Marine heatwave explained

A marine heatwave is a period of abnormally high seawater temperatures compared to the typical temperatures in the past for a particular season and region. Marine heatwaves are caused by a variety of drivers. These include shorter term weather events such as fronts, intraseasonal events (30 to 90 days), annual, and decadal (10-year) modes like El Niño events, and human-caused climate change.[1] [2] [3] Marine heatwaves affect ecosystems in the oceans.[4] [5] For example, marine heatwaves can lead to severe biodiversity changes such as coral bleaching, sea star wasting disease,[6] [7] harmful algal blooms, and mass mortality of benthic communities. Unlike heatwaves on land, marine heatwaves can extend over vast areas, persist for weeks to months or even years, and occur at subsurface levels.[8] [9] [10] [11]

Major marine heatwaves have occurred for example in the Great Barrier Reef in 2002,[12] in the Mediterranean Sea in 2003,[13] in the Northwest Atlantic in 2012,[14] and in the Northeast Pacific during 2013–2016.[15] [16] These events have had drastic and long-term impacts on the oceanographic and biological conditions in those areas.[17] [18]

Scientists predict that the frequency, duration, scale (or area) and intensity of marine heatwaves will continue to increase. This is because sea surface temperatures will continue to increase with global warming. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report in 2022 has summarized research findings to date and stated that "marine heatwaves are more frequent [...], more intense and longer [...] since the 1980s, and since at least 2006 very likely attributable to anthropogenic climate change".[19] This confirms earlier findings in a report by the IPCC in 2019 which had found that "marine heatwaves [...] have doubled in frequency and have become longer lasting, more intense and more extensive (very likely).".[20]

Ocean areas of carbon sinks in the mid-latitudes of both hemispheres and carbon outgassing areas in upwelling regions of the tropical Pacific have been identified as places where persistent marine heatwaves occur; the air-sea gas exchange is being studied in these areas.[29]

Climate change

See also: Effects of climate change on oceans and Ocean temperature. Scientists predict that the frequency, duration, scale (or area) and intensity of marine heatwaves will continue to increase.[30] This is because sea surface temperatures will continue to increase with global warming, and therefore the frequency and intensity of marine heatwaves will also increase. The extent of ocean warming depends on emission scenarios, and thus humans' climate change mitigation efforts. Simply put, the more greenhouse gas emissions (or the less mitigation), the more the sea surface temperature will rise. Scientists have calculated this as follows: there would be a relatively small (but still significant) increase of 0.86 °C in the average sea surface temperature for the low emissions scenario (called SSP1-2.6). But for the high emissions scenario (called SSP5-8.5) the temperature increase would be as high as 2.89 °C.

The prediction for marine heatwaves is that they may become "four times more frequent in 2081–2100 compared to 1995–2014" under the lower emissions scenario, or eight times more frequent under the higher emissions scenario. The emissions scenarios are called SSP for Shared Socioeconomic Pathways. A mathematical model called CMIP6 is used for these predictions. The predictions are for the average of the future period (years 2081 to 2100) compared to the average of the past period (years 1995 to 2014).

Global warming is projected to push the tropical Indian Ocean into a basin-wide near-permanent heatwave state by the end of the 21st century, where marine heatwaves are projected to increase from 20 days per year (during 1970–2000) to 220–250 days per year.[31]

Many species already experience these temperature shifts during the course of marine heatwave events. There are many increased risk factors and health impacts to coastal and inland communities as global average temperature and extreme heat events increase.

List of events

Sea surface temperatures have been recorded since 1904 in Port Erin, Isle of Man, and measurements continue through global organizations such as NOAA, NASA, and many more. Events can be identified from 1925 till present day. The list below is not a complete representation of all marine heatwave events that have ever been recorded.

List of some marine heatwaves 1999–2023!Region and date!Category!Duration
(days)!Intensity
(°C)!Area
(millions of
km2)!Ref.
Mediterranean 199918 1.9NA
Mediterranean 20032105.50.5
Mediterranean 20032284.61.2
Mediterranean 20062334.0NA
Western Australia 199931322.1NA[32]
Western Australia 20114664.90.95
Great Barrier Reef 20162554.02.6
Tasman Sea 201522522.7NA
Northwest Atlantic 201231324.30.1–0.3[33]
Northeast Pacific 2015 ("The Blob")37112.64.5–11.7
Santa Barbara 20153935.1NA
Southern California Bight 20183443.9NA[34]
Northeastern Atlantic 20235304.0–5.0NA[35]

Impacts

On marine ecosystems

Changes in the thermal environment of terrestrial and marine organisms can have drastic effects on their health and well-being.[36] Marine heatwave events have been shown to increase habitat degradation,[37] [38] change species range dispersion, complicate management of environmentally and economically important fisheries, contribute to mass mortality of species, and in general reshape ecosystems.[39]

Habitat degradation occurs through alterations of the thermal environment and subsequent restructuring and sometimes complete loss of biogenic habitats such as seagrass beds, corals, and kelp forests. These habitats contain a significant proportion of the oceans' biodiversity. Changes in ocean current systems and local thermal environments have shifted many tropical species' ranges northward, while temperate species have lost their southern limits. Large range shifts, along with outbreaks of toxic algal blooms, have impacted many species across taxa. Management of these affected species becomes increasingly difficult as they migrate across management boundaries and the food web dynamics shift.

Increases in sea surface temperature have been linked to a decline in species abundance such as the mass mortality of 25 benthic species in the Mediterranean in 2003, sea star wasting disease, and coral bleaching events. Climate change-related exceptional marine heatwaves in the Mediterranean Sea during 2015–2019 resulted in widespread mass sealife die-offs in five consecutive years.[40] Repeated marine heatwaves in the Northest Pacific led to dramatic changes in animal abundances, predator-prey relationships, and energy flux throughout the ecosystem. The impact of more frequent and prolonged marine heatwave events will have drastic implications for the distribution of species.

Coral bleaching

On weather patterns

Research on how marine heatwaves influence atmospheric conditions is emerging. Marine heatwaves in the tropical Indian Ocean are found to result in dry conditions over the central Indian subcontinent.[41] At the same time, there is an increase in rainfall over south peninsular India in response to marine heatwaves in the northern Bay of Bengal. These changes are in response to the modulation of the monsoon winds by the marine heatwaves.

Options for reducing impacts

To address the root cause of more frequent and more intense marine heatwaves, climate change mitigation methods are needed to curb the increase in global temperature and in ocean temperatures.

Better forecasts of marine heatwaves and improved monitoring can also help to reduce impacts of these heatwaves.[19]

External links

Notes and References

  1. Holbrook . Neil J. . Scannell . Hillary A. . Sen Gupta . Alexander . Benthuysen . Jessica A. . Feng . Ming . Oliver . Eric C. J. . Alexander . Lisa V. . Lisa Alexander (earth scientist) . Burrows . Michael T. . Donat . Markus G. . Hobday . Alistair J. . Moore . Pippa J. . 2019-06-14 . A global assessment of marine heatwaves and their drivers . Nature Communications . 10 . 1 . 2624 . 2019NatCo..10.2624H . 10.1038/s41467-019-10206-z . 2041-1723 . 6570771 . 31201309. free. Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
  2. Oliver. Eric C. J.. 2019-08-01. Mean warming not variability drives marine heatwave trends. Climate Dynamics. 53. 3. 1653–1659. 10.1007/s00382-019-04707-2. 1432-0894. 2019ClDy...53.1653O. 135167065.
  3. Oliver. Eric C. J.. Donat. Markus G.. Burrows. Michael T.. Moore. Pippa J.. Smale. Dan A.. Alexander. Lisa V.. Benthuysen. Jessica A.. Feng. Ming. Sen Gupta. Alex. Hobday. Alistair J.. Holbrook. Neil J.. 2018-04-10. Longer and more frequent marine heatwaves over the past century. Nature Communications. 9. 1. 1324. 10.1038/s41467-018-03732-9. 2041-1723. 5893591. 29636482. 2018NatCo...9.1324O.
  4. Gomes . Dylan G. E. . Ruzicka . James J. . Crozier . Lisa G. . Huff . David D. . Brodeur . Richard D. . Stewart . Joshua D. . Marine heatwaves disrupt ecosystem structure and function via altered food webs and energy flux . Nature Communications . 13 March 2024 . 15 . 1 . 1988 . 10.1038/s41467-024-46263-2. free . 38480718 . 10937662 . 2024NatCo..15.1988G .
  5. Smith . Kathryn E. . Burrows . Michael T. . Hobday . Alistair J. . King . Nathan G. . Moore . Pippa J. . Sen Gupta . Alex . Thomsen . Mads S. . Wernberg . Thomas . Smale . Dan A. . Biological Impacts of Marine Heatwaves . Annual Review of Marine Science . 16 January 2023 . 15 . 1 . 119–145 . 10.1146/annurev-marine-032122-121437 . free . 35977411 . 2023ARMS...15..119S . 11250/3095845 . free .
  6. Bates. AE. Hilton. BJ. Harley. CDG. 2009-11-09. Effects of temperature, season and locality on wasting disease in the keystone predatory sea star Pisaster ochraceus. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms. 86. 3. 245–251. 10.3354/dao02125. 20066959. 0177-5103. free.
  7. Eisenlord. Morgan E.. Groner. Maya L.. Yoshioka. Reyn M.. Elliott. Joel. Maynard. Jeffrey. Fradkin. Steven. Turner. Margaret. Pyne. Katie. Rivlin. Natalie. van Hooidonk. Ruben. Harvell. C. Drew. 2016-03-05. Ochre star mortality during the 2014 wasting disease epizootic: role of population size structure and temperature. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 371. 1689. 20150212. 10.1098/rstb.2015.0212. 4760142. 26880844.
  8. Bond . Nicholas A. . Cronin . Meghan F. . Freeland . Howard . Mantua . Nathan . 2015-05-16 . Causes and impacts of the 2014 warm anomaly in the NE Pacific: 2014 WARM ANOMALY IN THE NE PACIFIC . Geophysical Research Letters . en . 42 . 9 . 3414–3420 . 10.1002/2015GL063306 . 129149984. free .
  9. Schaeffer . A. . Roughan . M. . 2017-05-28 . Subsurface intensification of marine heatwaves off southeastern Australia: The role of stratification and local winds: SUBSURFACE MARINE HEAT WAVES . Geophysical Research Letters . en . 44 . 10 . 5025–5033 . 10.1002/2017GL073714 . 134464357.
  10. Perkins-Kirkpatrick . S. E. . King . A. D. . Cougnon . E. A. . Holbrook . N. J. . Grose . M. R. . Oliver . E. C. J. . Lewis . S. C. . Pourasghar . F. . 2019-01-01 . The Role of Natural Variability and Anthropogenic Climate Change in the 2017/18 Tasman Sea Marine Heatwave . Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society . EN . 100 . 1 . S105–S110 . 2019BAMS..100S.105P . 10.1175/BAMS-D-18-0116.1 . 0003-0007 . 127347944. 1885/237324 . free .
  11. Laufkötter . Charlotte . Zscheischler . Jakob . Frölicher . Thomas L. . 2020-09-25 . High-impact marine heatwaves attributable to human-induced global warming . Science . en . 369 . 6511 . 1621–1625 . 2020Sci...369.1621L . 10.1126/science.aba0690 . 0036-8075 . 32973027 . 221881814.
  12. Frölicher. Thomas L.. Laufkötter. Charlotte. December 2018. Emerging risks from marine heat waves. Nature Communications. 9. 1. 650. 10.1038/s41467-018-03163-6. 2041-1723. 5811532. 29440658. 2018NatCo...9..650F.
  13. Garrabou. J.. Coma. R.. Bensoussan. N.. Bally. M.. Chevaldonné. P.. Cigliano. M.. Diaz. D.. Harmelin. J. G.. Gambi. M. C.. Kersting. D. K.. Ledoux. J. B.. May 2009. Mass mortality in Northwestern Mediterranean rocky benthic communities: effects of the 2003 heat wave. Global Change Biology. 15. 5. 1090–1103. 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2008.01823.x. 2009GCBio..15.1090G. 55566218 .
  14. Gulf of Maine Research Institute. Pershing. Andrew. Mills. Katherine. Dayton. Alexa. Franklin. Bradley. Kennedy. Brian. 2018-06-01. Evidence for Adaptation from the 2016 Marine Heatwave in the Northwest Atlantic Ocean. Oceanography. 31. 2. 10.5670/oceanog.2018.213. free.
  15. Scripps Institution of Oceanography . Cavole . Leticia . Demko . Alyssa . Diner . Rachel . Giddings . Ashlyn . Koester . Irina . Pagniello . Camille . Paulsen . May-Linn . Ramirez-Valdez . Arturo . Schwenck . Sarah . Yen . Nicole . 2016 . Biological Impacts of the 2013–2015 Warm-Water Anomaly in the Northeast Pacific: Winners, Losers, and the Future . Oceanography . 29 . 2 . 10.5670/oceanog.2016.32 . free.
  16. Gentemann . Chelle L. . Fewings . Melanie R. . García-Reyes . Marisol . 2017-01-16 . Satellite sea surface temperatures along the West Coast of the United States during the 2014–2016 northeast Pacific marine heat wave: Coastal SSTs During "the Blob" . Geophysical Research Letters . 44 . 1 . 312–319 . 10.1002/2016GL071039 . free.
  17. Smale. Dan A.. Wernberg. Thomas. Oliver. Eric C. J.. Thomsen. Mads. Harvey. Ben P.. Straub. Sandra C.. Burrows. Michael T.. Alexander. Lisa V.. Benthuysen. Jessica A.. Donat. Markus G.. Feng. Ming. April 2019. Marine heatwaves threaten global biodiversity and the provision of ecosystem services. Nature Climate Change. 9. 4. 306–312. 10.1038/s41558-019-0412-1. 1758-6798. 2019NatCC...9..306S. 91471054. 2160/3a9b534b-03ab-4619-9637-2ab06054fe70. free.
  18. McCabe. Ryan M.. Hickey. Barbara M.. Kudela. Raphael M.. Lefebvre. Kathi A.. Adams. Nicolaus G.. Bill. Brian D.. Gulland. Frances M. D.. Thomson. Richard E.. Cochlan. William P.. Trainer. Vera L.. 2016-10-16. An unprecedented coastwide toxic algal bloom linked to anomalous ocean conditions. Geophysical Research Letters. 43. 19. 10366–10376. 10.1002/2016GL070023. 0094-8276. 5129552. 27917011. 2016GeoRL..4310366M.
  19. Cooley, S., D. Schoeman, L. Bopp, P. Boyd, S. Donner, D.Y. Ghebrehiwet, S.-I. Ito, W. Kiessling, P. Martinetto, E. Ojea, M.-F. Racault, B. Rost, and M. Skern-Mauritzen, 2022: Chapter 3: Oceans and Coastal Ecosystems and Their Services. In: Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, M. Tignor, E.S. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Craig, S. Langsdorf, S. Löschke, V. Möller, A. Okem, B. Rama (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 379–550, doi:10.1017/9781009325844.005.
  20. IPCC, 2021: Annex VII: Glossary [Matthews, J.B.R., V. Möller, R. van Diemen, J.S. Fuglestvedt, V. Masson-Delmotte, C.  Méndez, S. Semenov, A. Reisinger (eds.)]. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L. Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 2215–2256, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.022.
  21. Hobday . Alistair J. . Alexander . Lisa V. . Perkins . Sarah E. . Smale . Dan A. . Straub . Sandra C. . Oliver . Eric C. J. . Benthuysen . Jessica A. . Burrows . Michael T. . Donat . Markus G. . Feng . Ming . Holbrook . Neil J. . Moore . Pippa J. . Scannell . Hillary A. . Sen Gupta . Alex . Wernberg . Thomas . 2016-02-01 . A hierarchical approach to defining marine heatwaves . Progress in Oceanography . en . 141 . 227–238 . 10.1016/j.pocean.2015.12.014 . 2016PrOce.141..227H . 49583270 . 0079-6611. free . 2160/36448 . free .
  22. Smith . Kathryn E. . Burrows . Michael T. . Hobday . Alistair J. . King . Nathan G. . Moore . Pippa J. . Sen Gupta . Alex . Thomsen . Mads S. . Wernberg . Thomas . Smale . Dan A. . 2023 . Biological Impacts of Marine Heatwaves . Annual Review of Marine Science . 15 . 119–145 . 2023ARMS...15..119S . 10.1146/annurev-marine-032122-121437 . 35977411 . free . 11250/3095845. free. Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
  23. CSIRO . Hobday . Alistair . Oliver . Eric . Sen Gupta . Alex . Benthuysen . Jessica . Burrows . Michael . Donat . Markus . Holbrook . Neil . Moore . Pippa . Thomsen . Mads . Wernberg . Thomas . 2018-06-01 . Categorizing and Naming Marine Heatwaves . Oceanography . 31 . 2 . 10.5670/oceanog.2018.205 . free. 2160/c18751bf-af03-41dd-916e-c5e1bdf648a5 . free . Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
  24. Web site: National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) & University Corporation for Atmospheric Research (UCAR) . 17 Mar 2023 . Scientists identify heat wave at bottom of ocean . Phys.org.
  25. Gu. D.. 1997-02-07. Interdecadal Climate Fluctuations That Depend on Exchanges Between the Tropics and Extratropics. Science. 275. 5301. 805–807. 10.1126/science.275.5301.805. 9012341. 2595302.
  26. Schwing. Franklin B.. Mendelssohn. Roy. Bograd. Steven J.. Overland. James E.. Wang. Muyin. Ito. Shin-ichi. 2010-02-10. Climate change, teleconnection patterns, and regional processes forcing marine populations in the Pacific. Journal of Marine Systems. Impact of climate variability on marine ecosystems: A comparative approach. 79. 3. 245–257. 10.1016/j.jmarsys.2008.11.027. 0924-7963. 2010JMS....79..245S.
  27. Collins M., M. Sutherland, L. Bouwer, S.-M. Cheong, T. Frölicher, H. Jacot Des Combes, M. Koll Roxy, I. Losada, K. McInnes, B. Ratter, E. Rivera-Arriaga, R.D. Susanto, D. Swingedouw, and L. Tibig, 2019: Chapter 6: Extremes, Abrupt Changes and Managing Risk. In: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C.  Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, M. Tignor, E. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama, N.M. Weyer (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 589–655. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157964.008..
  28. IPCC, 2019: Technical Summary [H.-O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, E. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, M. Tignor, A. Alegría, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama, N.M. Weyer (eds.)]. In: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate [H.- O. Pörtner, D.C. Roberts, V. Masson-Delmotte, P. Zhai, M. Tignor, E. Poloczanska, K. Mintenbeck, A. Alegría, M. Nicolai, A. Okem, J. Petzold, B. Rama, N.M. Weyer (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA, pp. 39–69. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157964.002 The extent of ocean warming depends on greenhouse gas emission scenarios, and thus humans' climate change mitigation efforts. Scientists predict that marine heatwaves will become "four times more frequent in 2081–2100 compared to 1995–2014" under the lower greenhouse gas emissions scenario, or eight times more frequent under the higher emissions scenario.

    Definition

    The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report defines marine heatwave as follows: "A period during which water temperature is abnormally warm for the time of the year relative to historical temperatures, with that extreme warmth persisting for days to months. The phenomenon can manifest in any place in the ocean and at scales of up to thousands of kilometres."[20]

    Another publication defined it as follows: an anomalously warm event is a marine heatwave "if it lasts for five or more days, with temperatures warmer than the 90th percentile based on a 30-year historical baseline period".[21]

    The term marine heatwave was coined following an unprecedented warming event off the west coast of Australia in the austral summer of 2011, which led to a rapid dieback of kelp forests and associated ecosystem shifts along hundreds of kilometers of coastline.[22]

    Categories

    The quantitative and qualitative categorization of marine heatwaves establishes a naming system, typology, and characteristics for marine heatwave events.[23] The naming system is applied by location and year: for example Mediterranean 2003. This allows researchers to compare the drivers and characteristics of each event, geographical and historical trends of marine heatwaves, and easily communicate marine heatwave events as they occur in real-time.

    The categorization system is on a scale from 1 to 4. Category 1 is a moderate event, Category 2 is a strong event, Category 3 is a severe event, and Category 4 is an extreme event. The category applied to each event in real-time is defined primarily by sea surface temperature anomalies (SSTA), but over time it comes to include typology and characteristics.

    The types of marine heatwaves are symmetric, slow onset, fast onset, low intensity, and high intensity. Marine heatwave events may have multiple categories such as slow onset, high intensity. The characteristics of marine heatwave events include duration, intensity (max, average, cumulative), onset rate, decline rate, region, and frequency.

    While marine heatwaves have been studied at the sea surface for more than a decade, they can also occur at the sea floor.[24]

    Drivers

    Local processes and regional climate patterns

    The drivers for marine heatwave events can be broken into local processes, teleconnection processes, and regional climate patterns. Two quantitative measurements of these drivers have been proposed to identify marine heatwave, mean sea surface temperature and sea surface temperature variability.

    At the local level marine heatwave events are dominated by ocean advection, air-sea fluxes, thermocline stability, and wind stress. Teleconnection processes refer to climate and weather patterns that connect geographically distant areas.[25] For marine heatwave, the teleconnection process that play a dominant role are atmospheric blocking/subsidence, jet-stream position, oceanic kelvin waves, regional wind stress, warm surface air temperature, and seasonal climate oscillations. These processes contribute to regional warming trends that disproportionately effect Western boundary currents.

    Regional climate patterns such as interdecadal oscillations like El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) have contributed to marine heatwave events such as "The Blob" in the Northeastern Pacific.[26]

    Drivers that operate on the scale of biogeographical realms or the Earth as a whole are decadal oscillations, like Pacific decadal oscillations (PDO), and anthropogenic ocean warming due to climate change.[27]

  29. Mignot, A., von Schuckmann, K., Landschützer, P. et al. Decrease in air-sea CO2 fluxes caused by persistent marine heatwaves. Nature Communications 13, 4300 (2022). Nature website Retrieved 21 September 2022.
  30. Fox-Kemper, B., H.T. Hewitt, C. Xiao, G. Aðalgeirsdóttir, S.S. Drijfhout, T.L. Edwards, N.R. Golledge, M. Hemer, R.E. Kopp, G.  Krinner, A. Mix, D. Notz, S. Nowicki, I.S. Nurhati, L. Ruiz, J.-B. Sallée, A.B.A. Slangen, and Y. Yu, 2021: Chapter 9: Ocean, Cryosphere and Sea Level Change. In Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Masson-Delmotte, V., P. Zhai, A. Pirani, S.L.  Connors, C. Péan, S. Berger, N. Caud, Y. Chen, L. Goldfarb, M.I. Gomis, M. Huang, K. Leitzell, E. Lonnoy, J.B.R. Matthews, T.K. Maycock, T. Waterfield, O. Yelekçi, R. Yu, and B. Zhou (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1211–1362, doi:10.1017/9781009157896.011.
  31. Book: Roxy, M.K. . The Indian Ocean and its Role in the Global Climate System . https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-822698-8.00004-4 . Future projections for the tropical Indian Ocean . April 26, 2024 . Elsevier . 2024 . 469–482 . 10.1016/B978-0-12-822698-8.00004-4 . 978-0-12-822698-8 . April 26, 2024.
  32. Pearce . Alan F. . Feng . Ming . 2013-02-01 . The rise and fall of the "marine heat wave" off Western Australia during the summer of 2010/2011 . Journal of Marine Systems . 111–112 . 139–156 . 2013JMS...111..139P . 10.1016/j.jmarsys.2012.10.009 . 0924-7963.
  33. Herring . Stephanie C. . Hoell . Andrew . Hoerling . Martin P. . Kossin . James P. . Schreck . Carl J. . Stott . Peter A. . December 2016 . Introduction to Explaining Extreme Events of 2015 from a Climate Perspective . Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society . 97 . 12 . S1–S3 . 2016BAMS...97S...1H . 10.1175/BAMS-D-16-0313.1 . 0003-0007 . free.
  34. Fumo . James T. . Carter . Melissa L. . Flick . Reinhard E. . Rasmussen . Linda L. . Rudnick . Daniel L. . Iacobellis . Sam F. . May 2020 . Contextualizing Marine Heatwaves in the Southern California Bight Under Anthropogenic Climate Change . Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans . en . 125 . 5 . 10.1029/2019JC015674 . 2020JGRC..12515674F . 2169-9275 . 218992543. free .
  35. Web site: Record-breaking North Atlantic Ocean temperatures contribute to extreme marine heatwaves . Copernicus Climate Change Service . European Commission . 13 August 2023.
  36. Greene . Scott . Kalkstein . Laurence S. . Mills . David M. . Samenow . Jason . October 2011 . An Examination of Climate Change on Extreme Heat Events and Climate–Mortality Relationships in Large U.S. Cities . Weather, Climate, and Society . 3 . 4 . 281–292 . 10.1175/WCAS-D-11-00055.1 . 1948-8327 . 49322487. free .
  37. Salinger . M James . Renwick . James . Behrens . Erik . Mullan . A Brett . Diamond . Howard J . Sirguey . Pascal . Smith . Robert O . Trought . Michael C T . Alexander . Lisa . Cullen . Nicolas J . Fitzharris . B Blair . 2019-04-12 . The unprecedented coupled ocean-atmosphere summer heatwave in the New Zealand region 2017/18: drivers, mechanisms and impacts . Environmental Research Letters . 14 . 4 . 044023 . 2019ERL....14d4023S . 10.1088/1748-9326/ab012a . 1748-9326 . free. 10182/12205 . free .
  38. Galli. Giovanni. Solidoro. Cosimo. Lovato. Tomas. 2017-05-11. Marine Heat Waves Hazard 3D Maps and the Risk for Low Motility Organisms in a Warming Mediterranean Sea. Frontiers in Marine Science. 4. 136. 10.3389/fmars.2017.00136. 2296-7745. free.
  39. Wernberg. T.. Bennett. S.. Babcock. R. C.. de Bettignies. T.. Cure. K.. Depczynski. M.. Dufois. F.. Fromont. J.. Fulton. C. J.. Hovey. R. K.. Harvey. E. S.. 2016-07-08. Climate-driven regime shift of a temperate marine ecosystem. Science. 353. 6295. 169–172. 10.1126/science.aad8745. 27387951. 0036-8075. 2016Sci...353..169W. free. 20.500.11937/31133. free.
  40. Garrabou . Joaquim . Gómez-Gras . Daniel . Medrano . Alba . Cerrano . Carlo . Ponti . Massimo . Schlegel . Robert . Bensoussan . Nathaniel . Turicchia . Eva . Sini . Maria . Gerovasileiou . Vasilis . et al. . Marine heatwaves drive recurrent mass mortalities in the Mediterranean Sea . Global Change Biology . 18 July 2022 . 28 . 19 . 5708–5725 . 10.1111/gcb.16301 . 35848527 . 9543131 . 250622761 . en . 1354-1013.
  41. Saranya. J. S.. Roxy. M. K.. Dasgupta. Panini. Anand. Ajay. February 2022. Genesis and Trends in Marine Heatwaves Over the Tropical Indian Ocean and Their Interaction With the Indian Summer Monsoon. Journal of Geophysical Research: Oceans. en. 127. 2. 10.1029/2021JC017427. 2022JGRC..12717427S . 2169-9275.

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Marine heatwave".

Except where otherwise indicated, Everything.Explained.Today is © Copyright 2009-2024, A B Cryer, All Rights Reserved. Cookie policy.