Neglected tropical diseases in India explained

Neglected tropical diseases in India are a group of bacterial, parasitic, viral, and fungal infections that are common in low income countries but receive little funding to address them. Neglected tropical diseases are common in India.

India's population is about 1.3 billion as of 2018, which is the second largest in the world.[1] However, high population does not explain the greater frequently of neglected tropical diseases in India than in other countries. Neglected tropical diseases in India occur in areas of both urban and rural poverty.

The neglected tropical diseases which especially affect India include ascariasis, hookworm infection, trichuriasis, dengue fever, lymphatic filariasis, trachoma, melioidosis, cysticercosis, leprosy, echinococcosis, visceral leishmaniasis, and rabies.[2]

List

See main article: Neglected tropical diseases. Various organizations will include different diseases under the umbrella term of "neglected tropical diseases," but most diseases listed as such occur in tropical climates, lack global public attention, and have high infection rates. The World Health Organization recognizes 20 neglected tropical diseases,[3] of which 12 are present in India.

Protozoan

Visceral leishmaniasis (kala-azar)

India has a goal for the elimination of kala-azar.[4] The steps to eliminating the disease include passive and active case detection, early diagnosis and treatment, and vector control integrated into medical treatment.[5]

Before the year 2000 there was hope and expectation that India could eliminate kala-azar from the country.[6] In those years there were various programs to continue usual treatments and develop new ones. Around year 2000 there were reports that parasites which cause kala-azar had developed drug resistance to pentavalent antimonial, which was the popular drug for treating this disease for the last 50 years.[7] [8] The disease spread to become a problem again and now more difficult to treat. In poorer areas of India underreporting of the disease was a problem, allowing the disease to spread.[9] The newer treatments of that time were expensive.[10]

The treatment of kala-azar in India since about year 2000 has been difficult.[11] In 2017 the Indian government had contained kala-azar in certain regions with the goal of providing easy access to medical treatment to eliminate it from the country.[12] The intent was that by 2020 the disease should be very uncommon and also should never spread or grow again.[13] Physicians use a drug to treat kala-azar both before and after the patient seems cured, but take care to use a safe amount.[14] The work that health agencies in India have done to reduce kala-azar are learning models for India or any other country to apply to other public health programs to eliminate infectious disease.[15]

African trypanosomiasis

African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) is not a problem in India.[16] Researchers do monitor watching for the disease. In 2005, an Indian farmer became ill following an unusual infection with an Indian species of this parasite called Trypanosoma evansi.[17]

Chagas disease

Chagas disease is not a problem in India. Chagas disease, like African trypanosomiasis, has a Trypanosoma parasite as its cause. This parasite is not in India.

Worms

Soil-transmitted helminthiasis

Soil-transmitted helminthiasis is a group of various parasitic diseases which different roundworms cause. The large roundworm causes Ascariasis, the hookworm causes Hookworm infection, and the whipworm causes Trichuriasis. These worms are related and there are strategies for prevention which apply to all of them.[18] The World Health Organization estimated that in 2015, 75% of the children in India who had Soil-transmitted helminthiasis also got treatment.[19]

Lymphatic filariasis

See main article: Lymphatic filariasis in India. India has 40% of the world's lymphatic filariasis (LF) cases.[20] For the patient, one of the major costs of treating the disease is having to take a lot of time off work. A year 2000 survey reported that about half of the people in India were at risk of contracting LF.[21] Men and women can get this disease equally, but in the past, there have been barriers to women accessing treatment in the normal way.[22]

In 1955 the Indian government established the National Filaria Control Programme to reduce LF.[23] In 1997 India joined a World Health Assembly resolution to eliminate LF by 2020. In India to achieve this goal healthcare must be very accessible to almost everyone at risk for the disease.[24] In 2015 the Indian government launched a health campaign called Hathipaon Mukt Bharat (Filaria Free India) to encourage public participation in eliminating LF.[25]

Following some missed deadlines in 2015 and before a 2020 target date for eliminating LF, various media outlets discussed how India might meet the goal or what it should happen next if more time is required.[26] [27] [28]

The Ayurvedic text Sushruta Samhita described lymphatic filariasis.

Echinococcosis

Echinococcosis is a parasitic disease of tapeworms.[29] [30] [31] [32]

Cysticercosis

Taeniasis and cysticercosis are both parasitic diseases caused by tapeworms in the family Taeniidae.

Eliminated – guinea worm

Guinea-worm disease was a neglected tropical disease in India until 2000 when it was eradicated.[33] In 2006 India announced the eradication of yaws after going since 2003 with no reported cases of the disease.[34]

Foodborne trematode infection

Foodborne trematode infection is not a problem in India.

From 1969 to 2012 there have only been a few reports of a few people in India getting fasciolosis (foodborne trematode infection).[35] The disease is endemic among cows, buffalo, sheep, and goats in India.[36] A 2012 paper which reported two human infections urged for attention that human infection might be more prevalent.[37]

Onchocerciasis

Onchocerciasis (river blindness) is not a problem in India.

Onchocerciasis has been found in India in an unusual case.[38]

Schistosomiasis

Schistosomiasis is not a problem in India.

A 2015 report described that while India has no routine reports of schistosomiasis, the disease might be present and unreported.[39] A 1952 paper described the disease present in an Indian village and how WHO investigators treated the disease and tried to identify its source.[40] [41] In retrospect, that older paper was unusual, and either this disease is uncommon in India or difficult to detect.

Fungus

Mycetoma

Mycetoma is an infection under the skin which in India may have either a fungus or a bacterium as cause.[42] In Rajasthan the cause is usually a fungus, but elsewhere in India a bacterium usually causes the disease.

Small health surveys have shown that mycetoma is common in central India.[43]

The disease is difficult to treat.[44] The treatment for fungus will not work on the bacteria and vice versa. When it is a bacterium the treatment period is long.

In 1874 Henry Vandyke Carter, a British surgeon, wrote a book titled On mycetoma, or the fungus disease of India.[45]

Bacteria

Leprosy

See main article: Leprosy in India. From 1983 until 2005 India organized successful programs to eliminate leprosy as a public health problem.[46] While these programs reduced the number of people in India with leprosy from 58 in 10,000 to 1 in 10,000, they did not eliminate leprosy entirely. Completely eliminating the disease is possible in the near future.[47] The National Leprosy Eradication Program is part of the government solution to ending the disease.

Without health intervention, it is possible that leprosy rates could rise and all the progress could be lost.[48]

A 2018 study reported that India does well at detecting leprosy in poor areas, but more often misses cases in places with more money.[49]

A 2019 report described how newly available technology should make detecting and treating leprosy in India more easy.[50]

Trachoma

In December 2017 the health minister of India announced that India was free of trachoma.[51] [52] This announcement included a statement that there were no children in India who had an active case of trachoma.[53]

A 2011 paper had speculated that India could eliminate trachoma within 10 years.[54]

Yaws

The Indian government began programs to eliminate yaws in the 1950s.[55] India began its Yaws Eradication Program in 1996 and identified 735 cases at its start.[56] In 2004 the Indian government announced that the health program seemed to have eliminated the disease. Even after yaws seemed to be gone, the government continued monitoring and searching for cases heavily through 2006. Following that, there was a program to investigate rumors of yaws through 2011.

In May 2016 the World Health Organization declared India free of yaws.[57] India was the first country where yaws was endemic and which eliminated it.[58] This success in India led to excite for other countries to also try to eliminate yaws by year 2020 using techniques which India developed.[59]

Buruli ulcer

Buruli ulcer is not a problem in India.

In 2019 physicians identified a case of Buruli ulcer in India, but the patient was from Nigeria where the disease is present.[60]

Viruses

Dengue fever and chikungunya fever

The WHO groups dengue and chikungunya fever together, but these are separate conditions.

India had chikungunya cases before 1973 when the disease was nearly eliminated. In 2005 India got another case of this.[61] [62] Checkungunya cases are rising in India [63]

Rabies

Rabies has been a problem in India since ancient times.[64] Rabies often comes from dog bites.

In India there are many stray dogs and many people report being bitten by them.[65] To determine whether someone requires treatment for rabies or only treatment for the bite, the physician should have information about the incidence of rabies in animals in the area.[66] In India about 2% of people who are bitten get a rabies vaccine.[67] A 2012 paper argued that there was now enough information about rabies in India to plan to contain and prevent the disease nationally.[68]

For people in India who get rabies the death rate is nearly 100%.[69]

Other

Scabies

Incidence of scabies in India ranges from 13 to 59% throughout observed areas.[70] Little research exists on how much this condition affects Indian people's work, leisure, and sleep.

Various epidemiological studies exist reporting the number of people in India with scabies in various times and places.[71] [72]

Topical Permethrin and oral ivermectin are commonly available in India for treatment.[73] [74]

Snakebites

The envenomation is the danger of the snakebite, and not the bite itself.[75] [76] The four snakes in India which account for most bites are the Indian cobra, common krait, Russell's viper, and saw-scaled viper.[77] Besides these four there are various other snakes which bite enough to require an organized medical response.

In May 2018 the World Health Organization declared that responding to snake bites is a global health priority.[78]

Some places in India use traditional folk medicine with plants to treat snakebite.[79]

Designing antivenom is a challenge because different snakes require different antivenom to treat, and there are many types of snakes in India.[80]

97% of snake bites occur in rural areas.[81]

Snakes have a special place in Indian society and culture.[82] Because of this, many people who receive a snakebite treat their illness with less medical urgency than they would some other disease.

A 2010 review of snake bite in India found that there is underreporting of the problem and also insufficient health care treatment available.[83]

A 1954 study tracked snake bites since 1940. This study estimated 300,000-400,000 bites a year with 10% of those being deadly.[84]

Treatment which should be available but which are sometimes hard to get includes a whole blood clotting test and a venom detection kit.[85]

Epidemiology

India and South Asia have about half of the world's cases of kala azar, lymphatic filariasis, and leprosy.[86] The region also has about a third of rabies deaths and a quarter of the South Asia, in addition to one-third of the rabies deaths, one-quarter of the intestinal helminth infections. As of 2014 there was not good information about dengue and Japanese encephalitis, but these diseases are a major burden in India also.

Of the 17 neglected tropical diseases which the World Health Organization recognized in 2017, six are common in India.[87] Those 6 diseases are Lymphatic filariasis, kala-azar (Visceral leishmaniasis), Leptospirosis, Rabies, Soil-transmitted helminthiasis, and Dengue fever.

The Global Burden of Disease Study is a regularly updated report which attempts to describe the extent to which each major disease in the world affects individuals with those diseases. This report identifies surprising problems and described them to be unknown among many health professionals. One surprising finding of the 2016 Global Burden of Disease study is that India has the most and worst cases of 11 of the 16 neglected tropical diseases it considered. India has the most cases of all neglected tropical diseases which occur in India.

New cases of neglected tropical diseases in 2016[88] [89] !neglected tropical disease!Cases in India!Total cases globally!India's percent
of global total!India's incidence rank
Ascariasis222 million799 million28%1
Hookworm infection102 million451 million23%1
Trichuriasis68 million435 million16%1
Dengue fever53 million101 million53%1
Lymphatic filariasis8.7 million29.4 million29%1
Trachoma†1.8 million3.3 million53%1
Cysticercosis819,5382.7 million31%1
Leprosy187,730523,24536%1
Echinococcosis119,320973,66212%1
Visceral leishmaniasis13,53030,06745%1
Rabies4,37013,34033%1

– only new cases

† – only cases causing visual impairment

Prevention

Elimination of as many of these diseases as possible is a goal.[90]

The government of India collaborates with the World Health Organization in making financial investments in health care for the purpose of reducing and eliminating neglected tropical diseases in India.[91]

In 2005, the Indian Health Ministry, Bangladeshi Health Ministry, and the Nepali Health Ministry shared a memorandum of understanding to eliminate kala-azar in their shared region by 2015.[92]

A 2015 study reported that India's public health programs were reducing leprosy rates but not quickly enough to eliminate the disease from the region.[93]

In 2017 the Indian government began participating in the World Health Organization's plan to eliminate 10 of the neglected tropical diseases. The government strategy was to reduce poverty, promote sanitation, do vector control, and provide public health education.

Society and culture

The neglected tropical diseases are diseases of poverty and poverty reduction in society will reduce them.

Some people feel embarrassed to have a disease, but a disease is not anyone's fault.[94] The government of India sometimes has organized health campaigns to teach about diseases so that people feel comfortable coming for medical help when they need it.

External links

Notes and References

  1. Hotez . Peter J. . Damania . Ashish . Steinmann . Peter . India's neglected tropical diseases . PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases . 22 March 2018 . 12 . 3 . e0006038 . 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006038. 29565970 . 5863936 . free .
  2. Lobo . Derek A. . Velayudhan . Raman . Chatterjee . Priya . Kohli . Harajeshwar . Hotez . Peter J. . The Neglected Tropical Diseases of India and South Asia: Review of Their Prevalence, Distribution, and Control or Elimination . PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases . 25 October 2011 . 5 . 10 . e1222 . 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001222. 22039553 . 3201909 . free .
  3. Web site: Neglected tropical diseases. World Health Organization. 24 November 2015. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20140222035302/http://www.who.int/neglected_diseases/diseases/en/. 22 February 2014. dmy-all.
  4. Hotez . Peter J. . Pecoul . Bernard . "Manifesto" for Advancing the Control and Elimination of Neglected Tropical Diseases . PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases . 25 May 2010 . 4 . 5 . e718 . 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000718. 20520793 . 2876053 . free .
  5. Joshi . A . Narain . JP . Prasittisuk . C . Bhatia . R . Hashim . G . Jorge . A . Banjara . M . Kroeger . A . Can visceral leishmaniasis be eliminated from Asia? . Journal of Vector Borne Diseases . June 2008 . 45 . 2 . 105–11 . 18592839.
  6. Bora . D . Epidemiology of visceral leishmaniasis in India. . The National Medical Journal of India . 1999 . 12 . 2 . 62–8 . 10416321.
  7. Sundar . Shyam . Drug resistance in Indian visceral leishmaniasis . Tropical Medicine and International Health . November 2001 . 6 . 11 . 849–854 . 10.1046/j.1365-3156.2001.00778.x. 11703838 . 25623920 . free .
  8. Sundar . Shyam . More . Deepak K. . Singh . Manoj K. . Singh . Vijay P. . Sharma . Sashi . Makharia . Anand . Kumar . Prasanna C. K. . Murray . Henry W. . Failure of Pentavalent Antimony in Visceral Leishmaniasis in India: Report from the Center of the Indian Epidemic . Clinical Infectious Diseases . October 2000 . 31 . 4 . 1104–1107 . 10.1086/318121. 11049798 . free .
  9. Singh . S. P. . Reddy . D. C. S. . Rai . M. . Sundar . S. . Serious underreporting of visceral leishmaniasis through passive case reporting in Bihar, India . Tropical Medicine and International Health . June 2006 . 11 . 6 . 899–905 . 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2006.01647.x. 16772012 . 23316562 . free .
  10. Sundar . S . Chatterjee . M . Visceral leishmaniasis – current therapeutic modalities. . The Indian Journal of Medical Research . March 2006 . 123 . 3 . 345–52 . 16778315.
  11. Ponte-Sucre . A . Gamarro . F . Dujardin . JC . Barrett . MP . López-Vélez . R . García-Hernández . R . Pountain . AW . Mwenechanya . R . Papadopoulou . B . Drug resistance and treatment failure in leishmaniasis: A 21st century challenge. . PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases . December 2017 . 11 . 12 . e0006052 . 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006052 . 29240765. 5730103 . free .
  12. Zijlstra . EE . Alves . F . Rijal . S . Arana . B . Alvar . J . Post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis in the Indian subcontinent: A threat to the South-East Asia Region Kala-azar Elimination Programme. . PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases . November 2017 . 11 . 11 . e0005877 . 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005877 . 29145397. 5689828 . free .
  13. Sundar . S . Singh . OP . Chakravarty . J . Visceral leishmaniasis elimination targets in India, strategies for preventing resurgence. . Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy . November 2018 . 16 . 11 . 805–812 . 10.1080/14787210.2018.1532790 . 30289007. 6345646 .
  14. Pijpers . J . den Boer . ML . Essink . DR . Ritmeijer . K . The safety and efficacy of miltefosine in the long-term treatment of post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis in South Asia – A review and meta-analysis. . PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases . February 2019 . 13 . 2 . e0007173 . 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007173 . 30742620. 6386412 . free .
  15. Hirve . S . Kroeger . A . Matlashewski . G . Mondal . D . Banjara . MR . Das . P . Be-Nazir . A . Arana . B . Olliaro . P . Towards elimination of visceral leishmaniasis in the Indian subcontinent-Translating research to practice to public health. . PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases . October 2017 . 11 . 10 . e0005889 . 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005889 . 29023446. 5638223 . free .
  16. Web site: Joshi . Prashant P . Human Trypanosomiasis in India: Is it an Emerging New Zoonosis? . apiindia.org . Association of Physicians in India . 10–13 . 2020-01-20 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150318235747/http://apiindia.org/medicine_update_2013/chap04.pdf . 2015-03-18 . dead .
  17. Joshi . PP . Shegokar . VR . Powar . RM . Herder . S . Katti . R . Salkar . HR . Dani . VS . Bhargava . A . Jannin . J . Truc . P . Human trypanosomiasis caused by Trypanosoma evansi in India: the first case report. . The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene . September 2005 . 73 . 3 . 491–5 . 16172469. 10.4269/ajtmh.2005.73.491 . free .
  18. Abraham . Dilip . Kaliappan . SaravanakumarPuthupalayam . Walson . JuddL . Rao Ajjampur . SitaraSwarna . Intervention strategies to reduce the burden of soil-transmitted helminths in India . Indian Journal of Medical Research . 2018 . 147 . 6 . 533–544 . 10.4103/ijmr.IJMR_881_18. 30168484 . 6118140 . free .
  19. Web site: PCT databank – Soil-transmitted helminthiases . https://web.archive.org/web/20090122161930/http://www.who.int/neglected_diseases/preventive_chemotherapy/sth/en/ . dead . January 22, 2009 . WHO . 3 August 2017.
  20. Ramaiah . Kapa D . Das . Pradeep K . Michael . Edwin . Guyatt . Helen L . The Economic Burden of Lymphatic Filariasis in India . Parasitology Today . June 2000 . 16 . 6 . 251–253 . 10.1016/S0169-4758(00)01643-4. 10827432 .
  21. Sabesan . S. . Palaniyandi . M. . Das . P. K. . Michael . E. . 35526107 . Mapping of lymphatic filariasis in India . Annals of Tropical Medicine & Parasitology . 3 Jul 2000 . 94 . 6 . 591–606 . 10.1080/00034983.2000.11813582. 11064761 .
  22. Bandyopadhyay . Lalita . Lymphatic filariasis and the women of India . Social Science & Medicine . May 1996 . 42 . 10 . 1401–1410 . 10.1016/0277-9536(95)00288-X. 8735896 .
  23. Sabesan . S . Vanamail . P . Raju . KH.K . Raju . P . Lymphatic filariasis in India: Epidemiology and control measures . Journal of Postgraduate Medicine . 2010 . 56 . 3 . 232–8 . 10.4103/0022-3859.68650. 20739779 . free .
  24. Agrawal . VK . Sashindran . VK . Lymphatic Filariasis in India : Problems, Challenges and New Initiatives . . October 2006 . 62 . 4 . 359–362 . 10.1016/S0377-1237(06)80109-7. 27688542 . 5034168 .
  25. Bagcchi . Sanjeet . India tackles lymphatic filariasis . The Lancet Infectious Diseases . April 2015 . 15 . 4 . 380 . 10.1016/S1473-3099(15)70116-7. 25809895 .
  26. News: TNN . Filariasis in india: The epidemic you don't know about . . . 17 November 2017 . en.
  27. News: Basu . Snigdha . Not Stigma But Awareness A Hurdle To Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis By 2020 . . 8 March 2018.
  28. Web site: Rath . Nibedita . Dash . Sambit . India Is Set To Fail Its Target Of Eradicating Filariasis By 2020 . HuffPost India . . en . 22 August 2017.
  29. Singh . BB . Dhand . NK . Ghatak . S . Gill . JP . Economic losses due to cystic echinococcosis in India: Need for urgent action to control the disease. . Preventive Veterinary Medicine . 1 January 2014 . 113 . 1 . 1–12 . 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2013.09.007 . 24148988.
  30. Vaidya . VM . Zende . RJ . Paturkar . AM . Gatne . ML . Dighe . DG . Waghmare . RN . Moon . SL . Bhave . SS . Bengale . KG . Nikale . NV . 4879144 . Cystic echinococcosis in animals and humans of Maharashtra State, India. . Acta Parasitologica . 26 June 2018 . 63 . 2 . 232–243 . 10.1515/ap-2018-0027 . 29654685.
  31. Rawat . S . Kumar . R . Raja . J . Singh . RS . Thingnam . SKS . Pulmonary hydatid cyst: Review of literature. . Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care . September 2019 . 8 . 9 . 2774–2778 . 10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_624_19 . 31681642. 6820383 . free .
  32. Bhutani . N . Kajal . P . Hepatic echinococcosis: A review. . Annals of Medicine and Surgery (2012) . December 2018 . 36 . 99–105 . 10.1016/j.amsu.2018.10.032 . 30450204. 6226561 .
  33. Sharma . R . India eradicates guinea worm disease. . BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.) . 11 March 2000 . 320 . 7236 . 668 . 10710568. 1117704 .
  34. Web site: World Health Organization . India's triumph over yaws adds momentum to global eradication . https://web.archive.org/web/20160715152502/http://www.who.int/neglected_diseases/news/India_global_eradication_yaws_celebration/en/ . dead . July 15, 2016 . who.int . World Health Organization . Geneva . 14 July 2016.
  35. Web site: Gideon . Fascioliasis in India . Global Infectious Diseases and Epidemiology Online Network . 30 December 2017.
  36. Garg . Rajat . Yadav . C. L. . Kumar . R. R. . Banerjee . P. S. . Vatsya . Stuti . Godara . Rajesh . 23875973 . The epidemiology of fasciolosis in ruminants in different geo-climatic regions of north India . Tropical Animal Health and Production . 21 May 2009 . 41 . 8 . 1695–1700 . 10.1007/s11250-009-9367-y. 19455400 .
  37. Varghese . GM . Ramachandran . J . Ajjampur . SSR . Chandramohan . A . Cases of human fascioliasis in India: Tip of the iceberg . Journal of Postgraduate Medicine . 2012 . 58 . 2 . 150–2 . 10.4103/0022-3859.97180. 22718061 . free .
  38. Barua . P . Sharma . A . Hazarika . NK . Barua . N . Bhuyan . S . Alam . ST . A rare case of ocular onchocerciasis in India. . The Southeast Asian Journal of Tropical Medicine and Public Health . November 2011 . 42 . 6 . 1359–64 . 22299403.
  39. Kali . Arunava . Schistosome Infections: An Indian Perspective . Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research . 9 . 2 . DE01-4 . 2015 . 10.7860/JCDR/2015/10512.5521. 25859459 . 4378741 .
  40. Agrawal . M. C. . Rao . V. G. . Indian Schistosomes: A Need for Further Investigations . Journal of Parasitology Research . 2011 . 2011 . 250868 . 10.1155/2011/250868. 22132307 . 3205607 . free .
  41. Gadgil . R. K. . Shah . S. N. . Human schistosomiasis in India . Journal of Medical Science . 1952 . 6 . 760–763.
  42. van de Sande . Wendy W. J. . Vinetz . Joseph M. . Global Burden of Human Mycetoma: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis . PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases . 7 November 2013 . 7 . 11 . e2550 . 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002550. 24244780 . 3820768 . free .
  43. Sawatkar . GiteshU . Wankhade . VaishaliH . Supekar . BhagyashreeB . Pratap . RajeshPratap . Bhat . DharitriM . Tankhiwale . SupriyaS . Mycetoma: A common yet unrecognized health burden in central India . Indian Dermatology Online Journal . 2019 . 10 . 3 . 256–261 . 10.4103/idoj.IDOJ_358_18. 31149567 . 6536075 . free .
  44. Relhan . V . Mahajan . K . Agarwal . P . Garg . VK . Mycetoma: An Update. . Indian Journal of Dermatology . 2017 . 62 . 4 . 332–340 . 10.4103/ijd.IJD_476_16 . 28794542. 5527712 . free .
  45. Book: Carter . H.Vandyke . On the Nature of Mycetoma, or the Fungus Disease of India . 1874 . . London .
  46. Rao . PN . Suneetha . S . Current Situation of Leprosy in India and its Future Implications. . Indian Dermatology Online Journal . 2018 . 9 . 2 . 83–89 . 10.4103/idoj.IDOJ_282_17 . 29644191. 5885632 . free .
  47. Sengupta . Utpal . 46804892 . Elimination of leprosy in India: An analysis . Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology . 2018 . 84 . 2 . 131–136 . 10.4103/ijdvl.IJDVL_1070_16. 29451189 . free .
  48. Cousins . S . 52099098 . Experts fear a resurgence of leprosy in India. . Lancet . 25 August 2018 . 392 . 10148 . 624–625 . 10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31982-2 . 30152333.
  49. Grantz . Kyra H. . Chabaari . Winnie . Samuel . Ramolotja Kagiso . Gershom . Buri . Blum . Laura . Worden . Lee . Ackley . Sarah . Liu . Fengchen . Lietman . Thomas M. . Galvani . Alison P. . Prajna . Lalitha . Porco . Travis C. . Spatial distribution of leprosy in India: an ecological study . Infectious Diseases of Poverty . 27 March 2018 . 7 . 1 . 20 . 10.1186/s40249-018-0402-y. 29580296 . 5870368 . free .
  50. Sengupta . U . Recent Laboratory Advances in Diagnostics and Monitoring Response to Treatment in Leprosy. . Indian Dermatology Online Journal . 2019 . 10 . 2 . 106–114 . 10.4103/idoj.IDOJ_260_18 . 30984583. 6434766 . free .
  51. Web site: Sharma . Neetu Chandra . India free from Trachoma, says health minister J.P. Nadda . Livemint . en . 8 December 2017.
  52. News: India now free of infective trachoma, says JP Nadda . The New Indian Express.
  53. News: Tandon . Aditi . India free from active trachoma in children . . 11 December 2017 . en.
  54. Hotez . Peter . Enlarging the "Audacious Goal": Elimination of the world's high prevalence neglected tropical diseases . Vaccine . December 2011 . 29 . D104–D110 . 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.06.024. 22188933 .
  55. Narain . JP . Jain . SK . Bora . D . Venkatesh . S . Eradicating successfully yaws from India: The strategy & global lessons. . The Indian Journal of Medical Research . May 2015 . 141 . 5 . 608–13 . 10.4103/0971-5916.159542 . 26139778. 4510759 . 31 January 2024 . free.
  56. Bora . D . Dhariwal . AC . Lal . S . Yaws and its eradication in India--a brief review. . The Journal of Communicable Diseases . March 2005 . 37 . 1 . 1–11 . 16637394.
  57. Web site: World Health Organization . World Health Organization . WHO declares India free of yaws . https://web.archive.org/web/20161225185750/http://www.who.int/neglected_diseases/news/India_free_of_yaws/en/ . dead . December 25, 2016 . World Health Organization . New Delhi . 11 May 2016.
  58. Friedrich . M.J. . WHO Declares India Free of Yaws and Maternal and Neonatal Tetanus . JAMA . 20 September 2016 . 316 . 11 . 1141 . 10.1001/jama.2016.12649. 27654592 .
  59. Asiedu . Kingsley . Fitzpatrick . Christopher . Jannin . Jean . Small . Pamela L. C. . Eradication of Yaws: Historical Efforts and Achieving WHO's 2020 Target . PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases . 25 September 2014 . 8 . 9 . e3016 . 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003016. 25254372 . 4177727 . free .
  60. George . Ajith John . Samuel . Vimalin . Samuel . Vasanth Mark . Gaikwad . Pranay . Buruli ulcer: Rare presentation of a chronic nonhealing ulcer in India . Indian Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery . 6 June 2019 . 6 . 2 . 138–140 . 10.4103/ijves.ijves_76_18 . 184479927 . free .
  61. Lahariya . C . Pradhan . SK . Emergence of chikungunya virus in Indian subcontinent after 32 years: A review. . Journal of Vector Borne Diseases . December 2006 . 43 . 4 . 151–60 . 17175699.
  62. Muniaraj . M . Fading chikungunya fever from India: beginning of the end of another episode? . The Indian Journal of Medical Research . March 2014 . 139 . 3 . 468–70 . 24820844. 4069744 .
  63. Web site: The resurgence of chikungunya in India. Ideas for India – Evidence based policy.
  64. Sudarshan . M.K. . Madhusudana . S.N. . Mahendra . B.J. . Rao . N.S.N. . Ashwath Narayana . D.H. . Abdul Rahman . S. . Meslin . F.-X. . Lobo . D. . Ravikumar . K. . Gangaboraiah . Assessing the burden of human rabies in India: results of a national multi-center epidemiological survey . International Journal of Infectious Diseases . January 2007 . 11 . 1 . 29–35 . 10.1016/j.ijid.2005.10.007. 16678463 . free .
  65. Menezes . R. . Rabies in India . Canadian Medical Association Journal . 26 February 2008 . 178 . 5 . 564–566 . 10.1503/cmaj.071488. 18299543 . 2244675 .
  66. Ichhpujani . RL . Mala . C . Veena . M . Singh . J . Bhardwaj . M . Bhattacharya . D . Pattanaik . SK . Balakrishnan . N . Reddy . AK . Samnpath . G . Gandhi . N . Nagar . SS . Shiv . L . Epidemiology of animal bites and rabies cases in India. A multicentric study. . The Journal of Communicable Diseases . March 2008 . 40 . 1 . 27–36 . 19127666.
  67. Sudarshan . MK . Mahendra . BJ . Madhusudana . SN . Ashwoath Narayana . DH . Rahman . A . Rao . NS . X-Meslin . F . Lobo . D . Ravikumar . K . Gangaboraiah . An epidemiological study of animal bites in India: results of a WHO sponsored national multi-centric rabies survey. . The Journal of Communicable Diseases . March 2006 . 38 . 1 . 32–9 . 17370688.
  68. Kakkar . Manish . Venkataramanan . Vidya . Krishnan . Sampath . Chauhan . Ritu Singh . Abbas . Syed Shahid . Rupprecht . Charles E. . Moving from Rabies Research to Rabies Control: Lessons from India . PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases . 7 August 2012 . 6 . 8 . e1748 . 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001748. 22880139 . 3413711 . free .
  69. News: Sharma . Sanchita . Vaccine-preventable rabies is India's most fatal infection . . 1 July 2018 . en.
  70. Nair . Pragya Ashok . A Study of Clinical Profile and Quality of Life in Patients with Scabies at a Rural Tertiary Care Centre . Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research . 10 . 10 . WC01–WC05 . 2016 . 10.7860/JCDR/2016/20938.8703. 27891435 . 5121773 .
  71. Gulati . P. V. . Scabies in a Semiurban Area of India: An Epidemiologic Study . Bracanza . C. . Singh . K. P. . Borker . V. . International Journal of Dermatology . September 1977 . 16 . 7 . 594–598 . 10.1111/j.1365-4362.1977.tb00788.x. 914413 . 22089197 .
  72. Sharma . R. S. . Mishra . R. S. . Pal . Dharam . Gupta . J. P. . Dutta . Mahendra . Datta . K. K. . An epidemiological study of scabies in a rural community in India . Annals of Tropical Medicine & Parasitology . 15 November 2016 . 78 . 2 . 157–164 . 10.1080/00034983.1984.11811789. 6742927 .
  73. Chandler . David J. . Fuller . Lucinda C. . 56485379 . A Review of Scabies: An Infestation More than Skin Deep . Dermatology . 2019 . 235 . 2 . 79–90 . 10.1159/000495290. 30544123 . free .
  74. Sharma . R . Singal . A . Topical permethrin and oral ivermectin in the management of scabies: a prospective, randomized, double blind, controlled study. . Indian Journal of Dermatology, Venereology and Leprology . 2011 . 77 . 5 . 581–6 . 10.4103/0378-6323.84063 . 21860157. free .
  75. Mohapatra . Bijayeeni . Warrell . David A. . Suraweera . Wilson . Bhatia . Prakash . Dhingra . Neeraj . Jotkar . Raju M. . Rodriguez . Peter S. . Mishra . Kaushik . Whitaker . Romulus . Jha . Prabhat . Gyapong . John Owusu . Snakebite Mortality in India: A Nationally Representative Mortality Survey . PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases . 12 April 2011 . 5 . 4 . e1018 . 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001018. 21532748 . 3075236 . free .
  76. Kasturiratne . A . Wickremasinghe . AR . de Silva . N . Gunawardena . NK . Pathmeswaran . A . Premaratna . R . Savioli . L . Lalloo . DG . de Silva . HJ . The global burden of snakebite: a literature analysis and modelling based on regional estimates of envenoming and deaths. . PLOS Medicine . 4 November 2008 . 5 . 11 . e218 . 10.1371/journal.pmed.0050218 . 18986210. 2577696 . free .
  77. Senji Laxme . R. R. . Khochare . Suyog . de Souza . Hugo Francisco . Ahuja . Bharat . Suranse . Vivek . Martin . Gerard . Whitaker . Romulus . Sunagar . Kartik . BILLIALD . Philippe . Beyond the 'big four': Venom profiling of the medically important yet neglected Indian snakes reveals disturbing antivenom deficiencies . PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases . 5 December 2019 . 13 . 12 . e0007899 . 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007899. 31805055 . 6894822 . free .
  78. Web site: Snake bites labelled a 'health priority' . . 26 May 2018.
  79. Samy . Ramar Perumal . Thwin . Maung Maung . Gopalakrishnakone . Ponnampalam . Ignacimuthu . Savarimuthu . Ethnobotanical survey of folk plants for the treatment of snakebites in Southern part of Tamilnadu, India . Journal of Ethnopharmacology . January 2008 . 115 . 2 . 302–312 . 10.1016/j.jep.2007.10.006. 18055146 .
  80. Warrell . DA . Gutiérrez . JM . Calvete . JJ . Williams . D . New approaches & technologies of venomics to meet the challenge of human envenoming by snakebites in India. . The Indian Journal of Medical Research . 2013 . 138 . 1 . 38–59 . 24056555. 3767246 .
  81. News: Ray . Kalyan . India neglects snakebites despite 50K deaths each year . . 23 January 2019 . en.
  82. Web site: Roopa . Nupur . Venom, myth and medicine: India fights its reputation as world snakebite capital Nupur Roopa . The Guardian . 27 October 2017.
  83. Alirol . Emilie . Sharma . Sanjib Kumar . Bawaskar . Himmatrao Saluba . Kuch . Ulrich . Chappuis . François . de Silva . Janaka . Snake Bite in South Asia: A Review . PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases . 26 January 2010 . 4 . 1 . e603 . 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000603. 20126271 . 2811174 . free .
  84. AHUJA . ML . SINGH . G . Snake bite in India. . The Indian Journal of Medical Research . October 1954 . 42 . 4 . 661–86 . 13232717.
  85. Abraham . Siju V. . Snake bite in India: A few matters to note . Toxicology Reports . 2018 . 5 . 839 . 10.1016/j.toxrep.2018.08.010. 30140616 . 6104458 .
  86. Hotez . Peter J. . Ten Global "Hotspots" for the Neglected Tropical Diseases . PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases . 29 May 2014 . 8 . 5 . e2496 . 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002496. 24873825 . 4038631 . free .
  87. Acharya . Anita Shankar . Kaur . Ravneet . Goel . Akhil Dhanesh . Neglected tropical diseases—Challenges and opportunities in India . Indian Journal of Medical Specialities . July 2017 . 8 . 3 . 102–108 . 10.1016/j.injms.2017.07.006.
  88. all numbers are from the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation's 2016 Global Burden of Disease Study
  89. Web site: Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation . Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation . Global Burden of Disease Study 2016 (GBD 2016) Data Resources. ghdx.healthdata.org . . 2017.
  90. Dash . A.P. . Revankar . C. . Neglected tropical diseases targeted for elimination in South-East Asia – Progress so far . International Journal of Infectious Diseases . June 2012 . 16 . e18 . 10.1016/j.ijid.2012.05.048. free .
  91. Book: World Health Organization . World Health Organization . Investing to overcome the global impact of neglected tropical diseases: third WHO report on neglected tropical diseases . 2015 . World Health Organization . Geneva . 978-92-4-156486-1.
  92. Narain . Jai P . Dash . AP . Parnell . B . Bhattacharya . SK . Barua . S . Bhatia . R . Savioli . L . Elimination of neglected tropical diseases in the South-East Asia Region of the World Health Organization . Bulletin of the World Health Organization . 1 March 2010 . 88 . 3 . 206–210 . 10.2471/BLT.09.072322. 20428388 . 2828791 .
  93. Brook . Cara E. . Beauclair . Roxanne . Ngwenya . Olina . Worden . Lee . Ndeffo-Mbah . Martial . Lietman . Thomas M. . Satpathy . Sudhir K. . Galvani . Alison P. . Porco . Travis C. . Spatial heterogeneity in projected leprosy trends in India . Parasites & Vectors . 22 October 2015 . 8 . 1 . 542 . 10.1186/s13071-015-1124-7. 26490137 . 4618538 . free .
  94. Weiss . Mitchell G. . Utzinger . Juerg . Stigma and the Social Burden of Neglected Tropical Diseases . PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases . 14 May 2008 . 2 . 5 . e237 . 10.1371/journal.pntd.0000237. 18478049 . 2359851 . free .

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Neglected tropical diseases in India".

Except where otherwise indicated, Everything.Explained.Today is © Copyright 2009-2024, A B Cryer, All Rights Reserved. Cookie policy.