| Conflict: | Muslim conquest of Mediterranean islands |
| Place: | Mediterranean sea |
| Date: | 28 AH/648 AD - 509 AH/1116 AD |
| Result: |
|
| Combatant1: | Byzantine Empire Republic of Venice |
| Combatant2: | Rashidun Caliphate Umayyad Caliphate Abbasid Caliphate Fatimid Caliphate |
| Commander1: | Constans II Constantine IV Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine Kontomytes Giustiniano Participazio |
| Commander2: | Mu'awiya I Abd Allah ibn Sa'd Abdallah ibn Qais Abd al-Aziz ibn Musa Junada ibn Abi Umayya al-Azdi Sufyan ibn Awf Abu Ayyub al-Ansari Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik Mujahid al-Amiri Abu Hafs Umar al-Iqritishi Humayd ibn Ma'yuf al-Hajuri Leo of Tripoli Ahmad ibn Tulun Asad ibn al-Furat Al-Hasan ibn Ali al-Kalbi |
Sea Conquest this term, as used by Arabic and Islamic sources, refers to the Muslim conquest of Mediterranean islands. The Rashidun Caliphate, under the rule of Caliph Uthman ibn Affan, marked the inaugural instance of Muslim naval military activity in history. This campaign was initiated to eradicate the remaining bastions of Roman resistance in the region. The Levantine fortresses and ports that had previously evaded capture, as well as those that had been recaptured by the Romans following the initial Muslim conquest, were also targeted. Additionally, the islands situated off the Levantine coast, where Roman remnants were believed to be entrenched, were subjected to attack.
Umar ibn al-Khattab, the second of the Rashidun caliphs, had prohibited the governors from traversing the sea, recognizing the necessity for the Muslim community to develop expertise and experience in the maritime domain. At the time, the Byzantine Empire and Sasanian Empire held a superior position in this field, and he deemed it premature to engage in maritime confrontations with these two states.In light of these circumstances, the Byzantines were able to exert considerable influence over the Mediterranean region. Umar ibn al-Khattab's strategy was to reinforce the coastal areas he had conquered with a network of fortifications, including castles and towers, which were manned by garrisons tasked with defending them.This is why he reprimanded Al-Ala al-Hadhrami, the governor of Bahrain, who traversed the Persian Gulf without his authorization in opposition to the Persians, thereby endangering the lives of Muslims in 17 AH (corresponding to 638 AD). Additionally, Arfajah was also criticized for undertaking a maritime expedition without his permission while engaged in combat with Ridda Wars in Oman. Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, the governor of the Levant, prohibited him from traversing the sea. Upon the death of Umar and the subsequent transition to Uthman ibn Affan, Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan was authorized by the latter to engage in maritime combat against the Romans. By the end of Umar's reign, the Byzantines had recaptured some coastal territories. Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan subsequently succeeded in reconquering these areas during Uthman's reign, thereby enabling him to conquer Tripoli for the first time.[1]
Muawiya's objective was to conquer the islands situated off the coasts of the Levant and Egypt and transform them into strategic bases from which to challenge Byzantium in the Mediterranean Sea. This marked the inaugural naval incursion by Muslims against the Byzantines, with Mu'awiya directing his forces towards Cyprus in 28 AH (648 AD). This was the inaugural naval incursion by the Muslims against the Byzantines, and the army of the Rashidun caliphs invaded the island,[2] where a battle was fought with its inhabitants, resulting in a Muslim victory. The fleet assembled by Mu'awiya constituted the initial maritime conquest in History of Islam.[3]
Mu'awiya was responsible for the majority of Islamic naval activity until the conclusion of the Rashidi era. By the end of the Rashidi era, the Muslims had conquered the Mediterranean Sea coastline from Tarabulus in the Levant to Carthage, taken control of the islands of Arwad, Cyprus, and Rhodes, and asserted maritime sovereignty over the Middle East. Umayyad Caliphate beginning in 40 AH (661 AD), saw the transformation of Mediterranean waters into Islamic waters through a series of naval military operations and aspects of political and commercial activities. This was made possible by the efforts of the Umayyad caliphs, who laid the foundation for Islamic power in the Mediterranean. During the Umayyad Caliphate, Muslims established fleets and industry houses with the objective of constructing a wide range of commercial and military ships, encompassing various sizes and specifications. Tunis, Alexandria, Rashid, Damietta, Tyre, Beirut, Acre, Traboulos, Levant, and Latakia were designated naval bases for Islamic naval and commercial fleets.[4] [5] During this period, the Muslims undertook three campaigns against the city of Constantinople, employing both land and sea forces, in an attempt to eliminate the Byzantine Empire. This was after they had reached a level of expertise in reaching the Roman capital. They initiated multiple campaigns in the heart of Anatolia, with some reaching the outskirts of Constantinople. However, these campaigns ultimately failed to achieve their primary objective of conquering the city. Consequently, the Byzantine Empire survived for nearly nine centuries.Following the collapse of the Umayyad state and the subsequent rise of the Abbasid Caliphate on its ruins, the caliphate's interests in Baghdad along the Mediterranean Sea experienced a notable decline. However, during the caliphate of Harun al-Rashid, a notable exception was observed, as he appointed a prominent commander for the Levantine and Egyptian coasts. In 190 AH (806 AD), Humayd ibn Ma'yuf al-Hajuri devoted attention to maritime affairs and the role of industry and fleets. He distributed funds in the gulfs and coasts and pursued a policy of "encouragement and suppression of the Romans."[6] [7] Following al-Rashid's demise, the caliphate's attention to the affairs of the Mediterranean waned, and the responsibility for the defense of the Islamic shores was transferred to the people of these shores and their governors. The central basin was subsequently assumed by the Moroccan states that had been established in Africa and the Middle Maghreb. In contrast, the western basin became the responsibility of the Umayyad state of Córdoba and the Muslims in the coasts of the Morocco Al, Aqsa, who were engaged in jihadist activities.During this period, all the islands of the sea were conquered and became part of the Islamic world. This included Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, Crete, Malta, and the eastern islands (Balearic). The Muslims also conducted raids in southern Italy and on the coasts of the Francia countries, establishing some garrisons where they remained for a short period of time.[8]
In the Fatimid Caliphate, the caliphs in Cairo were engaged in the development of maritime capabilities and confrontations with the Byzantines. This was done to present themselves as protectors of the Islamic peninsula against the Abbasids, who were disputing the caliphate and the Great Imamate.The Fatimid state began to weaken and decline in power, accompanied by a corresponding weakening of the Muslim military and naval capacity. Gradually, the Muslims lost control of all the islands in the eastern and central basins to the Byzantines, Normans, and Crusaders.[9] At the same time, the Muslims were preoccupied with fighting the Crusaders and then the Mongols in the east and the Iberian Christian kingdoms in Andalusia, which left them with no opportunity to reclaim the islands.With the fall of Andalusia, the Muslim sovereignty that had been exercised over Eastern Algeria also came to an end. Despite the Mamluk fleets' initial success in forming a formidable force in the Mediterranean and their subsequent raids on several island strongholds previously held by Muslims, it was not until the Ottoman empire that Islam's maritime supremacy was fully restored, enabling Muslims to reclaim islands such as Cyprus, Ikritish, and Rhodes.
In the latter period of Umar ibn al-Khattab's rule and the early days of Uthman, the Byzantines reclaimed some of the coastal cities that had been conquered by the Muslims in the Levant and Egypt. Among these was the city of Alexandria. The governor of the Levant, Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, recognized the necessity of establishing an Islamic fleet to counter the Byzantine threat and conquer the sea islands from which the enemy launched. This would serve as a strategic base of operations for the eventual conquest of Constantinople, which was the ultimate objective of the Muslims. Given the maritime nature of the military conflict between the Muslims and the Byzantines, Mu'awiya recognized the necessity of establishing an Islamic fleet. This fleet would serve several strategic purposes, including the conquest of maritime islands situated along the Levant coastline, the protection of the newly acquired interior territories, and the maintenance of external trade relations. To gain control of the offshore islands facing the coast of the Levant, to defend the open interior, and to ensure continued external trade relations with the countries of the Mediterranean basin, especially given that this sea was still in the hands of the Byzantines, Muawiya invaded the countries of the Mediterranean basin.[10] [11]
Uthman ibn Affan had directed Muawiya to reinforce the coastal defenses, transport them to the area, and provide those who arrived with a plot of land, which he did.It is a documented fact that the Muslims were reluctant to settle in the coastal gorges, which were persistently vulnerable to Byzantine raids. Consequently, Mu'awiya encountered significant challenges in persuading the Muslims to relocate, despite offering them land distribution. Ultimately, he resorted to resettling them with a non-Muslim population and even permitted some Romans to settle there after establishing a degree of trust. In addition, he ensured its protection through the deployment of Muslim troops on an annual basis and appointed a laborer to assume responsibility.[12] In addition to other reconstruction projects, Muawiya oversaw the rebuilding of Tripoli following the flight of its residents. He dispatched a cohort of Jews from Jordan to Tarabulus, where they were settled in the fortress. For several years, the fortress was uninhabited. However, the sustained Byzantine incursions along the coastline reinforced Mu'awiya's resolve to advance towards the islands and subjugate them. This was coupled with establishing a robust system to safeguard the border regions and Islamic territories from further assaults by the Byzantines and their Mardaites allies. The Muslims understood that the Byzantines' principal strength resided in their naval capabilities. Consequently, the Muslims sought to challenge this strength and to strike at the heart of their maritime power, utilizing the very weapons employed by their enemies. This shift in strategy was particularly evident following the failure of the Islamic defensive policy in the Levant and Egypt, which had been unable to withstand the onslaught of Byzantine naval raids.[13] [14]
See main article: Hala Sultan Tekke. According to the islamic narrative, Muhammad foretold that Muslims would embark on a maritime expedition, during which Umm Haram would play a role. This prediction was documented by Al-Bukhari and Muslim in their Sahih, wherein Anas ibn Malik is quoted as saying:
"Muhammad used to go to Qaba' when he went to Umm Haram bint Milhanah to feed him, and she was under Ubadah ibn al-Samit, so one day I went in and fed him, and he fell asleep, then woke up laughing, she said, "I said, "What are you laughing at?" He said, "People from my ummah were presented to me as conquerors in the way of Allah, riding on this sea, like kings on beds," or he said, "like kings on beds." I said, "Pray to Allah to make me one of them." He prayed, then laid his head down and fell asleep, then woke up laughing, and He said: "You are among the first." She rode the sea during the time of Mu'awiya, and she fell off her horse when she came out of the sea and died."[15] [16]
Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan requested permission from Umar ibn al-Khattab to invade Cyprus, citing the proximity of the Romans to Homs as a rationale for the proposed incursion, and he said "A village of Hamas would hear the barking of their dogs and the crowing of their chickens, However, Umar was concerned that the Muslims might venture into the sea, In a written communication, he addressed Amr ibn al-As:" Please elucidate the nature of the sea and its denizens, for I am drawn to the allure of the sea." Amr ibn al-'As wrote to him: "I have observed a remarkable creature being ridden by a diminutive creature. If the larger creature rests, it has the capacity to pierce hearts; if it moves, it has the capacity to alter minds. In this context, the certainty of the situation is reduced, while doubt is increased. The creatures are akin to a worm on a stick: if the worm leans, it sinks; if it survives, it shines." Upon reading the book, Umar penned a missive to Mu'awiya:[17] [18]
"No, and whoever sent Muhammad with the truth, I will never carry a Muslim in it. We have heard that the Sea of the Levant is the longest thing on earth, and every day and night it asks Allah's permission to overflow and drown the earth. And by Allah, a Muslim is more beloved to me than what the Romans contain, so do not oppose me, for I have approached you, and you well aware of what Al-'Alaa encountered from me, and I have not approached him in such a matter."
Following the demise of Umar ibn al-Khattab, Muawiya petitioned Uthman ibn Affan, who granted his request but advised It is imperative that no individual be compelled to embark on a maritime journey against their will."[19] It is not advisable to select individuals or randomly select them; instead, provide them with the option to choose. Should he opt to engage in warfare of his own volition, it is then incumbent upon you to facilitate his departure and provide assistance." Uthman remained unduly influenced by Umar's opinion regarding his apprehension of the sea. Consequently, upon learning of this, Muawiya wrote to the coastal population, instructing them to repair the boats and relocate them closer to the coast of the fortress of Acre. This fortress had been repaired by Muawiya with the intention of facilitating a maritime route for Muslims from Acre to Cyprus,[20] He organized the military forces and assembled the troops, which included prominent figures such as Abu al-Darda, Abu al-Darda, Shaddad ibn Aws, Abu al-Darda, and his wife Umm Haram. Uthman selected Abdallah ibn Qais as the commanding officer of the military forces.[21]
The Muslims departed from the Levant and set sail from the port of Acre for Cyprus. Upon reaching the coast, Umm Haram advanced to mount her chariot, but the chariot suddenly broke free and hurled her to the ground, resulting in her demise by neck fracture.[22] She was interred in that location, and her grave became known as the grave of the righteous woman. Mu'awiya convened with his colleagues, including Abu Ayyub al-Ansari, Abu al-Darda, Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, Ubadah ibn al-Samit Wathila ibn al-Asqa'a, Abdullah ibn Bishr al-Mazni, Miqdad ibn Aswad,Ka'b al-Ahbar, and Shaddad ibn Aws ibn Thabit. They deliberated and dispatched envoys to the people of Cyprus, informing them that their intention was not to invade and seize the island but rather to extend an invitation to embrace Islam and subsequently reinforce the borders of the Islamic State in the Levant.The Byzantines utilized Cyprus as a strategic rest stop during their invasions and a vital source of supplies when their own ran low. Consequently, it was of paramount importance for them to subjugate the island. However, the island's inhabitants were not inclined to surrender. Instead, they fortified themselves in the capital and did not engage in direct confrontation with the Muslims.[23]
The Muslims advanced to the capital of Cyprus, "Constantina," and besieged it. In a matter of hours, the people requested reconciliation, and the Muslims agreed to it. However, the Muslims presented the people of Cyprus with conditions, and the people stipulated conditions to the Muslims. The people of Cyprus' primary condition was that the Muslims not stipulate conditions for them that would implicate them with the Romans because they had no ability to fight them.[24] [25]
In 32 AH, the people of Cyprus were subjected to Roman pressure, which compelled them to provide the Roman army with ships for an invasion of Muslim countries. Consequently, the Cypriots contravened the terms of the reconciliation, and Mu'awiya was informed that the people of Cyprus had Mu'awiya thus resolved to seize the island and place it under Muslim authority. To this end, he agreed with Abd Allah ibn Sa'd—then governor of Egypt—to meet on the other side of the island. The army led by Mu'awiya advanced from one side, while Abd Allah ibn Sa'd did so from the other. They killed numerous individuals, captured many captives, and seized plander.[26] The ruler of Cyprus surrendered and requested reconciliation. Mu'awiya agreed to the terms of the first reconciliation. He dispatched twelve thousand soldiers to the island to safeguard it from hostile incursions and ensure stability, preventing a potential uprising against the Muslims. In response, he deployed a similar number of troops to the island, relocated a contingent from Baalbek, established a city, constructed a mosque, and provided the soldiers with their salaries. The people of Cyprus were devoid of military capabilities, their garrison was feeble, and they were susceptible to invasion, Ismail bin Ayyash said: "The people of Cyprus are subjected to oppression and exploitation by the Romans, particularly in regard to their spiritual and female populations. It is therefore incumbent upon us to take action to prevent and protect them.". Upon the arrival of the prisoners, Abu al-Dardaa al-Ansari was observed to be in a state of emotional distress, evidenced by the display of tear,[27] Jubayr ibn Nafir addressed him as follows:[28] "One might inquire whether it is appropriate to shed tears on a day when Allah has strengthened Islam and its people.", and he said " Once they had lost the command of Allah, He transformed them into the people and the circumstances that we see today. Allah took them into captivity, and if He takes a people into captivity, it is because He does not need them. He said, "How much easier it is for the people for Allah, the Exalted when they forsake His command! ".
During the distribution of the assets, two men riding two donkeys passed by, and Ubadah ibn al-Samit addressed them: "What are the two donkeys that have been observed?", The response was as follows: "Mu'awiya bestowed these items upon us as part of the booty, and it is our intention to undertake the pilgrimage with them.", Ubada then addressed them, stating: "It is not permissible for either of the aforementioned parties nor for Muawiya, to bestow it upon you.", The two men returned the two donkeys to Muawiya, who then inquired of Ubada ibn al-Samat regarding the matter: "I observed Muhammad during the Battle of Hunayn when the populace was discussing the distribution of the spoils. He then proceeded to take a horn from a camel and declare, "I possess no portion of what Allah has bestowed upon you." "The remaining fifth is to be returned to you, Muawiya, as it was bestowed upon you from these spoils." Therefore, it is imperative that you, Mu'awiya, fear Allah and divide the spoils according to their fair value, ensuring that no individual receives more than their rightful share. "Mu'awiya made the following remark: " You are the most knowledgeable person in the Levant, remember to be respectful and to follow the guidance of God in everything you do." Ubada distributed among its inhabitants, with the assistance of Abu al-Dardaa al-Ansari and Abu Umamah al-Bahili.[29]
Following the events in Cyprus, Islamic raids continued against islands that controlled the straits. The Muslims initiated their campaign with the island of Arwad, situated near the Levantine coastline between Tarabulus and Jableh, in advance of the city of Tartus. The initial campaign, returning from Cyprus,[30] initiated an assault on the island. In the documented account of Ahmad Ibn A'tham al-Kufi, the Muslims apprehended a Roman individual on the coast. Upon questioning, the man revealed his origin as Arwad. Consequently, he was presented to Muawiya, who inquired about the island's location and strategic position in the sea. The Romans informed Muawiya of the circumstances of Arwad and its inhabitants. Consequently, Muawiya summoned a man from the Levant named Junada ibn Abi Umayya al-Azdi, who amassed a force of four thousand men and was subsequently ordered to invade Arwad. Subsequently, he embarked his companions in twenty boats, with the Roman man acting as their guide to the island. In return for this service, he demanded the return of his family, money, and child once the island was conquered. The boats proceeded until they reached the island, where the guide ordered them to drop anchor in the sea. They remained anchored until nightfall, when the guide ordered them to resume their journey. They continued until they reached the island, where the inhabitants were unaware of their presence. The Muslims anchored their boats on the coast of the island and proceeded to disembark with weapons. The Romans became aware of their presence and opened the door of their fortress, emerging to engage in combat, the remainder of the population sought refuge in nearby residences. Junaidah ibn Abi Umayya then proceeded to resettle them in their fortress, offering financial compensation in exchange for their allegiance. He also imposed the jizya tax and appropriated their spoils. Thereafter, he returned to the coast of the Levant and delivered the spoils to Mu'awiya,Mu'awiya retained one-fifth of the proceeds and remitted them to Caliph Uthman in Medina. The remaining balance was distributed among the Muslim populace.[31]
See main article: Battle of the Masts. As a consequence of the Muslim victories in the Mediterranean and their domination of a considerable portion of the eastern basin, Byzantine Emperor Constans II was compelled to confront the growing Islamic naval power, which constituted a direct threat to the Byzantine presence in the basin, as well as to Constantinople, his concerns were validated when some Byzantine vessels conducted an incursion into Alexandria and were repelled by Muslim vessels under the command of Abd Allah ibn Sa'd, the governor of Egypt. It was subsequently revealed that Ibn Saad had established a naval strike force comprising multiple vessels, with its operational base situated in Alexandria.[32] Therefore, the situation had to be confronted by nipping this growing Islamic force in the bud. Upon becoming aware of the Byzantines' hostile intentions, Caliph Uthman ordered Mu'awiya to prepare a substantial naval and military force, including a vast array of ships, soldiers, and resources, in anticipation of a comprehensive land and sea campaign against the Byzantines.According to source accounts, Muawiya departed from Damascus with the people of the Levant in the year 34 AH (654 AD), leading a land expedition. Concurrently, ships departed from the Levantine port of Tarabulus under the command of Busr ibn Abi Artat and joined the fleet that originated from Egypt under the command of Abdullah bin Sa'd bin Abi al-Sarh. The two fleets met off the coast of Acre and subsequently proceeded in a northerly direction. The Islamic fleet comprised a total of more than two hundred ships.[33] [34] Muawiya arrived with his troops at Kayseri in Cappadocia, Asia Minor, while Muslim vessels were navigating toward the Byzantine Empire's southern coastline.In a strategic move, the Byzantine emperor initiated his campaign from the heart of the empire, leading a formidable naval force comprising an estimated 500 to 1,000 ships.[35] The two fleets encountered one another in the vicinity of the Lycian coastline, situated at the port of Finike. This occurred during the month of Muharram in the year 34 AH, which corresponds to July 654 AD. The Muslims were apprehensive that their adversaries would emerge triumphant, as they were vanquished by the Byzantine fleet and had no prior experience engaging in a naval battle against such a formidable fleet. Upon observing the vast extent of the Byzantine fleet, Malik ibn Aus Al-Hadathan, a Muslim warrior, is reported to have uttered the following words:" We encountered one another at the seashore, where we observed a fleet of vessels that were hitherto unknown to us."[36] Prior to the commencement of hostilities, the Muslims initiated contact with the Byzantines, proposing combat on the coast or, alternatively, at sea. The Byzantines, however, elected to engage in naval combat, motivated by their confidence in their maritime capabilities and their perception of the Muslims as nomadic peoples adept at traversing deserts on camel
The decline and subsequent retreat of the Byzantine Empire beyond its borders in Asia Minor, coupled with its defeat at the Battle of Dathin, did not result in the permanent abandonment of the strategically and economically important region of the Levant by the Romans. This was a crucial factor in their continued existence as a major power in the region. Muawiya was aware of the Byzantines' objectives and the resulting military vacuum in the region. He therefore set two goals: firstly, to establish defensive positions on the borders and secondly, to maintain permanent military garrisons in the forward strongholds and mountain passes on the fringes of the Byzantine Empire. His third objective was to capture Constantinople, the capital of that empire.[40] Upon the establishment of the Umayyad state and the subsequent transfer of the caliphate to Muawiya, he initiated a significant military campaign in 49 AH (669 CE) with the objective of besieging Constantinople. This expedition was led by Fadala ibn Ubayd. Fadala ibn Ubayd advanced significantly into Byzantine territory, reaching the vicinity of the capital at Chalcedon. He spent the winter of that year in the empire's lands, receiving supplies and provisions from Muawiya. One of these supply missions, led by Sufyan ibn Awf, resulted in the successful Siege of Constantinople. In light of the considerable magnitude of the undertaking and the pivotal importance of the campaign, Muawiya took the strategic decision to reinforce the Islamic forces with his son Yazid at the helm of an additional contingent. The Islamic and Byzantine forces engaged in intermittent combat beneath the Walls of Constantinople. Despite their efforts, the Muslims were unable to secure a decisive victory, which ultimately prevented them from capturing the city. Consequently, they were compelled to withdraw the siege and return to the Levant. During this campaign, the companion Abu Ayyub al-Ansari, who accompanied Yazid's army, perished and was interred at the walls of Constantinople.[41]
The failure of the campaign did not deter Muawiya from persisting in his efforts to seize control of Constantinople. He recognized the strategic importance of controlling nearby islands as an auxiliary factor, utilizing them as bases for launching attacks on the Roman capital and as supply stations for the Islamic fleet during its northern voyages.[42] In accordance with this strategy, Muawiya dispatched a fleet under the command of Junada ibn Abi Umayya al-Azdi in the month of Ramadan in the year 53 AH.[43]
This fleet was tasked with the conquest of the island of Rhodes, situated to the south of the Lycia coastline. The fleet landed on the island, engaged in combat with the local Roman forces, and emerged triumphant. Subsequently, Junada conveyed the news of the Muslim triumph to Muawiya. Muawiya promptly dispatched Muslim families to settle there, ordered the construction of a fortress, and stationed a group of Muslims to defend it. He established it as a stronghold from which to protect the Levant, arranged generous provisions and stipends for them, and sent scholars and religious teachers to convert the island's native inhabitants to Islam. This was done with the intention of surrounding the Muslims in Rhodes with an Islamic religious atmosphere and raising the banner of Islam among its people.[44] Some sources indicate that upon the Muslims' taking of Rhodes, they discovered remnants of the island's renowned colossal statue, which they subsequently transported back to the Levant.[45]
See main article: Siege of Constantinople (717–718). Following the successful capture of Rhodes, another Islamic fleet set sail and took control of the island of Chios. This resulted in the acquisition of Smyrna, Lycia, and Cilicia, which effectively tightened the Muslim naval blockade around the Byzantine capital.[46] In the year 54 AH (674 CE), the second siege of Constantinople commenced. Given the circumstances, it was imperative to reinforce the naval forces. Consequently, another Islamic fleet, under the command of Junada ibn Abi Umayya, was deployed to the waters surrounding Constantinople.[47] He established the island of Arwad as a forward naval base, from which to launch attacks on the Roman capital, supply the besieging army with weapons and reinforcements, and cut off Roman ships. For a period of one year, the Muslims maintained a siege of the city by land and sea. During this time, Roman ships engaged in battles with the Islamic fleet.The second siege of the Roman capital was conducted in accordance with a strategic plan that placed significant emphasis on the role of the naval fleet. The Islamic ships transported soldiers to the coastline, where they proceeded to besiege the outer walls of Constantinople. Concurrently, the fleet completed the encirclement of the city. The combined land and sea siege of Constantinople lasted for several months, with intermittent clashes between the two fleets. However, neither party was able to achieve a decisive victory over the other. The Muslims miscalculated the strength of Constantinople and the resilience of Roman defenses, as well as the determination and bravery inspired in the Byzantines by the imminent danger. This led to a fierce defense of the stronghold, the last fortress, the faith, and the city. The Muslims were particularly astonished by the extensive destruction wrought by Greek fire, a recently developed defensive weapon that the Romans had only recently mastered. As fatigue began to impact the Muslim forces due to these ineffective attacks, they shifted their focus to conducting raids along the coastline of the Sea of Marmara. With the advent of winter, the siege was lifted and military operations were postponed until the following spring.[48] [49]
At the advent of spring, the Islamic fleet returned with troops to the walls of Constantinople, thereby continuing the naval siege of the city as they had the previous year. The Islamic fleet inflicted considerable damage on the defenders of Constantinople but was ultimately unsuccessful in breaching the sea walls. With the advent of winter, the fleet was obliged to withdraw the troops back to the island of Arwad. The Muslim forces continued to besiege Constantinople each spring or summer, only to retreat each winter for six or seven consecutive years before finally acknowledging the failure of their attempts or considering abandoning their ambitious project. However, the relentless exertion of these sustained efforts ultimately proved exhausting, depleting their stamina and resources, and resulting in significant losses in terms of human lives, vessels, supplies, and animals. The repeated failures had a dampening effect on their enthusiasm. Additionally, disease and disorder spread through their ranks, leading them to eventually decide on a general withdrawal. Muawiya, recognizing that the siege had extended beyond the anticipated duration without attaining its objective, perceived the necessity for a prolonged truce with the Byzantines. He recognized, particularly as he perceived his own demise imminent, that it was in the best interest of the Muslim community to redeploy this considerable military force to Damascus to anticipate and prepare for any potential challenges that might emerge following his death and the subsequent succession of the Umayyad state. The Byzantine Empire was similarly keen to conclude the siege of their capital, which had resulted in considerable strain and weakened their military forces. Subsequently, negotiations were initiated with Mu'awiya, resulting in an agreement whereby he would pay an annual tribute to the Byzantines comprising three thousand gold coins, fifty prisoners, fifty horses, and a thirty-year truce.[50] [51]
See main article: Siege of Constantinople (717–718). The internal chaos and disturbances that afflicted the Islamic state during the reign of Yazid ibn Muawiyah and the subsequent Umayyad caliphs of the Sufyanid line resulted in a significant weakening of the Muslim forces, which subsequently proved ineffective in confronting the Byzantines. Upon assuming the caliphate, Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan negotiated a truce with the Byzantines, thereby allowing him to prioritize the resolution of internal challenges within Islamic territories. However, the Byzantine Emperor Justinian II saw an opportunity to exploit the unrest for his own advantage, at the expense of the Muslims. He violated the truce and led his armies to invade the Levant in 70 AH (689 CE), compelling Abd al-Malik to agree to a more substantial tribute than that which Muawiyah had previously paid.[52] This event illustrated that the Byzantines were not inclined to maintain a lasting peace. Consequently, the Umayyad caliphs following Abd al-Malik continued to exert pressure on the Byzantine Empire through the deployment of land campaigns, which were successful in capturing a number of strategically significant fortresses along the route to Constantinople. These included Tyana, Heraclea Cybistra, and others. By the time Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik assumed the Umayyad caliphate, the Umayyad state had reached its apogee in terms of military strength, while the Byzantine Empire was experiencing a period of internal decay, turmoil, and weakness. Constantinople itself had become a theater of revolution and civil war, which encouraged Sulayman to renew his efforts to conquer the city. In preparation for his ambitious campaign, Sulayman undertook a naval expedition under the command of Umar ibn Hubayra, directed against Byzantine territories in 97 AH (715 CE). In the following year, Sulayman amassed a considerable land and naval force, equipped with an extensive array of supplies, provisions, and weaponry for a prolonged military campaign.[53] The forces were commanded by his brother Maslama, whom he directed to Constantinople, ordering him to remain there until the city was either captured or until further instructions were provided. In late 98 AH (716 CE), the Muslim forces, comprising an army of 80,000 soldiers and 1,800 large ships under the command of Sulayman ibn Muadh al-Antaki, reached the outskirts of Constantinople.[54] This constituted the largest fleet ever assembled by the Muslims up to that time. The third siege of Constantinople by the Muslims commenced on 2 Muharram 99 AH (August 15, 717 CE). Admiral Sulayman ibn Muadh divided the fleet into two sections, the first of which was stationed on the Asian shore at the ports of Atribus and Antemios. This section's objective was to cut off the food supplies coming from the Aegean Sea. The second section was positioned on the European coast of the Bosporus opposite the Galata Peninsula. Its objective was to sever all connections between the city and the ports of the Black Sea, particularly Samsun and Trabzon. The initial engagement between European and Muslim naval forces occurred when the former fleet attempted to return to its ports, but was caught in a violent storm, resulting in collisions between the ships. The Byzantines capitalized on this opportunity by directing Greek fire at the Muslim ships, which resulted in the burning of some and the driving of others against the city walls. In response to this setback, Sulayman ibn Muadh amassed his most formidable vessels, reinforced them with elite troops, and launched a formidable assault on the city walls. However, Emperor Leo III was adequately prepared and repelled the attackers with a considerable discharge of Greek fire, compelling Sulayman to withdraw his fleet stationed on the European shore.[55]
The Muslim forces persisted in their siege winter, which resulted in the deaths of numerous soldiers and animals. In the spring, a substantial Muslim fleet arrived with supplies from Alexandria, followed by another fleet from Africa (North Africa). The majority of the sailors on these ships were Christian mercenaries who were concerned about the deteriorating condition of the Muslim camp and the potential consequences of its collapse. A significant number of individuals engaged in a conspiracy to flee and enter Constantinople under the cover of darkness, subsequently informing the emperor of the actual circumstances pertaining to the Muslim camp. Leo promptly seized the opportunity, dispatching a contingent of Flamethrower ships from the harbor to engage with the Muslim fleet. This resulted in significant chaos and destruction, with some ships being burned and others captured. A considerable number of ships were wrecked, thereby shifting the advantage in favor of the Byzantines. At that time, Caliph Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik passed away, and Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz assumed the role of successor. Umar was disinclined to pursue the costly and deadly expansion campaigns, and thus he dispatched a missive to Maslama, commanding him to lift the siege and return to Damascus. Maslama complied with the orders of the caliph and lifted the siege on 12 Muharram 100 AH (August 15, 718 CE). The remaining fleet transported the land army back to Asia Minor, but encountered adverse weather conditions while crossing the Aegean Sea, resulting in the scattering of the ships. The Byzantines subsequently launched an attack, resulting in the destruction of the majority of the fleet, with only a few surviving. Consequently, the Muslims were unsuccessful in their attempt to capture Constantinople, which marked the final significant effort by Muslims to take the Byzantine capital for an extended period.[56]
Following the completion of the Muslim conquest of islands in proximity to their territories, including Cyprus, Rhodes, and Arwad, they initiated a program of maritime incursions into more distant islands. Among the most prominent targets was Crete, which was known as Iqritish at the time. The initial Islamic efforts to conquer Crete commenced during the tenure of Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan, when Junada ibn Abi Umayya al-Azdi initiated an expedition against the island. During the reign of Al-Walid ibn Abd al-Malik, parts of the island were captured, but it soon fell out of Muslim control a few years after Junada's campaign. This was due to the failure of the Muslims' first siege of Constantinople in 60 AH. Muslim efforts to conquer the island were suspended for the remainder of the Umayyad period. Following the decline of the Umayyad Caliphate and the ascendance of the Abbasid Caliphate, the new rulers did not prioritize naval expeditions until the reign of Harun al-Rashid. He dispatched the naval commander Humayd ibn Ma'yuf al-Hajuri to Crete, where he secured portions of the island. However, the Muslims were unable to maintain control following the departure of the invaders.[57] Crete remained outside the control of the Muslim empire until the time of Caliph Al-Ma'mun. During his tenure, a displaced of Andalusian succeeded in assuming control of the island and establishing an Islamic government. The particulars of this occurrence are as follows: A group of Muslims from al-Andalus fled their homeland to escape the tyrannical rule of Emir Al-Hakam ibn Hisham. The scholars and jurists had rebelled against him, condemning his harshness and deviation from religious laws, and incited the general populace against him from the pulpits. This revolt is henceforth referred to as the "Revolt of the Arrabal", as it was spearheaded by the inhabitants of the southern suburb of Córdoba. Nevertheless, al-Hakam was able to successfully suppress the uprising, disperse the rebels, and kill a significant number of them. Subsequently, he ordered the destruction and burning of their homes and commanded the expulsion of the remaining rebels from Córdoba. Some of these exiles migrated to Morocco, while the majority proceeded to Alexandria, where they settled in the outskirts of the city. This occurred during the early years of al-Ma'mun's caliphate, in the year 200 AH. At that time, Egypt was experiencing a period of unrest, with the conflict between al-Amin and al-Ma'mun having spread to the region. The Andalusian exiles seized this opportunity and, with the assistance of the Bedouins of al-Buhaira, assumed control of Alexandria, thereby establishing an independent emirate that endured for over a decade.[58] [59]
Upon reestablishing control, al-Ma'mun dispatched one of his military commanders, Abdallah ibn Tahir al-Khurasani, to Egypt with the objective of restoring order. Abdullah conveyed a message to the Andalusians, declaring war if they did not submit to Abbasid authority. The Andalusians consented to capitulate in order to avert further violence and evacuated Alexandria in 212 AH (827 CE). A group of these individuals had previously engaged in a raid on Crete a few years earlier, resulting in the capture of a portion of the island. Given the lack of viable alternatives, the Andalusians opted to join their comrades in an attempt to conquer the island, which they were already familiar with from previous raids and those conducted by earlier Muslim campaigns. The group, comprising approximately ten thousand combatants aboard approximately forty vessels, was led by a courageous soldier and sailor named Abu Hafs Umar al-Iqritishi, also known as al-Balluti. The troops subsequently landed on the shores of Crete in late 212 AH (827 CE) and rapidly advanced to the island's interior. The Byzantine garrison was unable to repel the invaders and withdrew, leaving the island to the Muslims. The invaders proceeded to establish themselves in the area where they had landed, constructing a substantial trench to surround their camp. This encampment subsequently developed into a city and became the island's capital, designated Rabdh al-Khandaq" or "al-Khandaq." Subsequently, the Europeans altered this appellation to "Candia."[60] [61] The Muslims encountered minimal resistance from the island's inhabitants, likely due to their animosity towards the Byzantines, who were notorious for their oppressive rule, heavy taxation, and heretical Iconoclasm practices. From that point onward, Crete served as a significant Islamic naval base and a persistent source of threat to the islands and coasts of the Byzantine Empire. The Cretan fleet initiated a series of incursions along the Byzantine coastline, seizing control of various territories and disrupting trade routes. These actions precipitated a state of economic and political unrest within the Byzantine Empire. The island's inhabitants pledged their fealty to the Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad, thereby bringing Crete under the Abbasid domain and designating it a province of Egypt. Egypt furnished Crete with weaponry and equipment, while the shipyard in Damietta supplied them with ships constructed from timber harvested on the island.[62]
Following the fall of Crete into the hands of the Andalusian Muslims in 212 AH (827 CE), the Byzantine Emperor Michael II initiated a campaign under the command of Photeinos to recapture the island. However, this campaign ultimately proved unsuccessful in achieving its intended objective.[63] Subsequently, another campaign, comprising 70 ships, was spearheaded by Craterus and similarly proved unsuccessful.[64] In response, the Muslims of Crete initiated incursions along the coast of Thrace and the Cyclades islands, ultimately prevailing over the Byzantine fleet in the Battle of Thasos in 214 AH (829 CE).[65] In 259 AH (873 CE), the Muslims attacked the island of Euboea in the Aegean Sea.[66] However, their fleet was ultimately defeated by the Byzantine fleet under Niketas Ooryphas in the Battle of Kardia.[67]
In 291 AH (904 CE), the Byzantines initiated a surprise attack on Islamic territories with a considerable military force, estimated to comprise approximately one hundred thousand soldiers. They advanced significantly into Muslim territories, resulting in numerous casualties and captives on the Muslim side. The Muslims promptly retaliated by dispatching an Abbasid fleet of 54 vessels from Tarsus, spearheaded by the frontier commander Rashiq al-Wardami, also known as Leo of Tripoli. The fleet captured the city of Antalya[68] and subsequently attacked Thessalonica, the second-largest city in the Byzantine Empire at the time. The city's defenses proved inadequate to withstand the assault, resulting in the deaths of 5,000 of its inhabitants.[69] The Muslims liberated approximately 5,000 Muslim captives, captured over 20,000 inhabitants, and plundered 60 ships laden with riches, commodities, and captives.[70] [71] [72] [73]
See main article: Muslim conquest of Sicily, Emirate of Bari, Kalbids and Muslim Sicily. Concurrent with the capture of Crete, the Muslims conquered Sicily and established a thriving state there. Sicily, along with Sardinia and Corsica, was a region of particular interest to invaders due to its considerable size and wealth. Maritime campaigns targeting these islands often lacked formal support from the caliphate or local rulers and were typically composed of groups of adventurers or marauders, similar to the exploratory practices of English and Spaniards navigators during the Age of Discovery.[74]
The initial Muslim incursion into Sicily was spearheaded by Mu'awiya ibn Hudayj during the caliphate of Muʿāwiya ibn Abī Sufyān.[75] Despite numerous maritime expeditions to Sicily throughout the Umayyad period, the Muslims were unable to achieve a lasting conquest of the island due to its considerable size, distance from North Africa and al-Andalus, and the limited scope of these campaigns. Consequently, Sicily remained under Byzantine control throughout the Umayyad and early Abbasid periods. During this period, the Muslim naval power reached a level that was unparalleled in history. The fleets of the Aghlabids in North Africa and the Umayyad state of Córdoba were highly efficient, well-prepared, and combat-ready as a result of the rulers' focus on the construction of naval forces to protect their coasts from incursions by the Byzantines, the Franks, and the Normans, which repeatedly threatened the Islamic frontiers. Aghlabids exercised control over the central Mediterranean basin, with their formidable fleets conducting patrols from Calabria to Sardinia and Corsica, inflicting significant damage upon coastal regions. Sicily, due to its considerable size and proximity to the African coast, was regarded as a particularly valuable and attainable objective, prompting it to pursue its acquisition.[76] According to Byzantine sources, a Sicilian noble named Euphemius developed an affection for a nun of remarkable beauty and abducted her from her convent. Emperor Michael II responded to this transgression by punishing him with the mutilation of his nose. Subsequently, Euphemius relocated to Syracuse, incited an insurrection against the Byzantine governor of Sicily, and assumed control of the city. A civil war subsequently broke out on the island, resulting in the defeat of Euphemius and his supporters. He subsequently sought refuge in North Africa, where he sought the assistance of the region's ruler, Ziyadat Allah I of Ifriqiya. In return for his support, he promised to bestow upon him the kingdom of Sicily. Islamic sources do not include the story of the nun, but they do indicate that the Byzantine emperor was displeased with Euphemius, the commander of his fleet, and ordered his arrest. Euphemius and his supporters revolted and seized Syracuse, but were later displaced by another leader named Blatha. Euphemius then proceeded to sail to North Africa, where he sought assistance from the aforementioned Aghlabid ruler, who responded to his call for help.[77] In any case, Aghlabid ruler resolved to conquer the island and bring it under Muslim control. He mobilized the populace for jihad, and they hastened to respond to his call. Ships were assembled from various coastal regions, and judge of the Kairouan, Asad ibn al-Furat, was designated to spearhead the campaign. Asad ibn al-Furat was a renowned scholar and jurist of his time, as well as a brave soldier and adventurous seafarer who had previously conducted naval expeditions in the central Mediterranean and captured the island of Pantelleria 'Cossura" near North Africa. In the spring of 212 AH (827 CE), the Islamic fleet set sail with 900 cavalry and 10,000 infantry. The fleet anchored at the port of Mazara, situated on the western edge of the island and in closest proximity to the African coast. Asad ibn al-Furat led his army eastward across the island and declined the assistance of the Byzantines, who had assembled under Euphemius to aid in the fighting. The Muslims proceeded to capture several fortresses and laid siege to Syracuse and Palermo, engaging in fierce battles with the Byzantines. In response, the emperor dispatched reinforcements, which further exacerbated the situation for the Muslims, who suffered defeats at multiple locations. A considerable number of Muslims perished from illness, including their leader, Asad ibn al-Furat. In response to the intensification of the Byzantine siege, the Aghlabid ruler dispatched reinforcements to Sicily. Concurrently, a fleet from al-Andalus arrived with adventurous warriors in 214 AH (829 CE), enabling the Muslims to regain momentum and capture Palermo. Aghlabid ruler persisted in dispatching expeditions and reinforcements to Sicily, and the Muslims gradually captured cities and fortresses such as Agrigento, Kasriyana, Catania, and Messina. However, the Islamic advance on the island was gradual due to the challenging terrain. The Muslims settled in the areas they had captured and established an emirate governed by appointed rulers until the entire island was conquered, with the capture of Syracuse, its final stronghold.[78] Following the Muslim conquest of Sicily, the island became a hub for maritime expeditions and incursions, spearheaded either by the Aghlabid rulers or their appointed governors or by private bands to raid Italian shores. These campaigns were characterized by relentless attacks on the eastern and western Italian coasts, resulting in the retrieval of spoils and captives. In 229 AH (843 CE), a dispute between two Lombard princes over the principality of Benevento in southern Italy prompted one of them to seek assistance from the prince of Sicily, Al-Fadl ibn Ja'far ibn al-Furat. Al-Fadl dispatched a formidable expeditionary force to Caloria (modern-day Calabria), which successfully captured the port of Bari and subsequently established an Islamic emirate there. This emirate subsequently became a powerful base for further operations in the region, engaging in raids on surrounding areas and imposing tribute on the majority of cities in Calabria. The Muslims were also successful in capturing the port of Taranto and subsequently that of Dubrovnik 'Ragusa' on the eastern Adriatic Sea. As a consequence of these events, Muslim naval raids continued against Italian ports, compelling the inhabitants to construct tall, well-fortified towers and castles along the coastline to defend against sudden attacks. These defensive structures were designed to prevent fires set at the lower levels from reaching the upper parts. These Islamic campaigns caused widespread terror and fear throughout the Italian peninsula during this period.[79]
Upon assuming control of the Aghlabid territories in 296 AH (909 CE), the Fatimids dispatched naval forces to the coasts of Italy. In response, their governors in Sicily intensified their raids, establishing a series of naval bases along the island's southern shores. In 298 AH (910 CE), Hasan ibn Ahmad ibn Abi Khanzir, the inaugural Fatimid governor of Sicily, spearheaded a naval expedition to the coast of Calabria, inflicting considerable damage before returning. In 299 AH (911 CE), Ahmad ibn Quraib led a raid to Caloria, seizing booty and captives before returning. A subsequent expedition yielded comparable outcomes. During the tenure of Al-Hasan ibn Ali al-Kalbi as governor, expeditions were dispatched to Calabria, where a provisional settlement was established. Negotiations were conducted with local leaders, resulting in the establishment of a truce in exchange for tribute. Yusuf al-Kalbi, another Fatimid governor, redirected the Sicilian efforts toward raiding southern Italy, rather than engaging in internal disputes. The recurrent raids conducted by the Sicilian emirs, including their expeditions to Italy, resulted in a considerable influx of slaves, who constituted a notable social class within the Muslim community and were integrated into the Islamic military.[80]
Following the conquest of Sicily by the Fatimids, the island entered a prolonged period of political and social unrest. During this time, numerous local Muslim leaders sought to assert their independence from the central authority in Cairo. The Sicilian leaders sought to maintain their local authority while retaining nominal Fatimid sovereignty. The Fatimid caliph, Abd Allah al-Mahdi, rejected this proposal and instead sent forces to subdue the island. He also appointed a new governor, Salem ibn Abi Rashid. Salem's harsh rule led to widespread complaints, and he was eventually replaced by Khalil ibn Ishaq. This new governor was even more severe than Salem, going so far as to demolish the walls of Palermo to prevent its inhabitants from taking refuge. As a result of these actions, many from Palermo sought aid from the Byzantines, and some reverted to Christianity.[81]
As the Fatimids encountered challenges in Sicily, the second Fatimid caliph, Muhammad al-Qa'im bi-Amr Allah, selected Al-Hasan ibn Ali al-Kalbi, a reliable Fatimid administrator in Africa, to assume a leadership role. Hasan al-Kalbi proved to be an effective governor, restoring order and uniting the island. His descendants presided over Sicily for 95 years, a period known as the golden age of Islam in Sicily, until the last of the Kalbis, Hasan al-Samsam ibn Yusuf, was deposed by the Sicilian populace. The subsequent fragmentation of Sicily into several smaller states resulted in a period of intense conflict between the rulers of these states. During this period of conflict, Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn al-Tamna, the ruler of eastern Sicily, and Ali ibn Nimma, the governor of the central region, were engaged in a series of intense battles. Having been vanquished, Ibn al-Tamna sought aid from Roger Norman brother of Robert Guiscard, the King of southern Italy, in 440 AH (1048 CE). Roger's forces commenced the process of assuming control of Sicily.[82]
Since the establishment of their state in southern Italy, the Normans had long eyed Sicily as a potential expansionary opportunity. However, they required papal support to ensure the legitimacy of their claim to the territory. In alignment with the papacy, they were granted the right to capture southern Italy from the Byzantines and Sicily from the Muslims. Consequently, Roger Guiscard was dispatched to conquer Sicily in 453 AH (1061 CE), and the campaign was concluded by 484 AH (1091 CE). Initially, he retained some Muslim governors but subsequently replaced them with Norman or Sicilian officials, retaining only a few loyal Muslims. While Roger and his son adopted a policy of tolerance toward Muslims, his grandson William deviated from this approach, eradicating Islam and its followers from the island. This marked the conclusion of the Muslim political presence in southern Italy, and the control of the central Mediterranean Basin was transferred to the Normans and the Italian maritime republics.[83]
The first Muslim attempt to conquer Malta occurred in 221 AH (836 CE) under the Aghlabids, rulers of ِIfriqiya. During this period, Ziyadat Allah I of Ifriqiya sent an expedition to the Maltese Islands. However, this campaign was merely a raid in which the Muslims secured some loot before returning.[84] [85] It was not until 255 AH (869 CE) that the Muslims managed to conquer Malta. At this time, Abu 'l-Gharaniq Muhammad II ibn Ahmad sent his commander, Khalaf al-Khadim, a freedman of Ziyadat Allah ibn Ibrahim, who laid siege to the island for several months. Khalaf died while still besieging the fortress, prompting Abu al-Gharaniq to instruct his governor in Sicily, Muhammad ibn Khafaja, to send reinforcements. The new commander, Suwadah ibn Muhammad, succeeded in capturing the fortress of Malta and took its ruler, Amros (Ambrosius), prisoner. The fortress was demolished, and considerable spoils were seized. The island remained sparsely populated, with only fishermen and honey collectors frequenting it due to the abundance of honey. In 440 AH (1048 CE), the Muslims established a town on Malta.[86] However, the Byzantines launched a significant naval assault on the island in 445 AH (1053 CE). Despite their efforts, the city's garrison successfully repelled the attack.[87] After the Norman conquered southern Italy in 483 AH (1090 CE), Malta became a target for Norman expansion. Roger I, Count of Sicily, assembled a fleet the following year and landed on Malta.[88] [89] Although the Normans besieged the island, the inhabitants resisted. Roger then negotiated with them, reaching an agreement wherein the Normans would depart, the Muslims would pay an annual tribute in money, horses, and mules, and Christian prisoners would be released. Malta would be governed by the Norman Count of Sicily.[90] This marked the end of Maltese allegiance to the Muslim rulers, although a significant portion of its population remained Muslim, as evidenced by the Muslim graves on the island.[91]
In 516 AH (1122 CE), the Muslims attempted to revolt against Norman rule. By 521 AH (1127 CE),[92] however, King Roger II of Sicily had quelled the rebellion. The Muslim population was permitted to observe their religious practices until the 13th century CE,[93] during which they constituted the majority in Malta, with Christian and Jewish minorities. However, by 639 AH (1240 CE),[94] the demographic composition of Malta underwent a significant alteration. This was due to the relocation of Muslims to the Italian colony of Lucera, which also included other expelled Muslims from Sicily. As a result, the presence of Maltese Muslims on the island came to an end.[95]
This was not the final attempt by Muslims to conquer Malta. In the month of Dhu al-Hijjah 832 AH (September 1429 CE), the Hafsids, led by Abu Faris Abd al-Aziz II al-Mutawakkil, conducted a raid on Malta, resulting in the deaths of 3,000 individuals,[96] extensive looting, and the capture of prisoners, before returning to Tunis. Following the successful expulsion of the Knights Hospitaller from Rhodes in 1522 CE, the Ottomans subsequently targeted Malta. The Knights Hospitaller subsequently sought refuge in Sicily and subsequently Malta, where they established a state in 1530 CE.[97]
They constructed a substantial naval force with which to engage Muslim fleets and transported a considerable number of Muslim prisoners to Malta. In 1551 CE, the Ottoman Empire made its inaugural incursion into the Mediterranean when an Ottoman fleet, under the command of Sinan Pasha and comprising the navigational expertise of Salah Rais and Dragut Reis, landed on the island of Malta with 10,000 troops.[98] [99]
Their objective was to besiege Birgu and Fort Saint Angelo. However, following the encounter with considerable resistance, the Ottoman forces redirected their attention to the neighboring island of Gozo. They were successful in overcoming the island's defenders, capturing some, and subsequently proceeded to launch an assault on Tripoli.[100] The second Ottoman attempt occurred in 1565 CE, when the Ottomans, led by Dragut Reis with Mustafa Pasha, Piali Pasha, and Piri Reis, Great Siege of Malta for approximately three months. This campaign ultimately proved disastrous for the Ottomans,[101] with casualties estimated to be between 25,000 and 35,000. The final Ottoman attempt occurred in 1614 CE when a campaign led by Damat Khalil Pasha attacked Zejtun. While the defenders sustained some losses, the Ottoman objectives remained unattained due to the formidable resistance encountered.[102] [103]
Islamic expansion into Sardinia, commenced in the year 87 AH (706 CE) under the rule of Musa ibn Nusayr,[104] the governor of Ifriqiya. Two expeditions were dispatched to Sardinia: the first was led by Abdullah, the son of Musa, and succeeded in capturing the city of Pula; the second was led by Abdullah ibn Hudhayfah al-Azdi, who returned laden with spoils and captives.[105] Additionally, Yaqut al-Hamawi, in his work Mu'jam al-Buldan, asserted that Musa ibn Nusayr's army invaded Sardinia once more in the year 92 AH (711 CE).[106] Subsequent Islamic incursions into Sardinia occurred in the years 134 AH (752 CE), 197 AH (813 CE),[107] 201 AH (817 CE), 204 AH (820 CE),[108] 206 AH (822 CE), 212 AH (827 CE),[109] 223 AH (838 CE), and 244 AH (858 CE).[110] However, these were sporadic and primarily aimed at plunder and looting.[111]
It seems that the Fatimids were able to exert control over Sardinia for some time. In his biography of the Fatimid caliph al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah in Wafayat al-A'yan, Ibn Khallikan states that Al-Mu'izz resided in the region from the 22nd of Shawwal 361 AH to the 5th of Safar 362 AH.[112] Furthermore, Ibn al-Athir observed in his The Complete History that following the demise of Al-Mansur ibn Buluggin in 386 AH (995 CE), individuals journeyed to Sardinia to pay their respects to his son Badis ibn al-Mansur.[113] This suggests that Sardinia was under the dominion of the Fatimids and their Zirid adherents for a period. Nevertheless, it appears that the Muslims subsequently lost control of Sardinia.
In the month of Rabi' al-Awwal 406 AH (August 1015 CE), Mujahid al-Amiri, the governor of Taifa of Dénia, assembled a fleet of 120 ships and 1,000 cavalrymen to invade Sardinia. He proceeded to occupy portions of the island, utilizing it as a strategic base for subsequent military operations. These included incursions along the coastline between Genoa and Pisa, which posed a significant threat to the commercial interests of these prominent Italian maritime republics. This prompted Pope Benedict VIII to declare war on the Muslims, and the Papal States allied with Genoa and Pisa to expel the Muslims. Mujahid al-Amiri proceeded to fortify the island to enhance its defensive capabilities. However, with the arrival of Christian ships, the intensity of resistance on the island increased. The Christian fleet inflicted significant damage on the Andalusian fleet, resulting in the capture of Ali ibn Mujahid al-Amiri, along with Mujahid's wife, daughters, and brothers, along with numerous other Muslims. Mujahid was able to secure their release after a brief period, but the inhabitants of Sardinia held his son Ali captive for a decade to deter any future attempts by Mujahid al-Amiri to invade the island.[114] [115]
The island of Corsica is situated to the west of Italy and southeast of France and is currently a French territory. Similarly, Corsica was subjected to Islamic raids in ancient times and was referred to by Muslims as "Qarṣaqa" or "Qurṣaqa."[116] [117]
The earliest reference to a Muslim incursion on Corsica is found in the History of the Lombards, which describes how Pepin of Charlemagne liberated Corsica from Muslim raiders in 191 AH (806 CE) during the rule of Abd al-Rahman al-Rabdi. However, this was not an official campaign undertaken by the state, but rather a raid conducted by a group of Andalusian maritime adventurers who managed to capture a significant number of prisoners and seize a considerable amount of loot. A second raid was attempted two years later, to capture the shores of Corsica and Sardinia.[118] In 213 AH (828 CE), during the reign of Abd ar-Rahman II of Córdoba, a naval force launched an attack on Corsica, resulting in the capture of a considerable quantity of loot. In 323 AH (935 CE), Fatimid vessels assailed Corsica on their return from assaulting the city of Genoa.[119]
For a considerable period, no Islamic forces were engaged with hostile powers in Corsica. This changed in 1540 CE when Spanish and Genoese ships intercepted an Ottoman naval fleet in the Gulf of Girolata. The Spanish and Genoese forces were victorious, capturing 1,200 prisoners, including the Ottoman commander Dragut Reis. On 16 Safar 960 AH (1 February 1553 CE), Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent and King Henry II of France reached an agreement for the joint capture of the island of Corsica, which was under the control of the Republic of Genoa, a client of the Henry II of France Charles V. The objective was to use Corsica as a base for invading the coasts of Spain and Italy. In the summer of 1553 CE, the Ottoman fleet, under the command of Sinan Pasha and Dragut Reis, and the French fleet, led by Paulin de la Garde, initiated an offensive against the coasts of Naples, Sicily, Elba, and subsequently Corsica. However, the Ottoman presence was ultimately short-lived due to internal disputes between the Ottomans and the French, which resulted in the Ottomans' withdrawal from the region with their captured spoils.[120]
Balearic Islands are situated to the east of the Iberian Peninsula and comprise four principal islands: The largest of the islands is Mallorca, which is home to the city of Palma, its capital. Other islands include Menorca, Ibiza, and Formentera, as well as several smaller uninhabited islands. The islands were historically targeted by Muslim invasions due to their strategically important location on the eastern border of Al-Andalus, and they were referred to as the Eastern Islands. Musa ibn Nusayr, the governor of Ifriqiya, accorded these islands a particular degree of attention, frequently undertaking naval expeditions against them. The initial incursion was spearheaded by Abd al-Aziz, the son of Musa ibn Nusayr, in 703 CE (84 AH).[121] This was followed by a second raid led by Abd al-Aziz in 705 CE (86 AH)[122] and a third campaign, which was undertaken by Abdullah, another son of Musa ibn Nusayr, in 710 CE (90 AH), to conquer the Eastern Islands.
During these campaigns, the invaders attacked Mallorca and Menorca. However, the expeditions only resulted in the capture of a few prisoners and the seizure of some spoils, rather than establishing stable control. The Eastern Islands remained relatively isolated from Muslim attacks for an extended period, which allowed them to fortify their position. Over time, the islands began to pose a threat to Muslim shipping, prompting Emir Abd al-Rahman II to prepare a naval campaign with 300 ships in 848 CE (234 AH) to discipline the inhabitants for intercepting Muslim vessels. The Muslims invaded Mallorca and Menorca, vanquishing the islanders and capturing numerous prisoners.[123] They then compelled the islanders to seek peace with Abd al-Rahman II, agreeing to pay tribute and pledging loyalty and obedience.[124]
The Eastern Islands maintained their independence until a naval campaign, spearheaded by Admiral Issam al-Khawlani and dispatched by Emir Abd Allah ibn Muhammad ibn Abd al-Rahman in 903 CE (290 AH), successfully captured Mallorca. Emir Abdullah appointed Issam as the governor of the islands, who then proceeded to implement a series of strategic initiatives aimed at consolidating Muslim rule. These included the construction of mosques, inns, and baths, which collectively facilitated the integration of the Eastern Islands into the Islamic realm for the first time. Following Issam's passing in 912 CE (300 AH), his son Abdullah ibn Issam assumed the role of governor but ultimately relinquished his duties and retired. Ibn Khaldun states that Caliph Abd al-Rahman III appointed one of his freedmen, al-Muwafaq al-Saqlabi, as governor of the Eastern Islands in 955 CE (343 AH). Al-Muwafaq concentrated his efforts on shipbuilding and launching attacks on the ports of neighboring Christian kingdoms until he died in 970 CE (359 AH). He was succeeded by another freedman, Kawthar al-Saqlabi, who was appointed by Caliph al-Hakam II. Kawthar continued in the same vein as Al-Muwafaq until his demise in 999 CE (389 AH). Subsequently, Mujahid al-Amiri's freedman, Muqatil al-Amiri, assumed control and continued the policy of raids, receiving support from both Al-Mansur ibn Abi Aamir and later his son Abd al-Malik. This continued until he died in 1012 CE (403 AH), during the period of turmoil known as the Fitna of al-Andalus.[125] [126]
During this period, the advent of the Taifa kingdoms, marked by the conflicts among various rulers over the different cities and regions of al-Andalus, provided Mujahid al-Amiri, who had gained control of Dénia, with the opportunity to seize the Eastern Islands in 1015 CE (405 AH) and incorporate them into his nascent state, thus establishing the Taifa of Dénia and the Eastern Islands.[127] The Eastern Islands remained under the rule of Mujahid al-Amiri and, subsequently, his son Ali Iqbal al-Dawla until their capital, Dénia, was captured by al-Muqtadir ibn Hud in 1076 CE (468 AH). Abdullah al-Murtada, who had been appointed governor of the Eastern Islands by Ali Iqbal al-Dawla, declared his independence and proceeded to rule the islands independently, successfully repelling attacks from Italian, Frankish, and Catalan fleets until he died in 1092 CE (486 AH). He was succeeded by Mubashir ibn Sulayman, who presided throughout intensified Muslim raiding of Italian shores.[128] [129]
These incursions during Mubashir ibn Sulayman's tenure caused concern among the Italian republics, whose economies were significantly dependent on trade. However, the successful raid by King Sigurd I of Norway on the small island of Formentera in 1109 CE (502 AH), during his participation in the Norwegian Crusade, in which he killed the garrison and seized the island's wealth before attacking Menorca and Ibiza, prompted the Italian republics to organize a military strike against the Eastern Islands.[130]
In 1114 CE (508 AH), the Republic of Pisa assembled a fleet of 300 ships to invade the Eastern Islands. They formed an alliance with Raymond Berengar III, Count of Barcelona, and their French allies, who contributed an additional 120 ships. The assault commenced with the attack on the island of Ibiza in August 1114 CE (Safar 508 AH), to sever the Eastern Islands from the mainland of al-Andalus. Subsequently, the siege of Mallorca was initiated. Recognizing the futility of further resistance, Mubashir ibn Sulayman offered peace terms, including monetary compensation and the release of Christian prisoners captured during Muslim raids.[131]
However, the invaders refused these proposals. With no other viable option, Mubashir ibn Sulayman sought assistance from Ali ibn Yusuf ibn Tashfin, the leader of the Almoravid dynasty, who promptly dispatched a fleet under the command of Admiral Ibn Tafartash. Additionally, the Almoravids initiated a concurrent terrestrial offensive against the County of Barcelona, to alleviate the pressure on the Eastern Islands. However, Mubashir ibn Sulayman died during the siege and was succeeded by Abu al-Rabi Sulayman ibn Labun, who attempted to personally seek reinforcements but was captured. The city fell in March 1116 CE (Shawwal 509 AH). Before the arrival of the Almoravid fleet, the invaders committed a massacre among the population and hastily departed the Eastern Islands, laden with captives and loot. On April 5, 1116 CE (Dhu al-Qi'dah 509 AH), the Almoravids entered Mallorca, thereby incorporating the Eastern Islands into the Almoravid state. It is reported that during the retreat of the Pisans and Catalans, a storm caused four ships to drift toward Dénia, where they were pursued by the city's fleet under Ibn Abi al-Saddad. One ship was sunk, while the remaining three were captured.[132]
Following the subjugation of the Eastern Islands by the Almoravids, the Almohad Caliphate began to emerge, gradually extending its influence at the expense of the Almoravids. Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Ghaniya, the Almoravid governor of the Eastern Islands, seized the opportunity and established his state, capitalizing on the weakening of the Almoravid dynasty in its later years. He was succeeded by his son, Ishaq ibn Muhammad ibn Ghaniya, in 1155 CE (550 AH). During Ishaq's tenure, the Eastern Islands experienced a period of prosperity, becoming a formidable naval power with abundant resources. This enabled them to launch frequent raids on the ports of neighboring Christian kingdoms. In 1178 CE (574 AH), Ishaq even captured the port of Toulon in southern France. This prompted the Republics of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice to sign a peace and friendship treaty with the Banu Ghaniya in 1177 CE (573 AH). This treaty remained in effect until Ishaq died in 1183 CE (579 AH), after he was wounded in one of his naval expeditions.[133] [134]
Following the death of Ishaq ibn Ghaniya, his son, Muhammad ibn Ishaq ibn Ghaniya, initially opted to submit to the authority of the Almohad Caliphate, particularly after the Almohads had secured control over eastern al-Andalus. However, this decision was not well received by Ishaq's other sons, who imprisoned their brother and installed Ali ibn Ishaq ibn Ghaniya in his place. They impeded the departure of Ali ibn al-Rubaytir, the envoy of Almohad Caliph Abu Ya'qub Yusuf ibn Abd al-Mu'min, from the Eastern Islands.[135] Upon learning of the siege of Santarém and the demise of Caliph Abu Ya'qub, they revoked their allegiance to the Almohads and incarcerated the Almohad envoy, seizing upon the Almohads' internal strife, the Banu Ghaniya prepared a fleet of 32 ships, carrying 200 cavalry and 4,000 infantry, under the command of Ali ibn Ishaq ibn Ghaniya. They proceeded to attack Ifriqiya, capturing Béjaïa on November 18, 1184 CE (6 Sha'ban 580 AH).[136] This was followed by the conquest of Algiers, Miliana, Mazouna, Achir, and the Hammadid capital, Qal'at Bani Hammad. They then laid siege to Constantine.[137]
In 1185 CE (581 AH), while Ali ibn Ishaq ibn Ghaniya was engaged in military operations in Ifriqiya, Ali ibn al-Rubaytir was able to evade his captivity with the assistance of Christian mercenaries and supporters of the deposed Muhammad ibn Ishaq ibn Ghaniya. They were successful in overthrowing Talha ibn Ishaq ibn Ghaniya, who was acting on behalf of his brother Ali, and reinstated Muhammad ibn Ishaq ibn Ghaniya as the ruler of the Eastern Islands. However, upon Ali ibn al-Rubaytir's departure from the islands, Abdullah ibn Ishaq ibn Ghaniya once again deposed his brother Muhammad with the support of William II, King of Sicily. This resulted in Muhammad fleeing to the mainland of al-Andalus. Abdullah then successfully repelled an Almohad fleet that had come to support Muhammad ibn Ishaq, resulting in the deaths of numerous Almohad soldiers. However, he subsequently lost control of the islands of Menorca and Ibiza.[138]
Abdullah ibn Ishaq ibn Ghaniya fostered robust economic relations with the maritime republics, notably Genoa and Pisa. In 1198 CE (594 AH), he entered into a 20-year peace and trade treaty with the Republic of Genoa. He leveraged these advantageous relations to reinforce his military capabilities, bartering grain and other island commodities for weaponry, vessels, and ammunition to fortify against the impending Almohad assault, particularly in light of the Banu Ghaniya's triumphs and territorial expansions in Ifriqiya. In 1200 CE (597 AH), Abdullah launched an attack on the island of Ibiza to wrest it from the Almohads. However, his campaign ultimately proved unsuccessful. In the following year, he spearheaded another campaign, which resulted in the successful recapture of the island of Menorca. In September 1203 CE (Dhu al-Hijjah 599 AH), an Almohad fleet launched an attack on the Eastern Islands,[139] recapturing Menorca and then besieging Mallorca. Ultimately, the Almohads prevailed, capturing the city and vanquishing Abdullah ibn Ishaq ibn Ghaniya's forces. Ibn Ghaniya himself was killed in December 1203 CE (Rabi' al-Awwal 600 AH), marking the end of the Banu Ghaniya's rule over the Eastern Islands, which were subsequently brought under Almohad control.[140]
Following the collapse of the Banu Ghaniya state and the subsequent incorporation of the Balearic Islands into the Almohad Caliphate, the Christian kingdoms, most notably the Kingdom of Aragon, grew increasingly concerned about the strategic threat posed by the islands. This concern was soon translated into action when James I of Aragon prepared a fleet in September 1229 CE (Shawwal 636 AH). The fleet comprised 155 warships and numerous smaller vessels, carrying 1,500 cavalry and 15,000 infantry. The objective was to conquer the Balearic Islands. The Aragonese forces successfully captured Mallorca, the main island, on January 8, 1230 CE (14 Safar 627 AH). During the capture, 24,000 Muslims were killed, and numerous prisoners were taken, including the governor of the islands, Abu Yahya Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Abi Imran al-Tinmalali, who later died under torture.[141] Nevertheless, a contingent of Muslim resistance fighters fled to the mountains, where they reorganized under the leadership of Ibn Suri. However, Ibn Suri was killed while engaged in resistance against James I's forces on February 21, 1231 CE (10 Rabi' al-Thani 628 AH). The remaining Muslim strongholds were subsequently captured by James's army until the end of June 1231 CE (Rajab 628 AH). In the following month, the remaining Muslims fled the islands. The islands of Ibiza and Formentera were subsequently subjugated in 1235 CE (632 AH). The island of Menorca initially remained under Muslim control, as its governor, Abu Uthman Sa'id ibn Hakam al-Qurashi, elected to negotiate a truce with the Aragonese, agreeing to pay an annual tribute.[142] However, this arrangement was brief, lasting only until 1287 CE (686 AH), when the Aragonese forces conquered Menorca, expelling the remaining Muslims and effectively concluding nearly four centuries of Muslim presence in the Balearic Islands.[143]
Following the fall of Granada in 1492, Sultan Bayezid II of the Ottoman Empire directed Ottoman fleet to assist in the evacuation of Muslims fleeing Granada to the shores of North Africa. In 1501, an Ottoman campaign spearheaded by Kemal Reis conducted incursions into Balearic Islands and Sardinia. subsequently, in 1529, several Moors in Valencia entered into negotiations with Hayreddin Barbarossa to relocate to Morocco. Barbarossa dispatched multiple vessels under the direction of Aydın Reis and Salih Rais to accomplish this objective. However, they were intercepted by a Spanish fleet of eight ships dispatched by Charles V.[144] The Ottoman forces engaged the Spanish ships in the vicinity of the island of Formentera, killing the Spanish commander Rodrigo Portuondo, capturing seven Spanish ships, and taking their crews as prisoners to Algiers.[145] In 1535, Hayreddin Barbarossa launched an assault on the port of Mahón on the island of Menorca, seizing a considerable quantity of booty and capturing 6,000 prisoners who were subsequently transported to Algiers. In 1558, the Ottomans, under the command of Piali Pasha and Dragut Reis, launched another attack on Menorca, this attack resulted in significant losses for the island's defenders and the capture of approximately 4,000 prisoners, who were subsequently taken to Istanbul.[146]
The historical record indicates that Muslim sailors initiated attacks on the western and northwestern coasts of Italy as early as the late 2nd century AH (8th century AD). In 197 AH (813 AD), an expedition originating from Andalusia successfully conducted a raid on Nice, Civitavecchia, and the island of Corsica. However, they were pursued by a Frankish fleet, which caught up with them at the Balearic Islands, effecting the rescue of 500 Corsican captives that the Muslims had taken.[147] In either 228 AH (843 AD) or 230 AH (845 AD),[148] the Aghlabids, under the command of Al-Fadl ibn Ja'far al-Hamdani, captured the port of Messina.[149] In the following year (231 AH/846 AD), the base was utilized as a launching point for incursions into Rome. The garrisons of Civitavecchia and Nova Ostia were overpowered,[150] and the outskirts of Rome were raided. However, adverse weather conditions caused significant damage to a considerable number of their vessels, and the remaining ships were subsequently subjected to attack by the forces of Genoa.[151] [152]
In 245 AH (859 AD), a further incursion was made by Muslim sailors into Nice.[153] In 251 AH (865 AD), Abu 'l-Gharaniq Muhammad II ibn Ahmad dispatched his commander Khafaja ibn Sufyan to capture Genoa. Following this, they advanced into the Alps region and returned by the end of 252 AH (866 AD).[154] A third raid on Nice was launched by Muslim sailors in 266 AH (880 AD). In 293 AH (906 AD), Muslim raiders landed near Genoa, advanced into surrounding territories, and even stormed the city of Acqui in the Monferrato region near Turin. In 322 AH (934 CE), a Fatimid fleet, under the command of Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Tamimi and by the orders of the Fatimid caliph Abd Allāh al-Mahdī, set out with the objective of conquering Genoa. The city was captured, and approximately 1,000 women were taken as captives.[155] The city was subsequently left in ruins, remaining uninhabited for years. In the following year (323 AH/935 CE), Muslims invaded the city of Pisa. In 394 AH (1004 CE),[156] Muslims conducted another incursion into Pisa.[157] Another incursion was made into Pisa in 399 AH (1009 CE), to also capture Luni. In 501 AH (1108 CE), a fleet under the command of Yahya ibn Tamim al-Sanhaji launched an assault on the city of Genoa. The inhabitants of the city negotiated a peace treaty with the Muslims, agreeing to pay a sum of money in return for an end to the hostilities.[158]
Following the rise of maritime republics in the 12th century, Muslim naval raids on the northern and western coasts of Italy ceased. The only confrontation between Muslims and the maritime republics of northern and western Italy occurred in 1552 CE. An Ottoman-French fleet, led by Dragut Reis, defeated the Genoese fleet, commanded by Andrea Doria, in the Battle of Ponza. The Ottoman-French fleet destroyed seven Genoese warships.[159]
Additionally, Muslim maritime raids on the southern shores of France are documented to have commenced in the late 2nd century AH. In 197 AH (813 CE), an Andalusian campaign achieved notable success, raiding Nice, then Civitavecchia, and subsequently the island of Corsica. However, it was pursued by a Frankish fleet, which intercepted it in the vicinity of Eastern Algeria. This enabled the release of 500 Corsican captives who had been taken by the Muslims. In 223 AH (838 CE), an Andalusian fleet invaded Marseille and its surrounding areas, capturing Arles before departing with substantial spoils and captives. Subsequent Muslim raids on Arles occurred in 227 AH (842 CE), Marseille in 231 AH (846 CE), and again on Arles in 233 AH (848 CE) and 235 AH (850 CE).[160] In 233 AH (848 CE), a Muslim naval force launched an assault on Marseille and the entirety of the southern coast of France, extending as far as Genoa. In 255 AH (869 CE), Muslim sailors launched an assault on the island of Karamojo, situated off the delta of the Rhône River. This strategic move effectively established a base for their subsequent raids, which resulted in the capture of the Bishop of Arles. Upon their return from this campaign, they were laden with spoils and prisoners.[161] In the year 277 AH (890 CE), a modest Muslim vessel, manned by a crew of 20 sailors, arrived in the Gulf of Grimaud. The sailors proceeded to establish a temporary encampment in a dense forest situated amidst a mountainous terrain. The raids they conducted in the vicinity proved successful, thereby encouraging them to establish a settlement in the region. A considerable number of sailors from neighboring Islamic territories subsequently joined their ranks.[162] These sailors proceeded to construct a fortress, which they designated the "Fortress of Fraxinetum," utilizing it as a base of operations for their subsequent raids. They established a state that encompassed northern Italy, southeastern France, and portions of Switzerland, which was designated the "Emirate of the Montagne de la Clala." This state was subsequently overthrown in 365 AH (975 CE) following its defeat by William I, Count of Provence, in the Battle of Tourtour in 363 AH (973 CE).[163] In 295 AH (908 CE), a contingent of Muslim sailors arrived in the vicinity of Aigues-Mortes. They proceeded to attack and loot monasteries and churches, which were filled with valuable artifacts and riches. Subsequently, they raided Marseille and Aix, capturing numerous women as captives. In addition, Muslim sailors invaded Toulon and Fréjus in 318 AH (930 CE). In 393 AH (1003 CE), a raid by Andalusian Muslims targeted Antibes, followed by another raid on Narbonne in 410 AH (1019 CE). A third raid occurred in 438 AH (1047 CE), targeting the island of Lérins near Cannes and resulting in the capture of several monks. In 411 AH (1020 CE), a fleet under the command of Mujahid al-Amiri, the governor of Denia and Eastern Algeria, launched an assault on the city of Narbonne.[164]
Following the establishment of maritime republics and their domination of the northern and western Mediterranean, Muslim naval incursions along the southern coast of France ceased. The sole engagement between Muslim forces and the aforementioned republics in the region occurred in 1543 CE when the Ottoman and French armies besieged Nice, which was then under the control of the Duchy of Savoy. This occurred during the Italian Wars of 1542–1546. The conflict resulted in an incomplete victory for the Ottoman-French alliance against the forces of the Holy Roman Empire, the Duchy of Savoy, and the Republic of Genoa.[165]
The Muslim control of the Mediterranean was relatively short-lived, lasting only a few centuries. By the mid-9th century CE, the Byzantine Empire, under the Macedonian dynasty, was undergoing a notable resurgence from its period of stagnation and weakness. The founder of this dynasty, Emperor Basil I, who assumed the throne in 867 CE, concentrated his efforts on reorganizing both the land and naval forces of the empire. Despite his efforts to confront the Muslims, he was ultimately unsuccessful in overcoming them. Nevertheless, Emperor Romanos I Lekapenos was able to prevail over the nimble Muslim fleet in the Battle of Andros in 924 CE. From that point onward, the Muslim naval power in the Mediterranean began to decline. Emperor Romanos II, who ascended to the imperial throne in 959 CE, identified the capture of Crete as his primary objective. He continued the military campaigns until his military commander, Nicephorus Phocas (who later became Emperor Nicephorus II), succeeded in conquering the island and thereby ending Muslim rule in 961 CE. This resulted in the restoration of Byzantine control over the island. This defeat constituted a considerable setback for Islam and the Muslims, marking the advent of Byzantine dominance over the eastern Mediterranean and the restoration of their control over it. Crete did not revert to Muslim rule until it was reconquered by the Ottomans in 1669 CE.[166] Cyprus experienced a comparable historical trajectory to that of Crete. Upon ascending the throne, Nikephoros II Phokas capitalized on the waning influence of the Muslims, largely due to the ascendance of the Buyid dynasty (934–1062 CE), which had assumed control of Baghdad and exerted dominance over the Caliphate. He initiated a maritime campaign to reclaim Cyprus for the Byzantine Empire, successfully restoring its control in 965 CE. During the Crusades, Cyprus served as a strategic base for the Crusaders. The port of Tyre received supplies, primarily originating from Cyprus. The Byzantine navy utilized the island as a base from which to launch attacks on Muslim ports during this period. In 1191 CE, the Crusaders, led by Richard I of England, also known as Richard the Lionheart, occupied Cyprus and used it as a base for his campaign against Acre. Subsequently, Richard sold the island to the Knights Templar, who, in turn, sold it to Guy of Lusignan, Kingdom of Jerusalem, in 1192 CE. Guy established it as a kingdom, subsequently taking up residence there following his defeat at Hattin. Cyprus continued to serve as a stronghold for the Crusaders and a refuge for those who had been defeated in the Crusades. It served as a base for subsequent Crusades, including the Seventh Crusade, which was led by Louis IX of France. Following the capture of Acre by the Mamluks under Sultan Al-Ashraf Khalil in 1291 CE, Cyprus became the sole remaining Christian kingdom in the Levant engaged in the Crusades. It subsequently served as a base for Crusader piracy against Muslim territories. Sultan Al-Ashraf Khalil had the intention of liberating Cyprus and ordered the construction of a hundred ships; however, Mongol threats prevented him from achieving this goal. Muslims did not attempt to recapture Cyprus until the reign of Sultan Sayf ad-Dīn Barsbāy. He led three campaigns and eventually subdued the island, capturing its king Janus, in 1426 CE. Following this, Cyprus came under Mamluk protection and paid tribute until the Venetians occupied it in 1489 CE. Following the emergence of the Ottoman Empire as a dominant Islamic power and the consolidation of its control over all Muslim territories in the eastern and central Mediterranean, the Venetians were expelled from Cyprus. The Ottomans, who perceived the island as a launching pad for hostile actions against Muslims and a strategic outpost for Crusader operations, launched an assault and captured Cyprus in 1571 CE, forcing the Venetians to withdraw. This event marked the conclusion of the Crusader's presence in the East and the eradication of Crusader influence from Muslim territories. Cyprus reverted to Islamic governance and remained under Ottoman domination for approximately three centuries.[167] Following the death of Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, Rhodes was initially lost to the Muslims due to the ensuing unrest that halted the general expansion of Islamic conquests. During the reign of Caliph Harun al-Rashid, the Muslims did return to Rhodes, but they were subsequently expelled by the Byzantines. It was not until the Ottoman era that they were able to reclaim control of the island. During this period, Rhodes became a stronghold for the Knights Hospitaller, who sought refuge there following the defeat of the Crusaders in the Levant and the liberation of Acre, their final stronghold. From their base on Rhodes, the Hospitallers conducted incursions into Islamic territories and engaged in piracy against Muslim shipping. The Mamluks initiated three military campaigns to reclaim Rhodes and neutralize the Crusader threat in the East. The initial campaign commenced in 1440 CE (843 AH) and comprised fifteen ships with a thousand combatants. This campaign ultimately proved unsuccessful due to the resilience of the Hospitaller defenses and the formidable strength of the fortifications.[168] A second campaign was initiated by Sultan Sayf al-Din Jaqmaq in 1443 CE (846 AH), commencing from Damietta. This campaign proceeded towards the Levant, where it joined additional Islamic ships before sailing to the coast of Anatolia. Upon reaching the port of Alaiye, one of the Hospitaller fortresses fired its cannons in mockery of the Muslims, which provoked the Muslim commanders to attack and capture the fortress. However, due to a shortage of supplies and ammunition and the approaching winter, the campaign's direction changed, leading the commander to return to Egypt.[169]
In 1444 CE (848 AH), the Muslims, under the command of Prince Sayf al-Din Inal, initiated a siege on Rhodes that persisted for over 40 days. Despite their best efforts, the siege was ultimately unsuccessful, and the city held out. The Knights Hospitaller received support from certain European powers in their efforts to counter the Muslim forces, leading them to launch attacks on the shores of Alexandria, Damietta, and Tyre. This prompted the Mamluks to negotiate a truce with the Hospitallers, thereby precluding any further attempts on Rhodes. The Mamluks subsequently directed their attention towards the expansion of Portuguese maritime capabilities in the Red Sea, which posed a threat to Islamic and Muslim interests. This necessitated the protection of Haramayn.
Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II, also known as Mehmed the Conqueror, attempted to capture Rhodes but was unsuccessful. With the ascension of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, the situation underwent a significant transformation, as he prepared for a renewed campaign. He amassed a formidable military apparatus, comprising 300 warships and 400 transport vessels, under the command of Mustafa Pasha. Sultan Suleiman himself led a substantial land force from Anatolia to Marmaris, to provide support to the naval operations and monitor enemy movements. In the month of Sha'ban 928 AH (1522 CE), the Ottoman forces arrived at Rhodes. The ships conducted a circuit of the island's fortifications, while the Sultan himself joined the army on the battlefield. Despite the islanders' efforts to defend their city, the Ottoman forces persisted in their relentless pressure, ultimately leading to the surrender of Rhodes after a seven-month siege. On 7 Safar 929 AH (December 22, 1522 CE), the island was formally transferred to Ottoman control, and the Knights Hospitaller were expelled. Rhodes remained under Ottoman rule for approximately four centuries.[170]