Black professor Charles L. Reason delivered an inaugural address, on the topic "Harmony of the Principles of the College with Man's True Destiny and the Tendencies of the Present Age." It was described in the press as "full of clear comprehensive, philosophical thought, clothed in a neat and classical dress." President Grosvenor spoke on "Education: Physical, Mental, and Moral." The abolitionist philanthropist Gerrit Smith also spoke. There was a "congregation" of more than 2,000 at the induction of the faculty, the following day.[23]

Overviews of the Central College experience

As part of an unsuccessful attempt to have a medical school open to all students established in McGrawville, William G. Allen wrote to Gerrit Smith that "[n]o where is the state of things more favorable to the colored man's progress than in McGrawville, and no where would he receive a warmer welcome."[24] At the time—1852—Allen was the only Black college professor in the country.

A description of the people at a college dinner, 1850

Two Onondaga Native Americans enrolled in the Preparatory Division.[25]

Summary by a graduate

This is how the college was described by an alumna and instructor, Angeline Stickney:

Faculty, students, subjects taught

The affairs of the college were conducted with an informality and lack of rules that are startling seen from a modern perspective. There was no "mission statement" nor academic ranks, nor were specific requirements for a degree ever set down (and given the constantly changing faculty, they would have been hard to staff). The only records kept were the minutes of the board of trustees and the financial records, supplemented by correspondence and many newspaper articles.

The relationship between teachers and students, while not amorous at all (save for the Allen–King marriage, on which see below), was closer than would seem normal in the United States today. Most of the faculty's time was spent in contact with students, teaching formally or informally. All were living in a small town, where everyone knew each other. In most cases they attended the same church; all kitchens in McGrawville prepared similar food; all heard the same visiting lecturers.

Students and professors were not allowed to use alcohol or (much more unusual) tobacco.[26]

College finances

From a financial point of view, Central College was poorly run. There were no financial plans or budgets. There was little fundraising; in contrast with its predecessor the Oneida Institute, no one went calling on possible donors. The college did not publicize itself.

It was inadequately funded from beginning to end, and ended in bankruptcy. Except for Gerrit Smith, it had no wealthy donors, no alumni to draw upon. The American Baptist Free Mission Society gave what support it could, especially at the beginning, but it was a small group and its members had limited resources.

There are contradictory reports about subvention(s) from the New York State Legislature, such as Union College, Columbia College, and others routinely received. If there was legislative support, it was not ongoing.

The student body was relatively poor, and burdened with paying for accommodations and meals, and transportation to McGrawville, in addition to instruction. A school half made up of Negroes, most of whom were at the high school level, was not going to be financially prosperous or even self-sufficient. The 30% of the students who were female were also anything but prosperous. Well-to-do families who could easily afford to send their sons to college were not going to send them to the college for Negroes and women in McGrawville (called, by racists, "the nigger college"). Some money was brought in through the manual labor department, but not enough.

So as to make education possible for these relatively impoverished students, tuition was set very low. In the college division it was first $24, then $30 per year, and in the preparatory [high school] division, $15.[14] [27] The vast majority of students were in the preparatory program. An estimated 100 preparatory students per year, at $15 each, is $1,500. An estimated 20 college students at $30 each would bring in $600, for a total of $2,100 . By comparison, 15 years previously the Canterbury Female Boarding School charged $75 for tuition, meaning the tuition paid by its 24 students totalled $1,800.

Funds available to pay faculty, therefore, were very limited, and probably contributed to the high faculty turnover. Except for Grosvenor, whose children were grown, faculty were unmarried and did not have families; the salaries paid would not permit it. The college's expenses simply exceeded its income.

In fact, it is remarkable that it lasted as long as it did. Previously schools with "racially" integrated bodies (the Noyes Academy and the Canterbury Female Boarding School) were quickly destroyed by white mob violence.

Faculty

There were no written criteria for selecting faculty; some came with a college degree, but many did not. Apparently the President, Grosvenor and then Calkins, decided himself whom to hire and what they would teach. There was no public announcement of vacancies, nor was there an application process nor documents required. Personal contacts and correspondence played a big role. The difference between the courses and teachers for the large preparatory or high school division, and the smaller college division, was not rigid. Two faculty (Caldwell, Smith) began as students and joined the faculty upon their graduation; one (Stickney) was teaching in advance of her graduation.

There was, therefore, a lot of turnover in the faculty, and the subjects taught varied depending on the faculty. There was not a faculty in the sense of a body of full-time employees.

Central was the first college to hire African-American faculty. There were three very well qualified African-American professors, who successively occupied the same position: Charles L. Reason (1849-1852), William G. Allen (1852–1853), and George Boyer Vashon (1853–1859).

There are two known lists of the faculty (in newspaper announcements). The original faculty, in 1849, were:

By 1852, three years later, the faculty were completely different (100% turnover):

Students

The student body has been well studied by Marlene Parks. There are 1,062 known students; most were in the preparatory (high school) program. Of them, 64% were men, 35% female, 1% unknown.[19] As no records were kept of it, the skin color ("race") of the students is not known; however, there were relatively few Blacks: Baquaqua, Edmonia Lewis, Benjamin Boseman, others.

In 1856 there were 226 students and 9 faculty, and approximately 50% were African-American. Most were in the college's preparatory (high school) program.

Curriculum and faculty

Grosvenor "proposed a 'free institution,' for the 'literary, scientific, moral, and physical education of both sexes and of all classes of youth.'" The school's curriculum included Classical education as well as agricultural science. The Rev. Grosvenor served as the school's first president, 1849–1851.[5] In a newspaper advertisement we find that the Manual Labor Department was "under the supervision of Luther Wellington, a Practical Farmer, a kind and benevolent man, on a farm of ." Under the "careful training" of the President students took a Rhetorical Class "with daily exercises in Extemporaneous Speaking", "not to be overlooked in this day of 'public speaking'".[37] [38]

The college was modeled after Oberlin, which in 1835 began admitting blacks and in 1837 women. However, New York Central College was the first American college founded on the principle that all are created equal: black and white, male and female. Qualified Black, female, and Native American students were all welcome. It was also the first to have African-American professors, in a position filled by three men: first Charles L. Reason.[39] An unexplained disagreement with Grosvenor led to his departure. His replacement was William G. Allen, a graduate of the Oneida Institute, another short-lived school which was a predecessor of the college. After Allen's departure (see below) he was replaced by George Boyer Vashon, the first African-American graduate of Oberlin. Reason was the first black college professor in the country. Allen was Professor of Rhetoric and Greek; in 1850, when he was appointed, he was "well known as a lecturer upon the origin, literature, and destiny of the African race."[40]

In May 1850 there were over a hundred students enrolled, and college housing being full, students had to take rooms in private houses.[41]

Shortly after its opening, the College and McGrawville were hit by a smallpox outbreak. An 1851 student resolution gives the names of two, Homer Haskell and Erskine Spring.[42] Four students died and the College had to close briefly. Another source says six students died.[43] At that time, there were 150 students.[43]

In 1850 the trustees and then the students of the college published resolutions they had passed in support of William L. Chaplin, in jail for helping two slaves escape.[44] [45]

There were those in Syracuse and Rochester who wished to move the College to their city, but nothing came of it.[46] The Corresponding Secretary of the Trustees, A. H. Benedict, who was also editor of the Cortland County Express, said in an editorial that no such discussions had taken place, even privately. He suggested that instead of the College relocating to Syracuse, Syracuse should relocate to McGrawville, once "it has done with theatres and their appendages, and her other and numerous sources of corruption.... The moral atmosphere of a city is not congenial to the habits of students, nor the growth of an institution founded on the manusl labor principle, and on equality of sex and condition, as is this college."[47]

In 1851 it was one of 11 colleges to receive New York State legislative funding; it received $1,500, the same amount as New York University, Fordham University, Hamilton College, and Madison University (Colgate).[48] A few weeks later, another report says that the college received an appropriation of $25,000,[49] but a college solicitation in 1855 said the College had received no appropriations from the state.[50] A Baptist report of 1851 states that its Free Mission Society raised $30,000 for the college.[51]

Samuel J. May in 1851 spoke at the college on the English abolitionist George Thompson (abolitionist).[52]

In 1852, according to Professor William G. Allen, "There is now a project on foot to attach a medical department to New York Central College. — A glorious idea this, as, if it should be successful, it will afford an opening for study to the very many colored young men who are now, by prejudice and scorn, shut out of most, if not all, of the medical colleges in the land. The faculty are physicians of Syracuse, in high standing and repute."[53] Nothing came of this, although there is a reference to a Professor of Anatomy at the college.[54] The medical college was established in New York City. Similarly, in 1850 there was an unsuccessful attempt to get the legislature to fund an "Agricultural Professorship".[55]

The college's first commencement was in 1855, with 5 graduates.[56] One of the graduates, Azariah Smith, was immediately hired to teach Greek, remaining until 1858.[57]

In 1857 Howard W. Gilbert was hired as Professor of Modern Languages. A news article refers to his mastery of French, German, and Italian.[58]

Also in 1857, the college had a Teachers' Department, training, at the high school level, teachers for the primary grades (normal school), an Academic Department preparing high school students for college, and a Collegiate Department. There was a class in public speaking.[14]

Facilities

Boys and men were in the dormitory occupying one floor of the main building; girls (no adult female students are recorded) were in a separate residence, with a matron. There is no reference to any housing specifically for colored students. However, there was a separate cemetery for Black college students.[59]

Hostility to the college

Because of its equalitarian treatment of Black students and its Black professors, the "nigger college at McGrawville", as it was called by racists, as well as the "McGrawville African College",[60] received a lot of public vituperation. "It would be bad enough, in our estimation, to bring together girls and boys, young men and women, of the same race and color, under the same roof, in the same halls, and at the same table. But to mix together the descendants of Ham and Japeth [(sons of [[Noah]])], the ebony sons of Africa with the fair daughters of the Anglo-Saxon, and the ruddy-cheeked boy with the Ethiopian maid, is stilt worse."[61]

At that time, there not being any public colleges in the state, the New York State Legislature would appropriate funds to Union College, Hamilton College and others. A proposed appropriation to New York Central College in 1851 was the topic of much comment, the subject "the center of attractions [in the Legislature]...for some hours".[62] A New York legislator said that rather than giving a state appropriation to that "vile sink of pollution", it would be better given to "a mob that will raze it to the ground", because it "was at war with every principle of American liberty".[63] The New York Tribune called it a "treasonable college", an "obnoxious edifice" where, "if things are suffered to go on at this rate, this whole region will become infected with Abolitionism; the contagion of Free Speech will spread til the Fugitive Slave law will become a nullity and the Union will collapse!"[64] Others objected, with less outrage, to "the amalgamation of sexes, as well as of races."[65] These were, according to the Baltimore Sun, "very strange and dangerous notions".[66] However, the appropriation passed comfortably, and was increased in size.[61]

The local hostility to the college was a factor in its demise. As it was put in a typically inaccurate newspaper column, which mistakenly puts Mary King's father at the head of the college:

William Allen affair

A scandal arose when, in 1853, an African-American professor, William G. Allen, became engaged to a white student, Mary King. To escape violent repercussions, Allen fled to New York City, where he was joined by his fiancée. They married—the first black male–white female marriage in the country's history—and immediately left for England, never to return. This event exacerbated already lingering social and political opposition to the school. Marlene Parks has published a collection of press clippings, which show the hostility.[67]

Decline and closure

In a circular of 1854 we find that "this Institution is now in prosperous condition. It has struggled through darkness, and mounted difficulties, until its permanency and success are placed entirely beyond doubt."[68] However, only a few years later it became clear that the College was in financial trouble. "Everything that an able faculty could do to advance the interests of the Institution has been done, and yet the College has not prospered. Its friends are discouraged, and the Board of Directors disheartened. Present appearances indicate that the College will either pass into the hands of its colored friends, or be purchased by the citizens of M'Grawville, and be renovated and reorganised into a seminary or academic institution [high school], or finally cease to exist as a College."[69]

The school was later denied funding by the New York State Legislature, and it was bankrupt by 1858.[70]

President Calkins left for a position at "an eminent law school in Albany"; the trustees persuaded Grosvenor to take up the leadership again.

The College faced bankruptcy, and discontinued operations.[71] The philanthropist and abolitionist Gerrit Smith, who lived nearby, in Peterboro, became the proprietor of the insolvent college.[72] He assumed its debts, which exceeded its assets; as a newspaper put it, "he became the owner of the property when the college was abandoned."[73] A modern scholar has suggested that Smith's breakdown and hospitalization after public discovery of his connection with John Brown's failed raid on Harpers Ferry, of late 1859, contributed to the college's closure.[19] (Under Smith.)

A smallpox epidemic struck McGrawville in 1860. The effects of the outbreak, coupled with the lingering social and political opposition and financial difficulties, caused the college to close that same year. Another source says it closed in 1859.[5]

The New York Central Railroad, with which there is no known connection, began in 1853.

New York Central Academy

According to the New York State Department of Education, New York Central Academy, organized by citizens of McGrawville, was chartered May 4, 1864. It operated from 1864 to 1867.[74] It purchased the buildings and land for $6,500 (~$ in) from Gerrit Smith in 1864.[75] In 1868 it became part of the McGrawville Union School, and remained in use as a high school until a new building was constructed in 1885.[74] [76]

Daniel S. Lamont (1851–1905), Secretary of War under President Grover Cleveland, was from McGraw, and studied as a child at the Central Academy, "the successor of a queer institution, known as the New York Central College, established by Gerrit Smith and other abolitionists, for the education of boys and girls without regard to color."[77] [78]

Alumni

Marlene Parks has published an exhaustive collection of information about Central's alumni.[19]

See also

Further reading

Video

Primary sources

External links

Notes and References

  1. Book: Brawley , Benjamin . Early Negro American writers: selections with biographical and critical introductions. Benjamin Brawley. Freeport, New York. Books for Libraries Press. 1976. 13. Originally published by the University of North Carolina Press in 1935.. 0836902467.
  2. Book: Anti-slavery missions: review of the operations of the American Baptist Free Mission Society, for the past year. American Baptist Free Mission Society. Bristol, New York. 1851. 3.
  3. Book: Wright , Albert Hazen . Pre-Cornell and Early Cornell VIII. Cornell's Three Precursors. I. New York Central College. Cornell University. 1960. 2020-07-30. 2020-11-14. https://web.archive.org/web/20201114233752/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015035865370. live.
  4. News: New York Central College the topic of McGraw author's new book. October 2, 2017. Robert. Creenan. Cortland Standard.
  5. News: Cyrus Pitt Grosvenor. Morning Star. October 1, 1995. 7. November 28, 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20101119173802/http://albionmich.com/history/histor_notebook/951001.shtml. November 19, 2010. live.
  6. News: The Institution, Public Meeting, &c.. McGrawville Express. November 25, 1847. (Reproduced In Marlene K. Parks, ed., New York Central College, 1849–1860, ISBN 1548505757, Volume 1, [p. 11]).
  7. Book: Sernett , Milton C. . Abolition's axe: Beriah Green, Oneida Institute, and the Black freedom struggle. Syracuse University Press. 1986. 9780815623700.
  8. News: In Assembly, March 23. Buffalo Patriot and Commercial Advertiser . Buffalo, New York. April 5, 1837. 1. newspapers.com. September 20, 2020. September 27, 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200927110021/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/59207770/petition-re-abolition-of-slavery-at/. live.
  9. News: (Untitled). newspaperarchive.com. Vermont Watchman and State Journal . Montpelier, Vermont. April 4, 1837. 2. September 13, 2020. September 27, 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200927110021/https://newspaperarchive.com/politics-clipping-apr-04-1837-1964672/. live.
  10. News: (Untitled). . Boston, Massachusetts. April 21, 1837. 1. newspapers.com.
  11. News: (Untitled). Vermont Watchman and State Journal . Montpelier, Vermont. April 25, 1837. newspaperarchive.com. 2. September 13, 2020. September 27, 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200927110022/https://newspaperarchive.com/politics-clipping-apr-25-1837-1964677/. live.
  12. News: Legislature of New York. Abolitionism. . Boston, Massachusetts. April 21, 1837. 1. newspapers.com. September 21, 2020. September 27, 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200927110022/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/59697112/hamilton-college-and-slavery/. live.
  13. News: Income of the surplus. . New York, New York. April 27, 1837. 2. newspapers.com.
  14. News: New York Central College. . Washington, D.C.. 23 Jul 1857. 4. newspapers.com.
  15. Book: 18. Fourth Annual Meeting. American Baptist Free Mission Society. Fourth Annual Report of the Board of Trustees of the American Baptist Free Mission Society. Utica, New York. 1847.
  16. News: Clippings from the McGrawville Express of November and December, 1847. (Reproduced in Parks, vol. I, part 1, [p. 10]). .
  17. News: Clippings from the McGrawville Express of June and July, 1848. (Reproduced in Parks, I, [p. 13]). .
  18. News: Education—Moral, Intellectual and Physical—Woman. New York Daily Tribune. August 2, 1848. 1. G[eorge] G. . R[itchie]. (Reproduced in Parks, vol. I, part 1, [pp. 16–19]). September 13, 2020. September 27, 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200927110045/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/59196920/laying-cornerstone-of-new-york-central/. live.
  19. Book: Parks , Marlene K. . 2017. 1035557718. 2 volumes. New York Central College, 1849–1860. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. 978-1548505752.
  20. News: The Celebration. McGrawville Express. A.H.. Benedict. July 6, 1848. (Reproduced in Parks, I, [pp. [14–16]).
  21. News: Letter to the editor. Heath. S.B., M.D.. McGrawville Express. November 2, 1848. (Reproduced in Parks, vol. I, part 1, [pp. 21-22]).
  22. News: Letter to the editor. Potter. S. H.. McGrawville Express. January 4, 1849. Letter is dated December 22, 1848. (Reproduced in Parks, vol. I, part 1, [pp. 24–25].
  23. News: The New York Central College. Sabbath Recorder . New York. September 27, 1849. 59. Reproduced in Parks, vol. I, part 1, [p. 39].
  24. Wm. G.. Allen. William G. Allen. Letter to Gerrit Smith. Letters from Negro Leaders to Gerrit Smith. May 25, 1852. Journal of Negro History. 27. 4. Benjamin. Quarles. Benjamin Arthur Quarles. Oct 1942. 432–453, at p. 439. 10.2307/2715186. 2715186. 150293241.
  25. News: Indian Students. Cayuga Chief. November 13, 1849. First published in the Auburn Wigwam. Reproduced in Parks, Vol. I, part 1, [p. 40].
  26. News: (Untitled). The Advocate . Buffalo, New York. July 24, 1851. 3. newspapers.com. June 11, 2019. September 27, 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200927110052/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/32753987/no-alcohol-or-tobacco-at-new-york/. live.
  27. News: Central College. Cortland County Express. August 1849. Reproduced in Parks, vol. I, part 1, [p. 32].
  28. News: Central College, N.Y.. Religious Recorder . Syracuse, New York. January 1, 1852. Included in Parks, vol. II, part 1, [p. 17].
  29. News: Victor M. Kingsley. Weekly Recorder . Fayetteville, New York. March 1897. Included in Parks, vol. I, part 2..
  30. News: Hamilton Female Seminary. Greene Chenango American . Greene, New York. April 10, 1856. 4. newspaperarchive.com. September 25, 2020. September 27, 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200927110047/https://newspaperarchive.com/other-articles-clipping-apr-10-1856-1984741/. live.
  31. Book: White , Augusta Francelia Payne . The Paynes of Hamilton, a genealogical and biographical record. 1912. 77. New York. Tobias A. Wright.
  32. News: Obituary—Death of Prof. Geo. L. Brockett. Daily Journal . Lockport, New York. April 5, 1880. Included in Parks, vol. I, part 2.
  33. News: New York Central College. . Boston, Massachusetts. November 20, 1857o. 3. newspapers.com. September 27, 2020. October 9, 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201009083634/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60071588/newyork-central-college-term-begins/. live.
  34. News: New York Central College. Buffalo Daily Republic. 6 May 1853. 2. newspapers.com. 16 May 2020. 27 September 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200927110052/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/51244279/the-buffalo-daily-republic/. live.
  35. News: The Story of Conservative [sic]]. . Washington, D.C.. Lydia A.. Caldwell. June 15, 1854. 1. 2020-10-05. 2020-10-09. https://web.archive.org/web/20201009010955/https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn84026752/1854-06-15/ed-1/seq-1/#date1=1840&sort=date&rows=20&words=CALDWELL+LYDIA&searchType=basic&sequence=0&index=5&state=&date2=1862&proxtext=%22Lydia+a+caldwell%22&y=7&x=17&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=1. live.
  36. News: Shadows from an Old Church. Lydia A.. Caldwell. Houma Ceres . Houma, Louisiana. September 6, 1855. 1. 2021-01-05. 2020-10-09. https://web.archive.org/web/20201009092219/https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83026391/1855-09-06/ed-1/seq-1/. live.
  37. News: New York Central College. . Boston, Massachusetts. March 24, 1854. 3. newspapers.com. July 25, 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190725113612/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/34217719/announcement_of_new_york_central_college/. July 25, 2019. live.
  38. News: New York Central College. . Washington, D.C.. April 8, 1854. 3. newspaperarchive.com. September 14, 2020. September 27, 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200927110046/https://newspaperarchive.com/advertisement-clipping-apr-08-1854-1966570/. live.
  39. News: Colored Professor. . Baltimore, Maryland. November 2, 1849. newspapers.com. September 23, 2020. September 27, 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200927110046/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/59824836/the-baltimore-sun/. live.
  40. News: By Telegraph. . Newport, Rhode Island. December 16, 1850. 2. newspapers.com. July 3, 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190703232908/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/361769/william_g_allen_law_student/. July 3, 2019. live.
  41. News: As We Expected. May 2, 1850. Cortland County Express. Reprinted by Parks, volume I, part 3, [p. 6].
  42. News: N.Y. Central College. June 20, 1850. Cortland County Express. Included in Parks, vol. II, part 2, under Spring.
  43. Book: 8. Anti-slavery missions: review of the operations of the American Baptist Free Mission Society, for the past year. American Baptist Free Mission Society. Bristol [Connecticut]. 1851.
  44. News: Wm. L. Chaplin. . Boston, Massachusetts. October 4, 1850. 1. newspapers.com. June 20, 2021. June 24, 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210624203205/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/79479005/trustees-of-new-york-central-college/. live.
  45. News: Resolutions of Central College. . Boston, Massachusetts. October 11, 1850. newspapers.com. 1. July 4, 2020. July 4, 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200704025827/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/54674016/resolutions-of-new-york-central-college/. live.
  46. News: New York Central College. McGrawville Express . McGraw, New York. March 14, 1850. 2. 2020-09-21. 2020-09-27. https://web.archive.org/web/20200927110049/https://nyshistoricnewspapers.org/lccn/sn84024329/1850-03-14/ed-1/seq-2/#date1=01%2F01%2F1830&city=&date2=12%2F31%2F1860. live.
  47. News: Benedict. A.H.. Cortland County Express. March 21, 1850. Included in Parks, vol. I, part 3, [p. 5–6]. About the college—Removel [sic], &c..
  48. News: New York Legislature. June 18, 1851. Brooklyn Daily Eagle. 3. newspapers.com. June 10, 2019. September 27, 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200927110049/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/32719775/new-york-legislature-appropriations/. live.
  49. News: Hunker Eloquence. . Boston, Massachusetts. newspapers.com. 15 August 1851. 4.
  50. News: The New York Central College. New York Post. October 9, 1855. Included in Parks, vol. II, part 2, under John Metcalf Smith.
  51. News: (Untitled). Buffalo Daily Republic. 2 September 1851. 2. newspapers.com. 23 April 2020. 27 September 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200927110051/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/49373537/baptist-statistics-from-baptist/. live.
  52. News: George Thompson, M. P.. . Lisbon, Ohio. August 16, 1851. 1–2. newspapers.com. July 4, 2020. July 4, 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200704032735/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/54673410/samuel-j-may-on-george-thompson-part/. live.
  53. News: [Letter to the editor, May 6, 1852]]. Wm. G.. Allen. William G. Allen. . Rochester, New York. May 20, 1852. accessiblearchives.com. May 16, 2020. September 27, 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200927110053/https://accessible.com/accessible/emailedURL?AADoc=FREDERICKDOUGLASSPAPER.FR1852052027.26038. live.
  54. Book: Ten lectures on medical electricity. Auburn, New York. 1862. 14.
  55. News: Promiscuous—Central College, at McGrawville. Henry G.. Crouch. March 12, 1850. Reprinted in the Cortland County Express. Included in Parks, vol. I, part 3, [pp. 3–5].
  56. News: College Commencements. New York Central College. New York Tribune. 6 Aug 1855. 3. newspapers.com.
  57. News: Obituary—Azariah Smith. Publishers' Weekly American Book-Trade Journal. January 18, 1902. 59. Included in Parks, vol. II, part 2.
  58. News: New York Central College Academic Exhibition. New York Tribune. March 20, 1857. 7. newspapers.com.
  59. Parks, vol. I, part 2, under Baquaqua.
  60. News: Albany Argus. June 29, 1854. Included in Parks, volume II, part 3, [p. 2].
  61. News: Reprinted from the Albany Register. New York Central College. . Boston, Massachusetts. July 18, 1851. 1. September 27, 2020. September 27, 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200927110055/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60067161/new-york-central-college/. live.
  62. News: (Untitled). Cortland Whig . Homer, New York. July 3, 1851. Included in Parks, volume II, part 1, [p. 3].
  63. News: Literature in the Legislature. . New York. June 28, 1851. 2. newspapers.com.
  64. News: Central College Anniversary. New York Tribune. July 29, 1856. 6. newspapers.com. June 11, 2019. September 27, 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200927110058/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/32754633/new-york-central-college-anniversary/. live.
  65. News: Extraordinary Legislation. Orleans Republican . Albion, New York. July 9, 1851. Included in Parks, volume II, part 1, [p. 4–5].
  66. News: Amalgamation college. 1. Baltimore Sun. July 14, 1851. September 27, 2020. September 27, 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200927110059/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/60066873/comment-on-new-york-central-college/. live.
  67. Book: Parks , Marlene K. . New York Central College, 1849-1860, McGrawville, N.Y.: the first college in the U.S. to employ black professors. McGraw Historical Society, through CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. 2017. 9781517478124.
  68. News: Frederick Douglass' Paper. August 17, 1855. New York Central College. accessiblearchives.com.
  69. Book: Goodwin , H. C . Pioneer history; or, Cortland County and the border wars of New York, from the earliest period to the present time. 1859. New York. A. B. Burdick.
  70. Book: Introduction. The American prejudice against color: William G. Allen, Mary King, and Louisa May Alcott. Sarah. Elbert. Boston. Northeastern University Press. 2002. 9781555535452.
  71. News: Green's Local Column. Republican Banner . Cortland, New York. September 5, 1860. Included in Parks, vol. II, part 3, [p. 19].
  72. News: Oneida Sachem . Oneida, New York. September 4, 1858. Included in Parks, vol. II, part 2, under Smith.
  73. News: Cortland Standard . Cortland, New York. September 6, 1929. 2. Included in Parks, vol. II, part 2, under Smith.
  74. Book: Miller , George Frederick . The academy system of the State of New York. Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University. 1922.
  75. Book: New York Convention Manual. New York Constitutional Convention, 1867–68. State of New York. 2020-07-30. 2020-09-27. https://web.archive.org/web/20200927110102/http://ebooks.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=mayantislavery&cc=mayantislavery&q1=Central+college&rgn=full+text&view=toc&idno=32905103. live.
  76. News: McGrawville Academu Building. Cecile. Gardner. Cortland Standard . Cortland, New York. August 28, 1953. 12. Included in Parks, vol. II, part 3, [p. 40].
  77. News: Col. Daniel Lamont. . South Bend, Indiana. March 14, 1893. 6. newspapers.com. July 25, 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190725014910/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/34209193/the_south_bend_tribune/. July 25, 2019. live.
  78. News: Col. Daniel Lamont—The Youngest Member of Mr. [Grover] Cleveland's Cabinet—A Young Man who Has Enjoyed the Friendship of Democratic Leaders from Samuel J. Tilden Down to the Present Day]. . Wichita, Kansas. March 29, 1893. 6. Also appeared in the Roanoke Times, March 27, 1893, p. 6. newspaperarchive.com. September 25, 2020. September 27, 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200927110100/https://newspaperarchive.com/politics-clipping-mar-29-1893-1984719/. live.
  79. News: Eldridge Eugene Fish. Buffalo Courier. 18 Mar 1894. 9. newspapers.com. 16 May 2020. 27 September 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200927110103/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/51258710/eldridge-eugene-fish/. live.
  80. Parks, vol. II, part 2.
  81. Book: Smith, Jessie Carney. Notable Black American women. 1996. New York . Gale Research. 978-0-8103-9177-2.
  82. News: A. J. Warner. . Concordia, Kansas. October 1, 1885. 2. newspapers.com. July 4, 2020. July 4, 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200704131251/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/54690666/a-j-warner-marietta-ohio/. live.
  83. News: General Warner. Salt Lake Tribune. May 25, 1895. 8. newspapers.com. July 4, 2020. July 6, 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200706062017/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/54691370/a-j-warner-american-bimetallic-league/. live.
  84. News: Noted civil and criminal lawyer. . Elmira, New York. 15 April 1899. newspapers.com. 2. 26 July 2020. 26 July 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200726182858/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/56109302/obituary-of-george-b-davis-attorney/. live.
  85. News: Death of J. Q. Cowee. newspapers.com. Enterprise-Chronicle (Burlingame, Kansas). 22 September 1921. 1. 26 July 2020. 26 July 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200726222339/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/56115503/death-of-j-q-cowee/. live.
  86. Judson Smith, O.T.S.. Oberlin Alumni Magazine. 3. 1. October 1906. 53.
  87. Judson Smith, D.D.. Oberlin Alumni Magazine. 3. 2. November 1906. 57–60. Henry M.. Tenney.
  88. News: Judson Smith dead. . Birmingham, Alabama. 30 June 1906. 5. newspapers.com. 26 July 2020. 26 July 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20200726165019/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/56109756/judson-smith/. live.
  89. Book: Willard . Frances Elizabeth . Frances Willard . Livermore . Mary Ashton Rice . Mary Livermore . A Woman of the Century: Fourteen Hundred-seventy Biographical Sketches Accompanied by Portraits of Leading American Women in All Walks of Life . 1893 . . 544 . O'DONNELL, Mrs. Martha B. .

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