Minkowski's theorem explained

In mathematics, Minkowski's theorem is the statement that every convex set in

R ^{n} which is symmetric with respect to the origin and which has volume greater than 2 ^{n} contains a non-zero integer point (meaning a point in \Z ^{n} that is not the origin). The theorem was proved by Hermann Minkowski in 1889 and became the foundation of the branch of number theory called the geometry of numbers. It can be extended from the integers to any lattice L and to any symmetric convex set with volume greater than 2 ^{nd(L)} , where d(L) denotes the covolume of the lattice (the absolute value of the determinant of any of its bases).

Formulation

R ^{n} and is a convex subset of R ^{n} that is symmetric with respect to the origin, meaning that if is in then is also in . Minkowski's theorem states that if the volume of is strictly greater than, then must contain at least one lattice point other than the origin. (Since the set is symmetric, it would then contain at least three lattice points: the origin 0 and a pair of points, where .)

Example

Z ^{n} of all points with integer coefficients; its determinant is 1. For, the theorem claims that a convex figure in the Euclidean plane symmetric about the origin and with area greater than 4 encloses at least one lattice point in addition to the origin. The area bound is sharp: if is the interior of the square with vertices then is symmetric and convex, and has area 4, but the only lattice point it contains is the origin. This example, showing that the bound of the theorem is sharp, generalizes to hypercubes in every dimension .

Proof

The following argument proves Minkowski's theorem for the specific case of

L = Z ^{2.}

Proof of the $\backslash mathbb^2$ case: Consider the map

f: S \to R ^{2/2L,} (x,y) \mapsto (x \bmod 2 , y \bmod 2 ) Intuitively, this map cuts the plane into 2 by 2 squares, then stacks the squares on top of each other. Clearly has area less than or equal to 4, because this set lies within a 2 by 2 square. Assume for a contradiction that could be injective, which means the pieces of cut out by the squares stack up in a non-overlapping way. Because is locally area-preserving, this non-overlapping property would make it area-preserving for all of, so the area of would be the same as that of, which is greater than 4. That is not the case, so the assumption must be false: is not injective, meaning that there exist at least two distinct points in that are mapped by to the same point: .

Because of the way was defined, the only way that can equal is for to equal for some integers and, not both zero.That is, the coordinates of the two points differ by two even integers. Since is symmetric about the origin, is also a point in . Since is convex, the line segment between and lies entirely in, and in particular the midpoint of that segment lies in . In other words,

\tfrac{ 1 }{ 2 }\left( - p _{1} + p _{2\right)} = \tfrac{ 1 }{ 2 }\left( - p _{1} + p _{1} + ( 2 i, 2 j)\right) = (i, j) is a point in . But this point is an integer point, and is not the origin since and are not both zero.Therefore, contains a nonzero integer point.

Remarks:

• The argument above proves the theorem that any set of volume $>\backslash !\backslash det(L)$ contains two distinct points that differ by a lattice vector. This is a special case of Blichfeldt's theorem.^[1]
• The argument above highlights that the term $2^n\; \backslash det(L)$ is the covolume of the lattice $2L$.
• To obtain a proof for general lattices, it suffices to prove Minkowski's theorem only for $\backslash mathbb^n$; this is because every full-rank lattice can be written as $B\backslash mathbb^n$ for some linear transformation $B$, and the properties of being convex and symmetric about the origin are preserved by linear transformations, while the covolume of $B\backslash mathbb^n$ is $|\backslash !\backslash det(B)|$ and volume of a body scales by exactly $\backslash frac$ under an application of $B^$.

Applications

Bounding the shortest vector

Minkowski's theorem gives an upper bound for the length of the shortest nonzero vector. This result has applications in lattice cryptography and number theory.

Theorem (Minkowski's bound on the shortest vector): Let $L$ be a lattice. Then there is a $x\; \backslash in\; L\; \backslash setminus\; \backslash$ with $\backslash |x\backslash |\_\; \backslash leq\; \backslash left|\backslash det(L)\backslash right|^$. In particular, by the standard comparison between $l\_2$ and $l\_$ norms, $\backslash |x\backslash |\_2\; \backslash leq\; \backslash sqrt\backslash ,\; \backslash left|\backslash det(L)\backslash right|^$.Remarks:

• The constant in the $L^2$ bound can be improved, for instance by taking the open ball of radius as $C$ in the above argument. The optimal constant is known as the Hermite constant.
• The bound given by the theorem can be very loose, as can be seen by considering the lattice generated by $(1,0),\; (0,n)$. But it cannot be further improved in the sense that there exists a global constant

c such that there exists an n -dimensional lattice L satisfying \| x\| _{2} \geq c {\sqrt{n}} ⋅ \left|\det(L)\right| ^{1/n} for all x \in L \setminus \{ 0 \} . Furthermore, such lattice can be self-dual. ^[2]

• Even though Minkowski's theorem guarantees a short lattice vector within a certain magnitude bound, finding this vector is in general a hard computational problem. Finding the vector within a factor guaranteed by Minkowski's bound is referred to as Minkowski's Vector Problem (MVP), and it is known that approximation SVP reduces to it using transference properties of the dual lattice. The computational problem is also sometimes referred to as HermiteSVP.^[3]
• The LLL-basis reduction algorithm can be seen as a weak but efficiently algorithmic version of Minkowski's bound on the shortest vector. This is because a $\backslash delta$-LLL reduced basis $b\_1,\; \backslash ldots,\; b\_n$ for $L$ has the property that $\backslash |b\_1\backslash |\; \backslash leq\; \backslash left(\backslash frac\backslash right)^\; \backslash det(L)^$; see these lecture notes of Micciancio for more on this. As explained in,^[3] proofs of bounds on the Hermite constant contain some of the key ideas in the LLL-reduction algorithm.

Applications to number theory

Primes that are sums of two squares

The difficult implication in Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares can be proven using Minkowski's bound on the shortest vector.

Theorem: Every prime with $p\; \backslash equiv\; 1\; \backslash mod\; 4$ can be written as a sum of two squares.

Additionally, the lattice perspective gives a computationally efficient approach to Fermat's theorem on sums of squares: First, recall that finding any nonzero vector with norm less than $2p$ in $L$, the lattice of the proof, gives a decomposition of $p$ as a sum of two squares. Such vectors can be found efficiently, for instance using LLL-algorithm. In particular, if $b\_1,\; b\_2$ is a $3/4$-LLL reduced basis, then, by the property that $\backslash |b\_1\backslash |\; \backslash leq\; (\backslash frac)^\; \backslash text(B)^$, . Thus, by running the LLL-lattice basis reduction algorithm with $\backslash delta\; =\; 3/4$, we obtain a decomposition of $p$ as a sum of squares. Note that because every vector in $L$ has norm squared a multiple of $p$, the vector returned by the LLL-algorithm in this case is in fact a shortest vector.

Lagrange's four-square theorem

Minkowski's theorem is also useful to prove Lagrange's four-square theorem, which states that every natural number can be written as the sum of the squares of four natural numbers.

Dirichlet's theorem on simultaneous rational approximation

Minkowski's theorem can be used to prove Dirichlet's theorem on simultaneous rational approximation.

Algebraic number theory

Another application of Minkowski's theorem is the result that every class in the ideal class group of a number field contains an integral ideal of norm not exceeding a certain bound, depending on, called Minkowski's bound: the finiteness of the class number of an algebraic number field follows immediately.

Complexity theory

The complexity of finding the point guaranteed by Minkowski's theorem, or the closely related Blichfeldt's theorem, have been studied from the perspective of TFNP search problems. In particular, it is known that a computational analogue of Blichfeldt's theorem, a corollary of the proof of Minkowski's theorem, is PPP-complete.^[4] It is also known that the computational analogue of Minkowski's theorem is in the class PPP, and it was conjectured to be PPP complete.^[5]

See also

• Danzer set
• Pick's theorem
• Dirichlet's unit theorem
• Minkowski's second theorem
• Ehrhart's volume conjecture

Further reading

• Book: Enrico Bombieri

. Enrico Bombieri . Enrico . Bombieri . Walter . Gubler. Heights in Diophantine Geometry. Cambridge University Press . 9780521712293 . 2006.

• Book: Cassels, J.W.S. . J. W. S. Cassels . An Introduction to the Geometry of Numbers . 2012 . Classics in Mathematics . 1959 . Springer . 978-3-642-62035-5.
• Book: John Horton Conway . N. J. A. Sloane . John . Conway . Neil J. A. . Sloane . Sphere Packings, Lattices and Groups . 29 June 2013 . Springer . 978-1-4757-6568-7 . 3rd . 1998.

• Book: Hancock, Harris . Development of the Minkowski Geometry of Numbers . 1939 . 2005 . Dover Publications . 9780486446400.
• Book: Edmund Hlawka . Edmund . Hlawka . Johannes . Schoißengeier . Rudolf . Taschner . Geometric and Analytic Number Theory . 2012 . Springer . 978-3-642-75306-0 . 1991.
• Book: Lekkerkerker, C.G. . C. G. Lekkerkerker . Geometry of Numbers . 2014 . Elsevier . 978-1-4832-5927-7 . 1969.
• Book: Schmidt, Wolfgang M. . Wolfgang M. Schmidt . Diophantine Approximation . Springer . Lecture Notes in Mathematics . 785 . 1980 . 10.1007/978-3-540-38645-2 . 978-3-540-38645-2 . ([1996 with minor corrections])
• Wolfgang M. Schmidt.Diophantine approximations and Diophantine equations, Lecture Notes in Mathematics, Springer Verlag 2000.
• Book: Siegel, Carl Ludwig . Carl Ludwig Siegel . Lectures on the Geometry of Numbers . 1989 . 2013 . 9783662082874 . Springer-Verlag.
• Book: Schneider, Rolf . Convex Bodies: The Brunn-Minkowski Theory . registration . 1993 . Cambridge University Press . 978-0-521-35220-8.

External links

• Stevenhagen, Peter. Number Rings.

Notes and References

1. Book: Olds . C. D. . Carl D. Olds . Lax . Anneli . Anneli Cahn Lax . Davidoff . Giuliana P. . Giuliana Davidoff . Chapter 9: A new principle in the geometry of numbers . 0-88385-643-3 . 1817689 . 120 . Mathematical Association of America, Washington, DC . Anneli Lax New Mathematical Library . The Geometry of Numbers . The Geometry of Numbers . 41 . 2000.
2. Book: Milnor . John . Husemoller . Dale . 1973 . Symmetric Bilinear Forms . 46 . 10.1007/978-3-642-88330-9. 978-3-642-88332-3 .
3. Book: Nguyen, Phong Q. . Hermite's Constant and Lattice Algorithms . The LLL Algorithm . Information Security and Cryptography . Springer Berlin Heidelberg . Berlin, Heidelberg . 2009 . 978-3-642-02294-4 . 1619-7100 . 10.1007/978-3-642-02295-1_2 . 19–69.
4. Web site: PPP-Completeness with Connections to Cryptography . Cryptology ePrint Archive: Report 2018/778 . 2018-08-15 . 2020-09-13.
5. Reductions in PPP . Information Processing Letters . 145 . 2019-05-01 . 0020-0190 . 10.1016/j.ipl.2018.12.009 . 48–52 . 2020-09-13. Ban . Frank . Jain . Kamal . Papadimitriou . Christos H. . Psomas . Christos-Alexandros . Rubinstein . Aviad . 71715876 .