Geological history of Mars explained

The geological history of Mars follows the physical evolution of Mars as substantiated by observations, indirect and direct measurements, and various inference techniques. Methods dating back to 17th-century techniques developed by Nicholas Steno, including the so-called law of superposition and stratigraphy, used to estimate the geological histories of Earth and the Moon, are being actively applied to the data available from several Martian observational and measurement resources. These include landers, orbiting platforms, Earth-based observations, and Martian meteorites.

Observations of the surfaces of many Solar System bodies reveal important clues about their evolution. For example, a lava flow that spreads out and fills a large impact crater is likely to be younger than the crater. On the other hand, a small crater on top of the same lava flow is likely to be younger than both the lava and the larger crater since it can be surmised to have been the product of a later, unobserved, geological event. This principle, called the law of superposition, along with other principles of stratigraphy first formulated by Nicholas Steno in the 17th century, allowed geologists of the 19th century to divide the history of the Earth into the familiar eras of Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic. The same methodology was later applied to the Moon[1] and then to Mars.[2]

Another stratigraphic principle used on planets where impact craters are well preserved is that of crater number density. The number of craters greater than a given size per unit surface area (usually a million km2) provides a relative age for that surface. Heavily cratered surfaces are old, and sparsely cratered surfaces are young. Old surfaces have many big craters, and young surfaces have mostly small craters or none at all. These stratigraphic concepts form the basis for the Martian geologic timescale.

Relative ages from stratigraphy

Stratigraphy establishes the relative ages of layers of rock and sediment by denoting differences in composition (solids, liquids, and trapped gasses). Assumptions are often incorporated about the rate of deposition, which generates a range of potential age estimates across any set of observed sediment layers.

Absolute ages

The primary technique for calibrating the ages to the Common Era calendar is radiometric dating. Combinations of different radioactive materials can improve the uncertainty in an age estimate based on any one isotope.

By using stratigraphic principles, rock units' ages can usually only be determined relative to each other. For example, knowing that Mesozoic rock strata making up the Cretaceous System lie on top of (and are therefore younger than) rocks of the Jurassic System reveals nothing about how long ago the Cretaceous or Jurassic Periods were. Other methods, such as radiometric dating, are needed to determine absolute ages in geologic time. Generally, this is only known for rocks on Earth. Absolute ages are also known for selected rock units of the Moon based on samples returned to Earth. There is also a proposal to introduce a moment of instability of liquid water.[3]

Assigning absolute ages to rock units on Mars is much more problematic. Numerous attempts[4] [5] [6] have been made over the years to determine an absolute Martian chronology (timeline) by comparing estimated impact cratering rates for Mars to those on the Moon. If the rate of impact crater formation on Mars by crater size per unit area over geologic time (the production rate or flux) is known with precision, then crater densities also provide a way to determine absolute ages.[7] Unfortunately, practical difficulties in crater counting[8] and uncertainties in estimating the flux still create huge uncertainties in the ages derived from these methods. Martian meteorites have provided datable samples that are consistent with ages calculated thus far, but the locations on Mars from where the meteorites came (provenance) are unknown, limiting their value as chronostratigraphic tools. Absolute ages determined by crater density should therefore be taken with some skepticism.

Crater density timescale

Studies of impact crater densities on the Martian surface[9] [10] have delineated four broad periods in the planet's geologic history.[11] The periods were named after places on Mars that had large-scale surface features, such as large craters or widespread lava flows, that date back to these time periods. The absolute ages given here are only approximate. From oldest to youngest, the time periods are:

the interval from the accretion and differentiation of the planet about 4.5 billion years ago (Gya) to the formation of the Hellas impact basin, between 4.1 and 3.8 Gya.[12] Most of the geologic record of this interval has been erased by subsequent erosion and high impact rates. The crustal dichotomy is thought to have formed during this time, along with the Argyre and Isidis basins.

The date of the Hesperian/Amazonian boundary is particularly uncertain and could range anywhere from 3.0 to 1.5 Gya. Basically, the Hesperian is thought of as a transitional period between the end of heavy bombardment and the cold, dry Mars seen today.

Mineral alteration timescale

In 2006, researchers using data from the OMEGA Visible and Infrared Mineralogical Mapping Spectrometer on board the Mars Express orbiter proposed an alternative Martian timescale based on the predominant type of mineral alteration that occurred on Mars due to different styles of chemical weathering in the planet's past. They proposed dividing the history of Mars into three eras: the Phyllocian, Theiikian and Siderikan.[15] [16]

ImageSize = width:800 height:50PlotArea = left:15 right:15 bottom:20 top:5AlignBars = early

Period = from:-4500 till:0TimeAxis = orientation:horizontalScaleMajor = unit:year increment:500 start:-4500ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:100 start:-4500

Colors = id:sidericol value:rgb(1,0.4,0.3) id:theiicol value:rgb(1,0.2,0.5) id:phyllocol value:rgb(0.7,0.4,1)

PlotData= align:center textcolor:black fontsize:8 mark:(line,black) width:25 shift:(0,-5)

text:Siderikan from:-3500 till:0 color:sidericol text:Theiikian from:-4000 till:-3500 color:theiicol text:Phyllocian from:start till:-4000 color:phyllocol

References

Citations

External links

Notes and References

  1. For reviews of this topic, see:
    • Book: Mutch, T. A. . 1970 . Geology of the Moon: A Stratigraphic View . Princeton University Press . Princeton, New Jersey.
    • Book: Wilhelms, D. E. . 1987 . The Geologic History of the Moon . USGS Professional Paper 1348 .
  2. Book: Scott . D. H. . Carr . M. H. . 1978 . Geologic Map of Mars . Miscellaneous Investigations Set Map 1-1083 . . Reston, Virginia.
  3. Czechowski, L., et al., 2023. The formation of cone chains in the Chryse Planitia region on Mars 771 and the thermodynamic aspects of this process. Icarus, 772 doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2023.115473
  4. 10.1126/science.194.4272.1381 . Neukum . G. . Wise . D.U. . 1976 . Mars: A Standard Crater Curve and Possible New Time Scale . Science . 194 . 4272. 1381–1387 . 17819264 . 1976Sci...194.1381N .
  5. 10.1029/JB086iB04p03097 . Neukum . G. . Hiller . K. . 1981 . Martian ages . J. Geophys. Res. . 86 . B4. 3097–3121 . 1981JGR....86.3097N. free .
  6. Book: Hartmann, W. K. . Neukum . G. . 2001 . Cratering Chronology and Evolution of Mars . Chronology and Evolution of Mars . Kallenbach . R. . etal . Space Science Reviews . 12 . 105–164 . 0792370511 .
  7. Hartmann . W.K. . 2005 . Martian Cratering 8: Isochron Refinement and the Chronology of Mars . Icarus . 174 . 2. 294 . 2005Icar..174..294H . 10.1016/j.icarus.2004.11.023 .
  8. 10.1016/j.icarus.2007.02.011 . Hartmann . W.K. . 2007 . Martian cratering 9: Toward Resolution of the Controversy about Small Craters . Icarus . 189 . 1. 274–278 . 2007Icar..189..274H.
  9. Tanaka, K. L. (1986). "The Stratigraphy of Mars". Journal of Geophysical Research, Seventeenth Lunar and Planetary Science Conference Part 1, 91(B13), E139–E158.
  10. Melosh, H.J., 2011. Planetary surface processes. Cambridge Univ. Press., pp. 500
  11. Web site: Caplinger. Mike. Determining the age of surfaces on Mars. 2007-03-02. https://web.archive.org/web/20070219192450/http://www.msss.com/http/ps/age2.html. February 19, 2007. dead.
  12. Carr . M. H. . Head . J. W. . 2010 . Geologic History of Mars . Earth and Planetary Science Letters . 294 . 3–4. 185–203 . 2010E&PSL.294..185C . 10.1016/j.epsl.2009.06.042 .
  13. Fuller . Elizabeth R. . Head . James W. . Amazonis Planitia: The role of geologically recent volcanism and sedimentation in the formation of the smoothest plains on Mars . 10.1029/2002JE001842 . 2002 . E10 . 5081 . 107 . Journal of Geophysical Research . PDF . 2002JGRE..107.5081F . free . 2012-01-06 . 2021-04-13 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210413050309/http://planetary.brown.edu/pdfs/2682.pdf . dead .
  14. Salese . F. . G. . Di Achille . A. . Neesemann . G. G. . Ori . E. . Hauber . 2016 . Hydrological and sedimentary analyses of well-preserved paleofluvial-paleolacustrine systems at Moa Valles, Mars . Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets . 121 . 194–232 . 10.1002/2015JE004891. free .
  15. Web site: Williams. Chris. Probe reveals three ages of Mars. 2007-03-02 .
  16. Raymond Arvidson. John F. Mustard. Bibring. Jean-Pierre. 2006. Global Mineralogical and Aqueous Mars History Derived from OMEGA/Mars Express Data. Science. 312. 5772. 400–404. 10.1126/science.1122659. 16627738. Langevin. Y. Mustard. JF. Poulet. F. Arvidson. R. Gendrin. A. Gondet. B. Mangold. N. Pinet. P . Forget. F. Berthé. M. Bibring. J. P.. Gendrin. A. Gomez. C. Gondet. B. Jouglet. D. Poulet. F. Soufflot. A. Vincendon. M. Combes. M. Drossart. P. Encrenaz. T. Fouchet. T. Merchiorri. R. Belluci. G. Altieri. F. Formisano. V. Capaccioni. F. Cerroni. P. Coradini. A. 2006Sci...312..400B . 8. free.