Michael Behe Explained

Birth Name:	Michael Joseph Behe
Birth Date:	18 January 1952
Birth Place:	Altoona, Pennsylvania, U.S.
Fields:	Biochemistry
Workplaces:	Lehigh University Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture
Alma Mater:	Drexel University (BS)
Thesis Title:	Investigation of some physical chemical factors affecting the gelation of sickle cell hemoglobin
Thesis Url:	https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/244991630
Thesis Year:	1978
Known For:	Irreducible complexity
Occupation:	Professor, Lehigh University

Michael Joseph Behe (; born January 18, 1952) is an American biochemist and an advocate of the pseudoscientific principle of intelligent design (ID).^{[1] [2]}

Behe serves as professor of biochemistry at Lehigh University in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, and as a senior fellow of the Discovery Institute's Center for Science and Culture. He advocates for the validity of the argument for irreducible complexity (IC), which claims that some biochemical structures are too complex to be explained by known evolutionary mechanisms and are therefore probably the result of intelligent design. Behe has testified in several court cases related to intelligent design, including the court case Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, where his views were cited in the ruling that intelligent design is not science and is religious in nature.^[3]

Behe's claims about the irreducible complexity of essential cellular structures have been rejected by the vast majority of the scientific community,^{[4] [5]} and his own biology department at Lehigh University published a statement repudiating Behe's views and intelligent design.^{[6] [7]}

Early life and education

Behe was born in Altoona, Pennsylvania, and grew up in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, where he graduated from Bishop McDevitt High School.^{[8] [9]} He graduated from Drexel University in Philadelphia in 1974 with a B.S. in chemistry. He received his Ph.D. in biochemistry at the University of Pennsylvania in 1978 for his dissertation research on sickle-cell disease.

From 1978 to 1982, he did postdoctoral work on DNA structure at the National Institutes of Health. From 1982 to 1985, he was assistant professor of chemistry at Queens College in New York City, where he met his wife, Celeste. In 1985, he moved to Lehigh University in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, where he is currently a professor of biochemistry. From 2005 to 2024, Lehigh University's department of biological sciences exhibited a position statement on its website stating that its faculty reject Behe's views on evolution:

As of 2024, his faculty webpage states: "My arguments about irreducible complexity and intelligent design are my own, and are not endorsed either by Lehigh University in general or by the Department of Biological Sciences in particular."^[10]

Career

Behe says he once fully accepted the scientific theory of evolution, but that after reading (1985), by Michael Denton, he came to question evolution.^[11] Later, Behe came to believe that there was evidence, at a biochemical level, that some biological systems were "irreducibly complex". He thought that these systems could not, even in principle, have evolved by natural selection. He believed that the only possible alternative explanation for such complex structures was that they were created by an "intelligent designer". Irreducible complexity has been rejected by the scientific community.^[12]

The 1987 Edwards v. Aguillard U.S. Supreme Court decision barred the required teaching of creation science from public schools but allowed evolutionary theory on the grounds of scientific validity. After the decision, a later draft of the textbook Of Pandas and People (1989) systematically replaced each and every cognate of the word "creation" with the phrase "intelligent design" or similar ID terms.^[13] The books of lawyer Phillip E. Johnson on theistic realism dealt directly with criticism of evolutionary theory and its purported biased "materialist" science, and aimed to legitimize the teaching of creationism in schools. In March 1992, a conference at Southern Methodist University brought Behe together with other leading figures into what Johnson later called the "wedge strategy." In 1993, the "Johnson-Behe cadre of scholars" met at Pajaro Dunes, California, and Behe presented for the first time his idea of irreducibly complex molecular machinery. Following a summer 1995 conference, "The Death of Materialism and the Renewal of Culture," the group obtained funding through the Discovery Institute.

For the 1993 edition of Pandas, Behe wrote a chapter on blood clotting, presenting arguments which he later presented in very similar terms in a chapter in his 1996 book Darwin's Black Box. Behe later agreed that they were essentially the same when he defended intelligent design at the Dover trial.^{[14] [15]}

In 1996, Behe became a senior fellow of the Discovery Institute's Center for the Renewal of Science and Culture, later renamed the Center for Science and Culture, an organization dedicated to promoting intelligent design.^{[16] [17]}

Darwin's Black Box

See main article: Darwin's Black Box. In 1996, Behe published his ideas on irreducible complexity in his book Darwin's Black Box. Behe's refusal to identify the nature of any proposed intelligent designer frustrates scientists, who see it as a move to avoid any possibility of testing the positive claims of ID while allowing him and the intelligent design movement to distance themselves from some of the more overtly religiously motivated critics of evolution.^[18]

As to the identity of the intelligent designer, Behe responds that if, deep in the woods, one were to come across a group of flowers that clearly spelled out the name "LEHIGH", one would have no doubt that the pattern was the result of intelligent design. Determining who the designer was, however, would not be nearly as easy.

In 1997, Russell Doolittle, on whose work Behe based much of the blood-clotting discussion in Darwin's Black Box, wrote a rebuttal to the statements about irreducible complexity of certain systems. In particular, Doolittle mentioned the issue of the blood clotting in his article, "A Delicate Balance."^[19] Later on, in 2003, Doolittle's lab published a paper in the peer-reviewed journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences which demonstrates that the pufferfish lacks at least three out of 26 blood clotting factors, yet still has a workable blood clotting system. According to Doolittle, this defeats a key claim in Behe's book, that blood clotting is irreducibly complex.^[20]

In reviewing a book by Robert T. Pennock, Behe took issue with the "intelligent design" group being associated with "creationism," saying readers would typically take that to mean biblical literalism and young Earth creationism (YEC). In 2001 Pennock responded that he had been careful to represent their views correctly, and that while several leaders of the intelligent design movement were young Earth creationists, others including Behe were "old-earthers" and "creationists in the core sense of the term, namely, that they reject the scientific, evolutionary account of the origin of species and want to replace it with a form of special creation."^[21]

Behe and Snoke article

In 2004, Behe published a paper with David Snoke, in the scientific journal Protein Science that uses a simple mathematical model to simulate the rate of evolution of proteins by point mutation,^[22] which he states supports irreducible complexity, based on the calculation of the probability of mutations required for evolution to succeed. However, the paper does not mention intelligent design nor irreducible complexity, which were removed, according to Behe, at the behest of the reviewers. Nevertheless, the Discovery Institute lists it as one of the "Peer-Reviewed & Peer-Edited Scientific Publications Supporting the Theory of Intelligent Design."^[23]

Michael Lynch authored a response,^[24] to which Behe and Snoke responded.^[25] Protein Science discussed the papers in an editorial.^[26]

Numerous scientists have debunked the work, pointing out that not only has it been shown that a supposedly irreducibly complex structure can evolve, but that it can do so within a reasonable time even subject to unrealistically harsh restrictions, and noting that Behe and Snoke's paper does not properly include natural selection and genetic redundancy. When the issue raised by Behe and Snoke is tested in the modern framework of evolutionary biology, numerous simple pathways to complexity have been shown. In their response, Behe and Snoke assumed that intermediate mutations are always damaging, where modern science allows for neutral or positive mutations.^[27] Some of the critics have also noted that the Discovery Institute continues to claim the paper as 'published evidence for design,' despite its offering no design theory nor attempting to model the design process, and therefore not providing an alternative to random chance.^[28]

Many of Behe's statements have been challenged by biologist Kenneth R. Miller in his book, Finding Darwin's God (1999). Behe has subsequently disputed Miller's points in an online essay.^[29]

The Edge of Evolution

See main article: The Edge of Evolution. In 2007, Behe's book The Edge of Evolution was published arguing that while evolution can produce changes within species, there is a limit to the ability of evolution to generate diversity, and this limit (the "edge of evolution") is somewhere between species and orders.

In this book Behe's central assertion is that Darwinian evolution actually exists but plays only a limited role in the development and diversification of life on Earth. To this aim, he examines the genetic changes undergone by the malaria plasmodium genome and the human genome in response to each other's biological defenses, and identifies that "the situation resembles trench warfare, not an arms race", by considering the hemoglobin-destroying, protein pump-compromising as a "war by attrition". Starting from this example, he takes into account the number of mutations required to "travel" from one genetic state to another, as well as population size for the organism in question. Then, Behe calculates what he calls the "edge of evolution", i.e., the point at which Darwinian evolution would no longer be an efficacious agent of creative biological change, arguing that purposeful design plays a major role in the development of biological complexity, through the mechanism of producing "non-random mutations", which are then subjected to the sculpting hand of natural selection.

The book was reviewed, by prominent scientists in The New York Times,^[30] The New Republic,^[31] The Globe and Mail,^[32] Science,^[33] and Nature^[34] who were highly critical of the work noting that Behe appears to accept almost all of evolutionary theory, barring random mutation, which is replaced with guided mutation at the hand of an unnamed designer.^[35] The book earned Behe the Pigasus Award for the year 2007.

Darwin Devolves

Behe also promotes intelligent design in his 2019 book, Darwin Devolves^[36] whose central premise is that the combination of random mutation and natural selection, apart from being incapable of generating novelty, is mainly a degradative force. Like his previous books, Darwin Devolves received negative reviews from the scientific community, including a scathing review in Science by Nathan H. Lents, Richard Lenski, and S. Joshua Swamidass,^[37] a harsh critique by Jerry Coyne in The Washington Post,^[38] and a scholarly rebuttal in Evolution from Gregory Lang and Amber Rice, Behe's colleagues at Lehigh University.^[39] Lents said of Darwin Devolves and The Edge of Evolution: "his [] two books totally missed their marks and were easily dismissed by the scientific community."^[40]

Lang and Rice's assessment noted that while Behe rightfully acknowledges that organisms have common ancestry, it is posited that a designer is required for more distant relationships like at the family level, and that the presentation of degradative processes is exaggerated with evidence of beneficial adaptations dodged. The article also criticized the use of false analogies and neglecting evidence of new genetic raw material production for evolution ("Behe is correct that the loss of genetic information is an important mechanism. However, the opposing processes of gene duplication, horizontal gene transfer, and introgression balance out gene loss, providing a source of new genetic material"). They then concluded with examples of adaptation that contradict the book's conclusions and expound on the flaws of Irreducible Complexity, adding that "why evolution by natural selection is difficult for so many to accept is beyond the scope of this review; however, it is not for a lack of evidence."

Publications

Behe has written for the Boston Review, The American Spectator, and The New York Times.

Court cases

Dover testimony

See main article: Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District. In Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, the first direct challenge brought in United States federal courts to an attempt to mandate the teaching of intelligent design on First Amendment grounds, Behe was called as a primary witness for the defense and asked to support the idea that intelligent design was legitimate science. Some of the most crucial exchanges in the trial occurred during Behe's cross-examination, where his testimony would prove devastating to the defense. Behe was forced to concede that "there are no peer reviewed articles by anyone advocating for intelligent design supported by pertinent experiments or calculations which provide detailed rigorous accounts of how intelligent design of any biological system occurred"^[41] and that his definition of 'theory' as applied to intelligent design was so loose that astrology would also qualify.^[42] Earlier during his direct testimony, Behe had argued that a computer simulation of evolution he performed with Snoke shows that evolution is not likely to produce certain complex biochemical systems. Under cross examination however, Behe was forced to agree that "the number of prokaryotes in 1 ton of soil are 7 orders of magnitude higher than the population [it would take] to produce the disulfide bond" and that "it's entirely possible that something that couldn't be produced in the lab in two years... could be produced over three and half billion years."^{[43] [44]}

Many of Behe's critics have pointed to these exchanges as examples they believe further undermine Behe's statements about irreducible complexity and intelligent design. John E. Jones III, the judge in the case, would ultimately rule that intelligent design is not scientific in his 139-page decision, citing Behe's testimony extensively as the basis for his findings:

• "Consider, to illustrate, that Professor Behe remarkably and unmistakably claims that the plausibility of the argument for ID depends upon the extent to which one believes in the existence of God."^[45]
• "As no evidence in the record indicates that any other scientific proposition's validity rests on belief in God, nor is the Court aware of any such scientific propositions, Professor Behe's assertion constitutes substantial evidence that in his view, as is commensurate with other prominent ID leaders, ID is a religious and not a scientific proposition."
• "First, defense expert Professor Fuller agreed that ID aspires to 'change the ground rules' of science and lead defense expert Professor Behe admitted that his broadened definition of science, which encompasses ID, would also embrace astrology. Moreover, defense expert Professor Minnich acknowledged that for ID to be considered science, the ground rules of science have to be broadened to allow consideration of supernatural forces."^[46]
• "What is more, defense experts concede that ID is not a theory as that term is defined by the NAS and admit that ID is at best 'fringe science' which has achieved no acceptance in the scientific community."^[47]
• "We therefore find that Professor Behe's claim for irreducible complexity has been refuted in peer-reviewed research papers and has been rejected by the scientific community at large."^[48]
• "ID proponents primarily argue for design through negative arguments against evolution, as illustrated by Professor Behe's argument that 'irreducibly complex' systems cannot be produced through Darwinian, or any natural, mechanisms. However, … arguments against evolution are not arguments for design. Expert testimony revealed that just because scientists cannot explain today how biological systems evolved does not mean that they cannot, and will not, be able to explain them tomorrow. As Dr. Padian aptly noted, 'absence of evidence is not evidence of absence.'… Irreducible complexity is a negative argument against evolution, not proof of design, a point conceded by defense expert Professor Minnich."^[49]
• "Professor Behe's concept of irreducible complexity depends on ignoring ways in which evolution is known to occur. Although Professor Behe is adamant in his definition of irreducible complexity when he says a precursor 'missing a part is by definition nonfunctional,' what he obviously means is that it will not function in the same way the system functions when all the parts are present. For example in the case of the bacterial flagellum, removal of a part may prevent it from acting as a rotary motor. However, Professor Behe excludes, by definition, the possibility that a precursor to the bacterial flagellum functioned not as a rotary motor, but in some other way, for example as a secretory system."^[50]
• "Professor Behe has applied the concept of irreducible complexity to only a few select systems: (1) the bacterial flagellum; (2) the blood-clotting cascade; and (3) the immune system. Contrary to Professor Behe's assertions with respect to these few biochemical systems among the myriad existing in nature, however, Dr. Miller presented evidence, based upon peer-reviewed studies, that they are not in fact irreducibly complex."^[51]
• "In fact, on cross-examination, Professor Behe was questioned concerning his 1996 claim that science would never find an evolutionary explanation for the immune system. He was presented with fifty-eight peer-reviewed publications, nine books, and several immunology textbook chapters about the evolution of the immune system; however, he simply insisted that this was still not sufficient evidence of evolution, and that it was not "good enough."^[52]
• "With ID, proponents assert that they refuse to propose hypotheses on the designer's identity, do not propose a mechanism, and the designer, he/she/it/they, has never been seen. ... In addition, Professor Behe agreed that for the design of human artifacts, we know the designer and its attributes and we have a baseline for human design that does not exist for design of biological systems. Professor Behe's only response to these seemingly insurmountable points of disanalogy was that the inference still works in science fiction movies."^[53]

Jones would later say that Eric Rothschild's cross examination of Behe was "as good a cross-examination of an expert witness as I have ever seen. It was textbook."^{[54] [55]}

ACSI v. Roman Stearns

See main article: Association of Christian Schools International v. Roman Stearns. Behe received $20,000 for testifying as an expert witness on behalf of the plaintiffs in Association of Christian Schools International v. Roman Stearns.^[56] The case was filed by Association of Christian Schools International, which argued that the University of California was being discriminatory by not recognizing science classes that use creationist books. The 2005 filing claimed that University of California's rejection of several of their courses was illegal "viewpoint discrimination and content regulation prohibited by the Free Speech Clause."^[57] In 2007, Behe's expert witness report claimed that the Christian textbooks, including William S. Pinkston, Jr.'s Biology for Christian Schools (1980; 2nd ed. 1994), are excellent works for high school students. He defended that view in a deposition.^{[58] [59]}

In August 2008, Judge S. James Otero rejected Behe's claims, saying that Behe "submitted a declaration concluding that the BJU [Bob Jones University Press] text mentions standard scientific content. ... However, Professor Behe 'did not consider how much detail or depth' the texts gave to this standard content." Otero ruled in favor of the University of California's decision to reject courses using these books.^[60]

Personal life

Behe is a Catholic.^[61] He is married to Celeste Behe and they have nine children who are homeschooled.^[62]

Publications

Books

• Book: Behe, Michael J. . 1996 . Darwin's Black Box: The Biochemical Challenge to Evolution . New York . . 978-0-684-82754-4 . 96000695 . 34150540 . Behe 1996b. Darwin's Black Box .
• Book: Behe . Michael J. . Dembski . William A. . William A. Dembski . Meyer . Stephen C. . Stephen C. Meyer . 2000 . Science and Evidence for Design in the Universe: Papers Presented at a Conference Sponsored by the Wethersfield Institute, New York City, September 25, 1999 . Proceedings of the Wethersfield Institute . 9 . San Francisco, CA . . 978-0-89870-809-7 . 00102374 . 45720008 . 2 . Behe, Dembski & Meyer 2000. List of works on intelligent design#Supportive non-fiction books .
• Book: Behe, Michael J. . 2003 . Design in the Details: The Origin of Biomolecular Machines . Campbell . John Angus . John Angus Campbell . Meyer . Stephen C. . Darwinism, Design and Public Education . Rhetoric and Public Affairs Series . East Lansing, MI . . 287–302 . 978-0-87013-670-2 . 2003020507 . 53145654 . 2 . Behe 2003a. Darwinism, Design and Public Education .
• Book: Behe, Michael J. . 2003 . The modern intelligent design hypothesis: breaking rules . Manson . Neal A. . God and Design: The Teleological Argument and Modern Science . London; New York . . 277–291 . 978-0-415-26344-3 . 2002027548 . 50447710 . 2 . Behe 2003b.
• Book: Behe, Michael J. . 2004 . Irreducible Complexity: Obstacle to Darwinian Evolution . Dembski . William A. . Ruse . Michael . Michael Ruse . Debating Design: From Darwin to DNA . New York . Cambridge University Press . 352–370 . 978-0-521-82949-6 . 2004047363 . 54826160 . 2 . Behe 2004. List of works on intelligent design#Neutral non-fiction anthologies . "Papers from a conference, entitled Design and its Critics, held at Concordia University, Mequon, Wis., June 22–24, 2000."
• Book: Behe . Michael J. . Singh . Thoudam Damodara . Bhaktisvarupa Damodar Swami . 2005 . God, Intelligent Design & Fine-Tuning: A Discussion Between Michael J. Behe and T.D. Singh . Kolkata, West Bengal . Bhaktivedanta Institute . 978-81-89635-01-5 . 2006554901 . 70631564 . 2 . Behe & Singh 2005.
• Book: Behe, Michael J. . 2007 . The Edge of Evolution: The Search for the Limits of Darwinism . New York . Free Press . 978-0-7432-9620-5 . 2007298379 . 136958644 . 2 . Behe 2007. The Edge of Evolution .
• Book: Behe, Michael J. . 2013 . Getting There First: An Evolutionary Rate Advantage for Adaptive Loss-of-Function Mutations . Marks II . Robert J. . Robert J. Marks II . Behe . Michael J. . Dembski . William A. . Gordon . Bruce L. . Bruce L. Gordon . Sanford . John C. . John C. Sanford . Biological Information--New Perspectives: Proceedings of a Symposium Held May 31, 2011 Through June 3, 2011 at Cornell University . Hackensack, NJ . World Scientific Publishing Co. . 450–473 . 978-981-4508-71-1 . 2013016707 . 858441131 . 2 . Behe 2013.
• Book: Behe, Michael J. . 2019 . Darwin Devolves: The New Science About DNA That Challenges Evolution . San Francisco . HarperOne . 978-0062842619 . 2018034062 . 1049576124 . 2 . Behe 2019 .

Journal articles

DNA structure

• Behe . Michael J. . Felsenfeld . Gary . Szu . Shousun Chen . Charney . Elliot . February 1985 . Temperature-dependent conformational transitions in poly(dG-dC) and poly(dG-m⁵dC) . . 24 . 2 . 289–300 . 10.1002/bip.360240202 . 0006-3525 . 3978220. 46173376 .
• Behe . Michael J. . 2 . March 1986 . Vacuum UV CD of the low-salt Z-forms of poly(rG-dC).poly(rG-dC), and poly(dG-m⁵dC).poly(dG-m⁵dC) . Biopolymers . 25 . 3 . 519–523 . 10.1002/bip.360250310 . 0006-3525 . 3754471. 44340223 .
• Behe . Michael J. . 2 . December 1987 . The DNA sequence of the human β-globin region is strongly biased in favor of long strings of contiguous purine or pyrimidine residues . . 26 . 24 . 7870–7875 . 10.1021/bi00398a050 . 0006-2960 . 3427110.
• Behe . Michael J. . Beasty . Anne M. . 2 . 1991 . Co-polymer tracts in eukaryotic, prokaryotic, and organellar DNA . . 1 . 5 . 291–302 . 10.3109/10425179109020785 . 1940-1736 . 474190174 . 1799681.
• Behe . Michael J. . 2 . February 25, 1995 . An overabundance of long oligopurine tracts occurs in the genome of simple and complex eukaryotes . . 23 . 4 . 689–695 . 10.1093/nar/23.4.689 . 0305-1048 . 306739 . 7899090.
• Behe . Michael J. . 2 . 1998 . Tracts of adenosine and cytidine residues in the genomes of prokaryotes and eukaryotes . DNA Sequence . 8 . 6 . 375–383 . 10.3109/10425179809020898 . 1940-1736 . 10728822.

Protein structure

• Behe . Michael J. . Englander . S. Walter . July 1978 . Sickle hemoglobin gelation. Reaction order and critical nucleus size . . 23 . 1 . 129–145 . 1978BpJ....23..129B . 10.1016/S0006-3495(78)85438-1 . 0006-3495 . 1473549 . 667302.
• Behe . Michael J. . Englander . 2 . 2 . September 5, 1979 . Mixed gelation theory. Kinetics, equilibrium and gel incorporation in sickle hemoglobin mixtures . . 133 . 1 . 137–160 . 10.1016/0022-2836(79)90254-7 . 0022-2836 . 93643.
• Behe . Michael J. . Englander . 2 . 2 . September 18, 1979 . Quantitative assessment of the noncovalent inhibition of sickle hemoglobin gelation by phenyl derivatives and other known agents . Biochemistry . 18 . 19 . 4196–4201 . 10.1021/bi00586a025 . 0006-2960 . 486417.
• Behe . Michael J. . Lattman . Eaton E. . Rose . George D. . 2 . May 15, 1991 . The protein-folding problem: the native fold determines packing, but does packing determine the native fold? . . 88 . 10 . 4195–4199 . 1991PNAS...88.4195B . 10.1073/pnas.88.10.4195 . 0027-8424 . 51625 . 2034665. free .

Evolution

• Behe . Michael J. . October 1990 . Histone deletion mutants challenge the molecular clock hypothesis . . 15 . 10 . 374–376 . 10.1016/0968-0004(90)90231-Y . 0968-0004 . 2251727.
• Behe . Michael J. . 2 . March 2000 . Self-Organization and Irreducibly Complex Systems: A Reply to Shanks and Joplin . . 155–162 . 67 . 1 . 10.1086/392766 . 0031-8248 . 188618 . 10.1.1.643.6193 . 53975381 .
• Behe . Michael J. . 2 . November 2001 . Reply to My Critics: A Response to Reviews of Darwin's Black Box: The Biochemical Challenge to Evolution . . 16 . 5 . 685–709 . 10.1023/A:1012268700496 . 34945871 . 0169-3867 . January 30, 2014 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20131205095509/http://www.lehigh.edu/~inbios/pdf/Behe/Behe_reply_to_my_critics.pdf . December 5, 2013 .
• Behe . Michael J. . Snoke . David W. . David Snoke . 2 . October 2004 . Simulating evolution by gene duplication of protein features that require multiple amino acid residues . Protein Science . 13 . 10 . 2651–2664 . 10.1110/ps.04802904 . 0961-8368 . 2286568 . 15340163 . Behe & Snoke 2004.
• Behe . Michael J. . 2 . December 2010 . Experimental evolution, loss-of-function mutations, and 'the first rule of adaptive evolution' . . 85 . 4 . 419–445 . 10.1086/656902 . 21243963 . 0033-5770 . 656902 . 1070352 . January 30, 2014 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20140628034917/http://www.lehigh.edu/~inbios/pdf/Behe/QRB_paper.pdf . June 28, 2014 .

Media articles

• News: Behe . Michael J. . October 29, 1996 . Darwin Under the Microscope . . Op-ed . A25 . January 30, 2014 . Behe 1996a.
• News: Behe . Michael J. . 2 . August 13, 1999 . Teach Evolution—And Ask Hard Questions . The New York Times . Op-ed . A21 . January 30, 2014 . Behe 1999.
• Behe . Michael J. . 2 . April 2002 . The Challenge of Irreducible Complexity . . 111 . 3 . 74 . 0028-0712 . Behe 2002a.
• News: Behe . Michael J. . 2 . February 7, 2005 . Design for Living . The New York Times . Op-ed . A21 . January 30, 2014 . Behe 2005.

Film and video appearances

• Behe . Michael J. . 1997 . Irreducible Complexity: The Biochemical Challenge to Darwinian Theory . Public lecture . Pasadena, CA . . 827561263.
• Behe . Michael J. . 2 . 2001 . Intelligent Design: From the Big Bang to Irreducible Complexity: An Interview with Dr. Michael Behe . Interview . Colorado Springs, CO . . 49254259.
• Behe . Michael . 2 . 2002 . . Interview . Colorado Springs, CO . Focus on the Family

  Illustra Media

  . 51949578 . Behe 2002b.
• Behe . Michael . 2 . 2003 . Where Does the Evidence Lead?: Exploring the Theory of Intelligent Design . Interview . Murrieta, CA . Illustra Media . 60849776.
• Olson . Randy (Writer, Director) . Randy Olson . Carlisle . Ty (Producer) . Behe . Michael J. (Interviewee) . 2006 . Flock of Dodos

  The Evolution-Intelligent Design Circus

  . Motion picture . New York . Docurama Films . 978-0-767-09819-9 . 162139273 . 2011604915.

References

• Book: Coulter, Ann H. . Ann Coulter . 2007 . . Godless: The Church of Liberalism . 1st paperback . New York . . 978-1-4000-5421-3 . 2007280683 . 148652646 . Coulter 2007. Godless: The Church of Liberalism .
• Book: Forrest, Barbara . Barbara Forrest . 2001 . The Wedge at Work: How Intelligent Design Creationism Is Wedging Its Way into the Cultural and Academic Mainstream . http://www.talkreason.org/articles/Wedge.cfm#I . Intelligent Design Creationism and Its Critics: Philosophical, Theological, and Scientific Perspectives . Pennock . Robert T . Robert T. Pennock . Cambridge, MA . . 978-0-262-66124-9 . 2001031276 . 46729201 . Forrest 2001 . registration .

External links

• Michael Behe Biography from Lehigh University
• Michael Behe Biography from the Discovery Institute
• Michael Behe Biography from the Access Research Network
• Irreducible Complexity and Michael Behe on intelligent design from the TalkOrigins Archive

Notes and References

1. Boudry . Maarten . Maarten Boudry . Blancke . Stefaan . Braeckman . Johan . Johan Braeckman . December 2010 . Irreducible Incoherence and Intelligent Design: A Look into the Conceptual Toolbox of a Pseudoscience . . 85 . 4 . 473–482 . 10.1086/656904 . 21243965. 1854/LU-952482 . 27218269 . free . Article available from Universiteit Gent
2. Web site: Defending Darwin: Scientists respond to attack on evolution . EurekAlert! . February 11, 2019 . February 9, 2020.
3. [s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District#H. Conclusion]
4. News: Abbey . Tristan (Pro) . May 13, 2005 . Are Darwinists Chickens? . Opinions . . Debating the Merits of Intelligent Design. . 34 . 8 . Stanford, CA . . 0092-0258 . January 21, 2014 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20080808120635/http://www.stanfordreview.org/Archive/Volume_XXXIV/Issue_8/Opinions/Opinions3.shtml . August 8, 2008 .
   • News: Laddis . Paul (Con) . May 13, 2005 . The Dogmatists' New Clothes . Opinions . The Stanford Review . Debating the Merits of Intelligent Design. . 34 . 8 . Stanford, CA . Stanford University . 0092-0258 . January 21, 2014 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20080808120635/http://www.stanfordreview.org/Archive/Volume_XXXIV/Issue_8/Opinions/Opinions3.shtml . August 8, 2008 .
5. News: Case . Steve . August 27, 1999 . Why Evolution Must Not Be Ignored . . Web chat . January 21, 2014.
6. Web site: Department Position on Evolution and 'Intelligent Design' . https://web.archive.org/web/20051013060737/http://www.lehigh.edu/~inbios/news/evolution.htm. October 13, 2005. Department of Biological Sciences . . Bethlehem, PA . January 31, 2024. Also archived January 31, 2024
7. News: . Intelligent-design backer fires back at critics . . New York . . MSNBC News Services. October 18, 2005 . January 21, 2014.
8. Web site: Scientific Orthodoxies . Behe . Michael J. . January 25, 2006 . . Transmodern Media LLC . Pelham Manor, NY . https://web.archive.org/web/20061101120821/http://www.godspy.com/issues/Scientific-Orthodoxies-by-Michael-Behe.cfm . November 1, 2006 . January 30, 2014.
9. Web site: Michael Behe . . Soylent Communications . Mountain View, CA . January 15, 2007.
10. Web site: Department of Biological Sciences, Lehigh University, Faculty; Michael Behe, Ph.D. . Lehigh University . January 31, 2024.
11. [#Behe 2002b|Behe 2002b]
12. "We therefore find that Professor Behe's claim for irreducible complexity has been refuted in peer-reviewed research papers and has been rejected by the scientific community at large." Ruling, Judge John E. Jones III, Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District
13. [s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District]
14. Web site: God of the Gaps…in your own knowledge. Luskin, Behe, & blood-clotting . Matzke . Nick . Nick Matzke . January 4, 2009 . . The TalkOrigins Foundation, Inc. . Houston, TX . Blog . January 5, 2009.
15. Web site: Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District Trial transcript: Day 11 (October 18), AM Session, Part 1 . . The TalkOrigins Foundation, Inc. . Houston, TX . July 28, 2009.
16. [#Forrest 2001|Forrest 2001]
17. Web site: Kitzmiller, et al. v. Dover Area School District – Expert Report . Pennock . Robert T. . Robert T. Pennock . March 31, 2005 . 25 . December 19, 2007 . Our strategy has been to change the subject a bit so that we can get the issue of intelligent design, which really means the reality of God, before the academic world and into the schools. (Phillip Johnson, American Family Radio, January 10, 2003, broadcast).
18. Web site: Behe's Empty Box . November 28, 2001 . Catalano . John . The World of Richard Dawkins . . Oxford, UK . Reviews and criticisms . https://web.archive.org/web/20070404182747/http://www.simonyi.ox.ac.uk/dawkins/WorldOfDawkins-archive/Catalano/box/behe.shtml . April 4, 2007 . May 3, 2007.
19. Doolittle . Russell F. . Russell Doolittle . February–March 1997 . A Delicate Balance . . 0734-2306 . January 30, 2014 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20140203003611/http://new.bostonreview.net/BR22.1/doolittle.html . February 3, 2014 .
20. Jiang . Yong . Doolittle . Russell F. . June 24, 2003 . The evolution of vertebrate blood coagulation as viewed from a comparison of puffer fish and sea squirt genomes . . 100 . 13 . 7527–7532 . 2003PNAS..100.7527J . 10.1073/pnas.0932632100 . 0027-8424 . 164620 . 12808152 . free .
21. Pennock . Robert T. . Robert T. Pennock . May–August 2001 . Whose God? What Science?: Reply to Michael Behe . Reports of the National Center for Science Education . 21 . 3–4 . 16–19 . 2158-818X . September 27, 2008.
22. [#Behe & Snoke 2004|Behe & Snoke 2004]
23. Web site: Peer-Reviewed & Peer-Edited Scientific Publications Supporting the Theory of Intelligent Design (Annotated) . . February 1, 2012 . Center for Science and Culture . Discovery Institute . Seattle, WA . January 30, 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20070804092839/http://www.discovery.org/a/2640 . August 4, 2007 . dead .
24. Lynch . Michael . Michael Lynch (geneticist) . September 2005 . Simple evolutionary pathways to complex proteins . Protein Science . 14 . 9 . 2217–2225 . 10.1110/ps.041171805 . 0961-8368 . 2253472 . 16131652 . Lynch 2005.
25. Behe . Michael J. . Snoke . David W. . September 2005 . A response to Michael Lynch . Protein Science . 14 . 9 . 10.1110/ps.051674105 . 0961-8368 . 2253464 . 2226–2227 .
26. Hermodson . Mark . September 2005 . Editorial and position papers . Protein Science . 14 . 9 . 2215–2216 . 10.1110/ps.051654305 . 0961-8368 . Hermodson 2005. 2253483 .
27. See for example:
    • Hermodson 2005
    • Lynch 2005
    • Lynch . Michael . Abegg . Adam . June 2010 . The Rate of Establishment of Complex Adaptations . . 27 . 6 . 1404–1414 . 10.1093/molbev/msq020 . 0737-4038 . 3299285 . 20118190 .
    • Masel . Joanna . Joanna Masel . March 2006 . Cryptic Genetic Variation Is Enriched for Potential Adaptations . . 172 . 3 . 1985–1991 . 10.1534/genetics.105.051649. 0016-6731 . 1456269 . 16387877 .
    • Bershtein . Shimon . Tawfik . Dan S. . 2008 . Ohno's Model Revisited: Measuring the Frequency of Potentially Adaptive Mutations under Various Mutational Drifts . Molecular Biology and Evolution . 25 . 11 . 2311–2318 . 10.1093/molbev/msn174 . 0737-4038 . 18687656 . free .
    • Durrett . Rick . Rick Durrett . Schmidt . Deena . November 2008 . Waiting for Two Mutations: With Applications to Regulatory Sequence Evolution and the Limits of Darwinian Evolution . Genetics . 180 . 3 . 1501–1509 . 0016-6731 . 10.1534/genetics.107.082610 . 2581952 . 18791261 .
    • Farmer . Mark A. . Habura . Andrea . January–February 2010 . Using Protistan Examples to Dispel the Myths of Intelligent Design . Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology . 57 . 1 . 3–10 . 10.1111/j.1550-7408.2009.00460.x . 1066-5234 . 20021544 . 2272580 .
28. Web site: Theory is as Theory Does . Musgrave . Ian F. . Reuland . Steve . Cartwright . Reed A. . October 11, 2004 . The Panda's Thumb . The TalkOrigins Foundation, Inc. . Houston, TX . Blog . January 30, 2014.
29. Web site: 'A True Acid Test': Response to Ken Miller . Behe . Michael . July 31, 2000 . Center for Science and Culture . Discovery Institute . Seattle, WA . January 30, 2014.
30. News: Dawkins . Richard . Richard Dawkins . July 1, 2007 . Inferior Design . The New York Times . Book review . July 29, 2007.
31. Coyne . Jerry . Jerry Coyne . June 18, 2007 . The Great Mutator . . Book review . 0028-6583 . January 30, 2014 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20140201221735/http://old.richarddawkins.net/articles/1271 . February 1, 2014 .
32. News: Ruse . Michael . Michael Ruse . June 2, 2007 . Design? Maybe. Intelligent? We have our doubts . . Book review . Toronto, Ontario . The Globe and Mail Inc. . 0319-0714 . January 30, 2014.
33. Carroll . Sean B. . Sean B. Carroll . June 8, 2007 . Evolution: God as Genetic Engineer . . Book review . 316 . 5830 . 1427–1428 . 10.1126/science.1145104 . 0036-8075 . free .
34. Miller . Kenneth R. . Kenneth R. Miller . June 28, 2007 . Falling over the edge . . Book review . 447 . 7148 . 1055–1056 . 10.1038/4471055a . 2007Natur.447.1055M . free .
35. Levin . David E. . January–April 2007 . Review: The Edge of Evolution . Reports of the National Center for Science Education . Book review . 27 . 1–2 . 38–40 . 2158-818X . January 30, 2014.
36. Book: Behe, Michael J., 1952-. Darwin devolves : the new science about DNA that challenges evolution. 9780062842619. First. New York, NY. 1049576124. February 26, 2019.
37. Lents. Nathan H.. Swamidass. S. Joshua. Lenski. Richard E.. February 8, 2019. The end of evolution?. Science. 363. 6427. 590. 10.1126/science.aaw4056. 2019Sci...363..590L. 59621727. 0036-8075.
38. News: Coyne . Jerry A. . Intelligent design gets even dumber . . December 17, 2020 . March 9, 2019.
39. Lang. Gregory I.. Rice. Amber M.. April 2019. Evolution unscathed: Darwin Devolves argues on weak reasoning that unguided evolution is a destructive force, incapable of innovation. Evolution. 73. 4. 862–868. 10.1111/evo.13710. 0014-3820. free.
40. Web site: Palmer. Rob. May 3, 2021. Nathan H. Lents on Our Not So Intelligent Design. live. https://web.archive.org/web/20210503182528/https://skepticalinquirer.org/exclusive/nathan-h-lents-on-our-not-so-intelligent-design/#rob-palmer. May 3, 2021. May 3, 2021. Skeptical Inquirer.
41. Web site: Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District Trial transcript: Day 12 (October 19), AM Session, Part 1 . TalkOrigins Archive . The TalkOrigins Foundation, Inc. . Houston, TX . January 30, 2014.
42. Biever . Celeste . October 19, 2005 . Astrology is scientific theory, courtroom told . . London . . March 29, 2011.
43. [s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 88 of 139]
44. Web site: Kitzmiller v. Dover: Day 12, AM: Michael Behe (continued). www.talkorigins.org.
45. [s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/2:Context#Page 28 of 139]
46. [s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 68 of 139]
47. [s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 70 of 139]
48. [s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 79 of 139]
49. [s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 71 of 139]
50. [s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 74 of 139]
51. [s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 76 of 139]
52. [s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 78 of 139]
53. [s:Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District/4:Whether ID Is Science#Page 81 of 139]
54. Web site: Eric Rothschild . Law Firm of Pepper Hamilton LLP . Pepper Hamilton LLP . December 2, 2012 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20120213155626/http://www.pepperlaw.com/LegalStaff_Preview.aspx?LegalStaffKey=148 . February 13, 2012 .
55. Web site: One for the History Books . Granite . Lisa L. . July 2006 . Pepper Hamilton . Pennsylvania Bar Association. PA .
56. Web site: Behe and the California Creationism Case . Dunford . Mike . September 5, 2007 . The Questionable Authority . ScienceBlogs LLC . Blog . July 25, 2008.
57. Web site: Order Granting Defendants' 'Motion for Summary Judgment on As-Applied Claims' . August 8, 2008 . January 30, 2014 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20080821201728/http://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/news/acsi-stearns/ruling0808.pdf . August 21, 2008 . United States District Court for the Central District of California: Association of Christian Schools International v. Roman Stearns, Document No. CV 05-06242 SJO (MANx); Docket No. 172.
58. Web site: Expert Witness Report of Michael J. Behe, Ph.D. (Biology and Physics) . Behe . Michael J. . April 2, 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080627021407/http://scienceblogs.com/authority/2007-04-02_Behe_expert_report.pdf . June 27, 2008 . January 30, 2014. Association of Christian Schools International v. Roman Stearns.
59. Web site: Deposition of Michael J. Behe . Behe . Michael . May 30, 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080627021416/http://scienceblogs.com/authority/2007-05-30_Behe_depo_transcript.pdf . June 27, 2008 . January 30, 2014. Association of Christian Schools International v. Roman Stearns.
60. News: Gupta . Rani . August 8, 2008 . MURRIETA: Judge throws out religious discrimination suit . . Temecula, CA . https://web.archive.org/web/20080815065757/http://www.nctimes.com/articles/2008/08/08/news/californian/murrieta/za3f1fe48ff6b8872882574a0000ff96d.txt . August 15, 2008 . January 30, 2014.
61. Book: Utter, Glenn H. . Culture Wars in America . November 12, 2009 . . 9780313350399 . 263 . en.
62. Book: Hendey . Lisa M. . The Catholic Mom's Prayer Companion . Reinhard . Sarah A. . August 29, 2016 . Ave Maria Press . 9781594716621 . 8 . en.