| Modern Hebrew | |
| Also Known As: | Hebrew, Israeli Hebrew |
| Nativename: | Hebrew: {{Script/Hebrew|עברית חדשה |
| Familycolor: | Afro-Asiatic |
| Imagescale: | 0.7 |
| Ethnicity: | Israeli Jews |
| Speakers: | 9 million |
| Date: | 2014 |
| Ref: | [1] [2] |
| Fam2: | Semitic |
| Fam3: | West Semitic |
| Fam4: | Central Semitic |
| Fam5: | Northwest Semitic |
| Fam6: | Canaanite |
| Fam7: | Hebrew |
| Nation: |  Israel |
| Ancestor: | Biblical Hebrew |
| Ancestor2: | Mishnaic Hebrew |
| Ancestor3: | Medieval Hebrew |
| Script: | Hebrew alphabet Hebrew Braille |
| Sign: | Signed Hebrew (national form)[3] |
| Agency: | Academy of the Hebrew Language |
| Iso1: | he |
| Iso2: | heb |
| Iso3: | heb |
| Glotto: | hebr1245 |
| Glottorefname: | Modern Hebrew |
| Map: | Hebrew Language in the State of Israel and Area A, B and C.png |
| Region: | Southern Levant |
Modern Hebrew (pronounced as /he/), also called Israeli Hebrew or simply Hebrew, is the standard form of the Hebrew language spoken today. Developed as part of Hebrew's revival in the late 19th century and early 20th century, it is the official language of the State of Israel, and the world's only Canaanite language in use. Coinciding with the creation of the state of Israel, where it is the national language, Modern Hebrew is the only successful instance of a complete language revival.[4] [5]
Hebrew, a Northwest Semitic language within the Afroasiatic language family, was spoken since antiquity and the vernacular of the Jewish people until the 3rd century BCE, when it was supplanted by Western Aramaic, a dialect of the Aramaic language, the local or dominant languages of the regions Jews migrated to, and later Judeo-Arabic, Judaeo-Spanish, Yiddish, and other Jewish languages. Although Hebrew continued to be used for Jewish liturgy, poetry and literature, and written correspondence,[6] it became extinct as a spoken language.
By the late 19th century, Russian-Jewish linguist Eliezer Ben-Yehuda had begun a popular movement to revive Hebrew as a living language, motivated by his desire to preserve Hebrew literature and a distinct Jewish nationality in the context of Zionism.[7] [8] Soon after, a large number of Yiddish and Judaeo-Spanish speakers were murdered in the Holocaust[9] or fled to Israel, and many speakers of Judeo-Arabic emigrated to Israel in the Jewish exodus from the Muslim world, where many adapted to Modern Hebrew.
Currently, Hebrew is spoken by approximately 9–10 million people, counting native, fluent, and non-fluent speakers.[10] [11] Some 6 million of these speak it as their native language, the overwhelming majority of whom are Jews who were born in Israel or immigrated during infancy. The rest is split: 2 million are immigrants to Israel; 1.5 million are Israeli Arabs, whose first language is usually Arabic; and half a million are expatriate Israelis or diaspora Jews.
Under Israeli law, the organization that officially directs the development of Modern Hebrew is the Academy of the Hebrew Language, headquartered at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
The most common scholarly term for the language is "Modern Hebrew" (Hebrew: עברית חדשה|rtl=yes ʿivrít ħadašá[h]). Most people refer to it simply as Hebrew (Hebrew: עברית|rtl=yes Ivrit).[12]
The term "Modern Hebrew" has been described as "somewhat problematic"[13] as it implies unambiguous periodization from Biblical Hebrew.[13] (חיים רוזן) supported the now widely used term "Israeli Hebrew" on the basis that it "represented the non-chronological nature of Hebrew".[14] In 1999, Israeli linguist Ghil'ad Zuckermann proposed the term "Israeli" to represent the multiple origins of the language.[15] [12]
See main article: Hebrew language. The history of the Hebrew language can be divided into four major periods:[16]
Jewish contemporary sources describe Hebrew flourishing as a spoken language in the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, during about 1200 to 586 BCE.[17] Scholars debate the degree to which Hebrew remained a spoken vernacular following the Babylonian captivity, when Old Aramaic became the predominant international language in the region.
Hebrew died out as a vernacular language somewhere between 200 and 400 CE, declining after the Bar Kokhba revolt of 132–136 CE, which devastated the population of Judea. After the exile, Hebrew became restricted to liturgical and literary use.[18]
See main article: Revival of the Hebrew language. Hebrew had been spoken at various times and for a number of purposes throughout the Diaspora, and during the Old Yishuv it had developed into a spoken lingua franca among the Jews of Palestine.[19] Eliezer Ben-Yehuda then led a revival of the Hebrew language as a mother tongue in the late 19th century and early 20th century.
Modern Hebrew used Biblical Hebrew morphemes, Mishnaic spelling and grammar, and Sephardic pronunciation. Many idioms and calques were made from Yiddish. Its acceptance by the early Jewish immigrants to Ottoman Palestine was caused primarily by support from the organisations of Edmond James de Rothschild in the 1880s and the official status it received in the 1922 constitution of the British Mandate for Palestine.[20] [21] [22] [23] Ben-Yehuda codified and planned Modern Hebrew using 8,000 words from the Bible and 20,000 words from rabbinical commentaries. Many new words were borrowed from Arabic, due to the language's common Semitic roots with Hebrew, but changed to fit Hebrew phonology and grammar, for example the words (sing.) and (pl.) are now applied to 'socks', a diminutive of the Arabic ('socks').[24] [25] In addition, early Jewish immigrants, borrowing from the local Arabs, and later immigrants from Arab lands introduced many nouns as loanwords from Arabic (such as nana,,,,, lubiya, hummus,,, etc.), as well as much of Modern Hebrew's slang. Despite Ben-Yehuda's fame as the renewer of Hebrew, the most productive renewer of Hebrew words was poet Haim Nahman Bialik.
One of the phenomena seen with the revival of the Hebrew language is that old meanings of nouns were occasionally changed for altogether different meanings, such as bardelas (Hebrew: ברדלס|rtl=yes), which in Mishnaic Hebrew meant 'hyena',[26] but in Modern Hebrew it now means 'cheetah'; or shezīph (Hebrew: שְׁזִיף|rtl=yes) which is now used for 'plum', but formerly meant 'jujube'.[27] The word (formerly 'cucumbers')[28] is now applied to a variety of summer squash (Cucurbita pepo var. cylindrica), a plant native to the New World. Another example is the word (Hebrew: כביש|rtl=yes), which now denotes a street or a road, but is actually an Aramaic adjective meaning 'trodden down' or 'blazed', rather than a common noun. It was originally used to describe a blazed trail.[29] [30] The flower Anemone coronaria, called in Modern Hebrew, was formerly called in Hebrew ('the king's flower').[31] [32]
For a simple comparison between the Sephardic and Yemenite versions of Mishnaic Hebrew, see Yemenite Hebrew.
Modern Hebrew is classified as an Afroasiatic language of the Semitic family, the Canaanite branch of the Northwest Semitic subgroup.[33] [34] [35] While Modern Hebrew is largely based on Mishnaic and Biblical Hebrew as well as Sephardi and Ashkenazi liturgical and literary tradition from the Medieval and Haskalah eras and retains its Semitic character in its morphology and in much of its syntax,[36] [37] some scholars posit that Modern Hebrew represents a fundamentally new linguistic system, not directly continuing any previous linguistic state. Though this is not the consensus among scholars.
Modern Hebrew is considered to be a koiné language based on historical layers of Hebrew that incorporates foreign elements, mainly those introduced during the most critical revival period between 1880 and 1920, as well as new elements created by speakers through natural linguistic evolution.[38] A minority of scholars argue that the revived language had been so influenced by various substrate languages that it is genealogically a hybrid with Indo-European.[39] [40] [41] [42] Those theories have not been met with general acceptance, and the consensus among a majority of scholars is that Modern Hebrew, despite its non-Semitic influences, can correctly be classified as a Semitic language.[43] Although European languages have had an impact on Modern Hebrew, the impact may often be overstated. Although Modern Hebrew has more of the features attributed to Standard Average European than Biblical Hebrew, it is still quite distant, and has fewer such features than Modern Standard Arabic.[44]
See main article: Hebrew alphabet and Cursive Hebrew. Modern Hebrew is written from right to left using the Hebrew alphabet, which is an abjad, or consonant-only script of 22 letters based on the "square" letter form, known as Ashurit (Assyrian), which was developed from the Aramaic script. A cursive script is used in handwriting. When necessary, vowels are indicated by diacritic marks above or below the letters known as Nikkud, or by use of Matres lectionis, which are consonantal letters used as vowels. Further diacritics like Dagesh and Sin and Shin dots are used to indicate variations in the pronunciation of the consonants (e.g. bet/vet, shin/sin). The letters "", "", "", each modified with a Geresh, represent the consonants pronounced as /link/, pronounced as /link/, pronounced as /link/. The consonant pronounced as /link/ may also be written as "תש" and "טש". pronounced as /link/ is represented interchangeably by a simple vav "ו", non-standard double vav "וו" and sometimes by non-standard geresh modified vav "ו׳".
| Name | |||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Printed letter | |||||||||||||||||||||||
| Cursive letter | |||||||||||||||||||||||
| Pronunciation | pronounced as /link/, pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/, pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ pronounced as /link/, pronounced as /link/, pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as ///pronounced as /link/~pronounced as /link/pronounced as /// | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/, pronounced as /link/, pronounced as ///pronounced as /link/(pronounced as /link/)pronounced as /// | pronounced as /link/, pronounced as ///pronounced as /link/~pronounced as /link/pronounced as /// | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as ///pronounced as /link/~pronounced as /link/pronounced as ///, pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/, pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as ///pronounced as /link/~pronounced as /link/pronounced as /// | pronounced as /link/, pronounced as /link/ | pronounced as /link/ | |
| Transliteration | ', pronounced as /link/ | b, v | g | d | h | v, u, o, w | z | kh, ch, h | t | y, i, e, ei | k, kh | l | m | n | s | ', pronounced as /link/ | p, f | ts, tz | k | r | sh, s | t |
See main article: Modern Hebrew phonology. Modern Hebrew has fewer phonemes than Biblical Hebrew but it has developed its own phonological complexity. Israeli Hebrew has 25 to 27 consonants, depending on whether the speaker has pharyngeals. It has 5 to 10 vowels, depending on whether diphthongs and vowels are counted, varying with the speaker and the analysis.
Modern Hebrew morphology (formation, structure, and interrelationship of words in a language) is essentially Biblical.[45] Modern Hebrew showcases much of the inflectional morphology of the classical upon which it was based. In the formation of new words, all verbs and the majority of nouns and adjectives are formed by the classically Semitic devices of triconsonantal roots (shoresh) with affixed patterns (mishkal). Mishnaic attributive patterns are often used to create nouns, and Classical patterns are often used to create adjectives. Blended words are created by merging two bound stems or parts of words.
See main article: Modern Hebrew grammar. The syntax of Modern Hebrew is mainly Mishnaic[45] but also shows the influence of different contact languages to which its speakers have been exposed during the revival period and over the past century.
The word order of Modern Hebrew is predominately SVO (subject–verb–object). Biblical Hebrew was originally verb–subject–object (VSO), but drifted into SVO.[46] In the modern language, a sentence may correctly be arranged in any order but its meaning might be hard to understand unless אֶת is used. Modern Hebrew maintains classical syntactic properties associated with VSO languages: it is prepositional, rather than postpositional, in marking case and adverbial relations, auxiliary verbs precede main verbs; main verbs precede their complements, and noun modifiers (adjectives, determiners other than the definite article Hebrew: ה-|ha|the, and noun adjuncts) follow the head noun; and in genitive constructions, the possessee noun precedes the possessor. Moreover, Modern Hebrew allows and sometimes requires sentences with a predicate initial.
Modern Hebrew has expanded its vocabulary effectively to meet the needs of casual vernacular, of science and technology, of journalism and belles-lettres. According to Ghil'ad Zuckermann:
Modern Hebrew has loanwords from Arabic (both from the local Palestinian dialect and from the dialects of Jewish immigrants from Arab countries), Aramaic, Yiddish, Judaeo-Spanish, German, Polish, Russian, English and other languages. Simultaneously, Israeli Hebrew makes use of words that were originally loanwords from the languages of surrounding nations from ancient times: Canaanite languages as well as Akkadian. Mishnaic Hebrew borrowed many nouns from Aramaic (including Persian words borrowed by Aramaic), as well as from Greek and to a lesser extent Latin.[47] In the Middle Ages, Hebrew made heavy semantic borrowing from Arabic, especially in the fields of science and philosophy. Here are typical examples of Hebrew loanwords:
| loanword | derivatives | origin | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hebrew | IPA | meaning | Hebrew | IPA | meaning | language | spelling | meaning | |
| pronounced as //baj// | goodbye | English | bye | ||||||
| pronounced as //eɡˈzoz// | exhaust system | exhaust system | |||||||
| pronounced as //ˈdidʒej// | DJ | pronounced as //diˈdʒe// | to DJ | to DJ | |||||
| pronounced as //ˈwala// | really!? | Arabic | Arabic: والله|rtl=yes | really!? | |||||
| pronounced as //kef// | fun | pronounced as //kiˈjef// | to have fun[48] | Arabic: كيف|rtl=yes | pleasure | ||||
| pronounced as //taʔaˈriχ// | date | pronounced as //teʔeˈreχ// | to date | Arabic: تاريخ|rtl=yes | date, history | ||||
| pronounced as //χnun// | geek, wimp, nerd, "square" | Moroccan Arabic | snot | ||||||
| pronounced as //ˈaba// | dad | Aramaic | the father/my father | ||||||
| pronounced as //ˈdugri// | forthright | Ottoman Turkish | doğrı | correct | |||||
| pronounced as //parˈdes// | orchard | Avestan | garden | ||||||
| pronounced as //alaχˈson// | diagonal | Greek | λοξός | slope | |||||
| pronounced as //viˈlon// | curtain | Latin | vēlum | veil, curtain | |||||
| pronounced as //χalˈtura// | shoddy job | pronounced as //χilˈteʁ// | to moonlight | Russian | халтура | shoddy work[49] | |||
| pronounced as //balaˈɡan// | mess | pronounced as //bilˈɡen// | to make a mess | балаган | chaos | ||||
| pronounced as //ˈtaχles// | directly/ essentially | Yiddish | goal (Hebrew word, only pronunciation is Yiddish) | ||||||
| pronounced as //χʁop// | deep sleep | pronounced as //χaˈʁap// | to sleep deeply | snore | |||||
| pronounced as //ˈʃpaχtel// | putty knife | German | Spachtel | putty knife | |||||
| pronounced as //ˈɡumi// | rubber | pronounced as //ɡumiˈja// | rubber band | Gummi | rubber | ||||
| pronounced as //ɡaˈzoz// | carbonated beverage | Turkish from French | gazoz[50] from eau gazeuse | carbonated beverage | |||||
| pronounced as //pusˈtema// | stupid woman | Ladino | postema | inflamed wound[51] | |||||
| pronounced as //adʁiˈχal// | architect | pronounced as //adʁiχaˈlut// | architecture | Akkadian | temple servant[52] | ||||
| pronounced as //t͡si// | fleet | Ancient Egyptian | ship | ||||||
he:חיים רוזן
. A Textbook of Israeli Hebrew. 1962. University of Chicago Press. 978-0-226-72603-8."In retrospect, [Hobsbawm's] question should be rephrased, substituting the Rothschild house for the British state and the 1880s for 1919. For by the time the British conquered Palestine, Hebrew had become the everyday language of a small but well-entrenched community."