Marburg virus disease explained

Synonyms:Marburg hemorrhagic fever
Symptoms:Fever, weakness, muscle pain
Onset:2–21 days after exposure
Causes:MV
Risks:Direct contact with bodily fluids of individuals infected with the virus
Diagnosis:Blood test
Differential:Ebola virus disease
Treatment:There is no treatment, only immediate supportive care
Deaths:24–88% case fatality rate[1]
Frequency:Rare

Marburg virus disease (MVD), formerly Marburg hemorrhagic fever (MHF) is a viral hemorrhagic fever in human and non-human primates caused by either of the two Marburgviruses: Marburg virus (MARV) and Ravn virus (RAVV).[2] Its clinical symptoms are very similar to those of Ebola virus disease (EVD).[3]

Egyptian fruit bats are believed to be the normal carrier in nature and Marburg virus RNA has been isolated from them.[4]

Signs and symptoms

The most detailed study on the frequency, onset, and duration of MVD clinical signs and symptoms was performed during the 1998–2000 mixed MARV/RAVV disease outbreak.[5] A skin rash, red or purple spots (e.g. petechiae or purpura), bruises, and hematomas (especially around needle injection sites) are typical hemorrhagic manifestations. However, contrary to popular belief, hemorrhage does not lead to hypovolemia and is not the cause of death (total blood loss is minimal except during labor). Instead, death occurs due to multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) due to fluid redistribution, hypotension, disseminated intravascular coagulation, and focal tissue necroses.[5] [6] [7] [8]

Clinical phases of Marburg hemorrhagic fever's presentation are described below. Note that phases overlap due to variability between cases.

  1. Incubation: 2–21 days, averaging 5–9 days.
  2. Generalization Phase: Day 1 up to Day 5 from the onset of clinical symptoms. MHF presents with a high fever 104 °F (~40˚C) and a sudden, severe headache, with accompanying chills, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, pharyngitis, maculopapular rash, abdominal pain, conjunctivitis, and malaise.
  3. Early Organ Phase: Day 5 up to Day 13. Symptoms include prostration, dyspnea, edema, conjunctival injection, viral exanthema, and CNS symptoms, including encephalitis, confusion, delirium, apathy, and aggression. Hemorrhagic symptoms typically occur late and herald the end of the early organ phase, leading either to eventual recovery or worsening and death. Symptoms include bloody stools, ecchymoses, blood leakage from venipuncture sites, mucosal and visceral hemorrhaging, and possibly hematemesis.
  4. Late Organ Phase: Day 13 up to Day 21+. Symptoms bifurcate into two constellations for survivors and fatal cases. Survivors will enter a convalescence phase, experiencing myalgia, fibromyalgia, hepatitis, asthenia, ocular symptoms, and psychosis. Fatal cases continue to deteriorate, experiencing continued fever, obtundation, coma, convulsions, diffuse coagulopathy, metabolic disturbances, shock and death, with death typically occurring between days 8 and 16.[9]

Causes

See main article: Marburgvirus.

Genus Marburgvirus: species and its MVD-causing viruses
Species nameVirus name (Abbreviation)
Marburg marburgvirusMarburg virus (MARV; previously MBGV)
Ravn virus (RAVV; previously MARV-Ravn)
"*" denotes the type species.

MVD is caused by two viruses; Marburg virus (MARV) and Ravn virus (RAVV), family Filoviridae.[10]

Marburgviruses are endemic in arid woodlands of equatorial Africa.[11] [12] [13] Most marburgvirus infections were repeatedly associated with people visiting natural caves or working in mines. In 2009, the successful isolation of infectious MARV and RAVV was reported from healthy Egyptian fruit bat caught in caves.[4] [14] This isolation strongly suggests that Old World fruit bats are involved in the natural maintenance of marburgviruses and that visiting bat-infested caves is a risk factor for acquiring marburgvirus infections. Further studies are necessary to establish whether Egyptian rousettes are the actual hosts of MARV and RAVV or whether they get infected via contact with another animal and therefore serve only as intermediate hosts. Another risk factor is contact with nonhuman primates, although only one outbreak of MVD (in 1967) was due to contact with infected monkeys.

Contrary to Ebola virus disease (EVD), which has been associated with heavy rains after long periods of dry weather,[12] [15] triggering factors for spillover of marburgviruses into the human population have not yet been described.

Diagnosis

MVD is clinically indistinguishable from Ebola virus disease (EVD), and it can also easily be confused with many other diseases prevalent in Equatorial Africa, such as other viral hemorrhagic fevers, falciparum malaria, typhoid fever, shigellosis, rickettsial diseases such as typhus, cholera, gram-negative sepsis, borreliosis such as relapsing fever or EHEC enteritis. Other infectious diseases that ought to be included in the differential diagnosis include leptospirosis, scrub typhus, plague, Q fever, candidiasis, histoplasmosis, trypanosomiasis, visceral leishmaniasis, hemorrhagic smallpox, measles, and fulminant viral hepatitis. Non-infectious diseases that can be confused with MVD are acute promyelocytic leukemia, hemolytic uremic syndrome, snake envenomation, clotting factor deficiencies/platelet disorders, thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura, hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia, Kawasaki disease, and even warfarin intoxication.[16] [17] [18] [19] The most important indicator that may lead to the suspicion of MVD at clinical examination is the medical history of the patient, in particular the travel and occupational history (which countries and caves were visited?) and the patient's exposure to wildlife (exposure to bats or bat excrements?). MVD can be confirmed by isolation of marburgviruses from or by detection of marburgvirus antigen or genomic or subgenomic RNAs in patient blood or serum samples during the acute phase of MVD. Marburgvirus isolation is usually performed by inoculation of grivet kidney epithelial Vero E6 or MA-104 cell cultures or by inoculation of human adrenal carcinoma SW-13 cells, all of which react to infection with characteristic cytopathic effects.[20] [21] Filovirions can easily be visualized and identified in cell culture by electron microscopy due to their unique filamentous shapes, but electron microscopy cannot differentiate the various filoviruses alone despite some overall length differences.[22] Immunofluorescence assays are used to confirm marburgvirus presence in cell cultures. During an outbreak, virus isolation and electron microscopy are most often not feasible options. The most common diagnostic methods are therefore RT-PCR[23] [24] [25] [26] [27] in conjunction with antigen-capture ELISA,[28] [29] [30] which can be performed in field or mobile hospitals and laboratories. Indirect immunofluorescence assays (IFAs) are not used for diagnosis of MVD in the field anymore.

Classification

Marburg virus disease (MVD) is the official name listed in the World Health Organization's International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10 (ICD-10) for the human disease caused by any of the two marburgviruses Marburg virus (MARV) and Ravn virus (RAVV). In the scientific literature, Marburg hemorrhagic fever (MHF) is often used as an unofficial alternative name for the same disease. Both disease names are derived from the German city Marburg, where MARV was first discovered.[31]

Transmission

The details of the initial transmission of MVD to humans remain incompletely understood. Transmission most likely occurs from Egyptian fruit bats or another natural host, such as non-human primates or through the consumption of bushmeat, but the specific routes and body fluids involved are unknown. Human-to-human transmission of MVD occurs through direct contact with infected bodily fluids such as blood.[4] Transmission events are relatively rare – there have been only 11 recorded outbreaks of MARV between 1975 and 2011, with one event involving both MARV and RAVV.

Prevention

See main article: Prevention of viral hemorrhagic fever. There are currently no Food and Drug Administration-approved vaccines for the prevention of MVD. Many candidate vaccines have been developed and tested in various animal models.[32] [33] [34] Of those, the most promising ones are DNA vaccines[35] or based on Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus replicons,[36] vesicular stomatitis Indiana virus (VSIV)[33] [37] or filovirus-like particles (VLPs)[34] as all of these candidates could protect nonhuman primates from marburgvirus-induced disease. DNA vaccines have entered clinical trials.[38] Marburgviruses are highly infectious, but not very contagious. They do not get transmitted by aerosol during natural MVD outbreaks. Due to the absence of an approved vaccine, prevention of MVD therefore relies predominantly on quarantine of confirmed or high probability cases, proper personal protective equipment, and sterilization and disinfection.

Endemic zones

The natural maintenance hosts of marburgviruses remain to be identified unequivocally. However, the isolation of both MARV and RAVV from bats and the association of several MVD outbreaks with bat-infested mines or caves strongly suggests that bats are involved in Marburg virus transmission to humans. Avoidance of contact with bats and abstaining from visits to caves is highly recommended, but may not be possible for those working in mines or people dependent on bats as a food source.

During outbreaks

Since marburgviruses are not spread via aerosol, the most straightforward prevention method during MVD outbreaks is to avoid direct (skin-to-skin) contact with patients, their excretions and body fluids, and any possibly contaminated materials and utensils. Patients should be isolated, but still are safe to be visited by family members. Medical staff should be trained in and apply strict barrier nursing techniques (disposable face mask, gloves, goggles, and a gown at all times). Traditional burial rituals, especially those requiring embalming of bodies, should be discouraged or modified, ideally with the help of local traditional healers.[39]

In the laboratory

Marburgviruses are World Health Organization Risk Group 4 Pathogens, requiring Biosafety Level 4-equivalent containment,[40] laboratory researchers have to be properly trained in BSL-4 practices and wear proper personal protective equipment.

Treatment

There is currently no effective marburgvirus-specific therapy for MVD. Treatment is primarily supportive in nature and includes minimizing invasive procedures, balancing fluids and electrolytes to counter dehydration, administration of anticoagulants early in infection to prevent or control disseminated intravascular coagulation, administration of procoagulants late in infection to control hemorrhaging, maintaining oxygen levels, pain management, and administration of antibiotics or antifungals to treat secondary infections.[41] [42]

Prognosis

Although supportive care can improve survival chances, marburg virus disease is fatal in the majority of cases. the case fatality rate was assessed to be 61.9%.

Epidemiology

Pandemic potential

The WHO identifies marburg virus disease as having pandemic potential.[43]

Historical outbreaks

Below is a table of outbreaks concerning MVD from 1967 to 2023:

Marburg virus disease outbreaks [44]
YearCountryVirusdata-sort-type="number" Human casesdata-sort-type="number" Human deathsdata-sort-type="number" Case fatality rateNotes
1967
MARV31723%
1975
MARV3133%
1980MARV2150%
1987RAVV11100%
1988MARV11100%
1990MARV100%
1998–2000MARV & RAVV15412883%
2004–2005MARV25222790%
2007MARV & RAVV4125%[45]
2008

MARV2150%[46]
2012MARV18950%[47] [48]
2014MARV11100%[49] [50]
2017MARV33100%[51]
2021MARV11100%[52] [53] [54]
2022MARV3266.66%[55]
2023MARV403588%[56] [57] [58]
2023MARV9666%[59] [60]

1967 outbreak

See main article: 1967 Marburg virus disease outbreak.

MVD was first documented in 1967, when 31 people became ill in the German towns of Marburg and Frankfurt am Main, and in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. The outbreak involved 25 primary MARV infections and seven deaths, and six nonlethal secondary cases. The outbreak was traced to infected grivets (species Chlorocebus aethiops) imported from an undisclosed location in Uganda and used in developing poliomyelitis vaccines. The monkeys were received by Behringwerke, a Marburg company founded by the first winner of the Nobel Prize in Medicine, Emil von Behring. The company, which at the time was owned by Hoechst, was originally set up to develop sera against tetanus and diphtheria. Primary infections occurred in Behringwerke laboratory staff while working with grivet tissues or tissue cultures without adequate personal protective equipment. Secondary cases involved two physicians, a nurse, a post-mortem attendant, and the wife of a veterinarian. All secondary cases had direct contact, usually involving blood, with a primary case. Both physicians became infected through accidental skin pricks when drawing blood from patients.[61] [62] [63] [64]

1975 cases

In 1975, an Australian tourist became infected with MARV in Rhodesia (today Zimbabwe). He died in a hospital in Johannesburg, South Africa. His girlfriend and an attending nurse were subsequently infected with MVD, but survived.[65] [66] [67]

1980 cases

A case of MARV infection occurred in 1980 in Kenya. A French man, who worked as an electrical engineer in a sugar factory in Nzoia (close to Bungoma) at the base of Mount Elgon (which contains Kitum Cave), became infected by unknown means and died on 15 January shortly after admission to Nairobi Hospital.[68] The attending physician contracted MVD, but survived.[69] A popular science account of these cases can be found in Richard Preston's book The Hot Zone (the French man is referred to under the pseudonym "Charles Monet", whereas the physician is identified under his real name, Shem Musoke).[70]

1987 case

In 1987, a single lethal case of RAVV infection occurred in a 15-year-old Danish boy, who spent his vacation in Kisumu, Kenya. He had visited Kitum Cave on Mount Elgon prior to travelling to Mombasa, where he developed clinical signs of infection. The boy died after transfer to Nairobi Hospital.[71] A popular science account of this case can be found in Richard Preston's book The Hot Zone (the boy is referred to under the pseudonym "Peter Cardinal").[70]

1988 laboratory infection

In 1988, researcher Nikolai Ustinov infected himself lethally with MARV after accidentally pricking himself with a syringe used for inoculation of guinea pigs. The accident occurred at the Scientific-Production Association "Vektor" (today the State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology "Vektor") in Koltsovo, USSR (today Russia).[72] Very little information is publicly available about this MVD case because Ustinov's experiments were classified. A popular science account of this case can be found in Ken Alibek's book Biohazard.[73]

1990 laboratory infection

Another laboratory accident occurred at the Scientific-Production Association "Vektor" (today the State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology "Vektor") in Koltsovo, USSR, when a scientist contracted MARV by unknown means.[74]

1998–2000 outbreak

A major MVD outbreak occurred among illegal gold miners around Goroumbwa mine in Durba and Watsa, Democratic Republic of Congo from 1998 to 2000, when co-circulating MARV and RAVV caused 154 cases of MVD and 128 deaths. The outbreak ended with the flooding of the mine.[5] [75] [76]

2004–2005 outbreak

In early 2005, the World Health Organization (WHO) began investigating an outbreak of viral hemorrhagic fever in Angola, which was centered in the northeastern Uíge Province but also affected many other provinces. The Angolan government had to ask for international assistance, as there were only approximately 1,200 doctors in the entire country and provinces that had few as two. Health care workers also complained about a shortage of basic personal protective equipment. Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) reported that when their team arrived at the provincial hospital at the center of the outbreak, they found it operating without water and electricity. Contact tracing was complicated by the fact that the country's roads and other infrastructure were devastated after nearly three decades of civil war and the countryside remained littered with land mines.

Americo Boa Vida Hospital in the Angolan capital, Luanda, set up a special isolation ward to treat patients from the countryside. Due to the high fatality rate of MVD, some people came to be suspicious of and hostile towards hospitals and medical workers. For instance, a specially-equipped isolation ward at the provincial hospital in Uíge was reported to be empty during much of the epidemic, even though the facility was at the center of the outbreak. WHO was forced to implement what it described as a "harm reduction strategy" by distributing disinfectants to affected families who refused hospital care. Of the 252 people who contracted MVD, 227 died.[77] [78] [79] [80] [81] [82] [83]

2007 cases

In 2007, four miners became infected with marburgviruses in Kamwenge District, Uganda. The first case, a 29-year-old man, became symptomatic on July 4, 2007, was admitted to a hospital on July 7, and died on July 13. Contact tracing revealed that the man had had prolonged close contact with two colleagues (a 22-year-old man and a 23-year-old man), who experienced clinical signs of infection before his disease onset. Both men had been admitted to hospitals in June and survived their infections, which were proven to be due to MARV. A fourth, 25-year-old man, developed MVD clinical signs in September and was shown to be infected with RAVV. He also survived the infection.[14] [84]

2008 cases

On July 10, 2008, the Netherlands National Institute for Public Health and the Environment reported that a 41-year-old Dutch woman, who had visited Python Cave in Maramagambo Forest during her holiday in Uganda, had MVD due to MARV infection, and had been admitted to a hospital in the Netherlands. The woman died under treatment in the Leiden University Medical Centre in Leiden on July 11. The Ugandan Ministry of Health closed the cave after this case.[85] On January 9 of that year an infectious diseases physician notified the Colorado Department of Public Health and the Environment that a 44-year-old American woman who had returned from Uganda had been hospitalized with a fever of unknown origin. At the time, serologic testing was negative for viral hemorrhagic fever. She was discharged on January 19, 2008. After the death of the Dutch patient and the discovery that the American woman had visited Python Cave, further testing confirmed the patient demonstrated MARV antibodies and RNA.[86]

2017 Uganda outbreak

See main article: 2017 Uganda Marburg virus outbreak. In October 2017 an outbreak of Marburg virus disease was detected in Kween District, Eastern Uganda. All three initial cases (belonging to one family – two brothers and one sister) had died by 3 November. The fourth case – a health care worker – developed symptoms on 4 November and was admitted to a hospital. The first confirmed case traveled to Kenya before the death. A close contact of the second confirmed case traveled to Kampala. It is reported that several hundred people may have been exposed to infection.[87] [88]

2021 Guinean cases

See main article: 2021 Guinea Marburg virus disease outbreak.

In August 2021, two months after the re-emergent Ebola epidemic in the Guéckédou prefecture was declared over, a case of the Marburg disease was confirmed by health authorities through laboratory analysis. Other potential case of the disease in a contact awaits official results. This was the first case of the Marburg hemorrhagic fever confirmed to happen in West Africa. The case of Marburg also has been identified in Guéckédou. During the outbreak, a total of one confirmed case, who died (CFR=100%), and 173 contacts were identified, including 14 high-risk contacts based on exposure.[89] Among them, 172 were followed for a period of 21 days, of which none developed symptoms. One high-risk contact was lost to follow up. Sequencing of an isolate from the Guinean patient showed that this outbreak was caused by the Angola-like Marburg virus.[90] A colony of Egyptian rousettus bats (reservoir host of Marburg virus) was found in close proximity (4.5 km) to the village, where the Marburg virus disease outbreak emerged in 2021.[91] Two sampled fruit bats from this colony were PCR-positive on the Marburg virus.

2022 Ghanaian cases

See main article: 2022 Ghana Marburg virus disease outbreak.

In July 2022, preliminary analysis of samples taken from two patients – both deceased – in Ghana indicated the cases were positive for Marburg. However, per standard procedure, the samples were sent to the Pasteur Institute of Dakar for confirmation.[92] On 17 July 2022 the two cases were confirmed by Ghana,[93] which caused the country to declare a Marburg virus disease outbreak.[94] An additional case was identified, bringing the total to three.[95]

2023 Equatorial Guinea outbreak

See main article: 2023 Equatorial Guinea Marburg virus disease outbreak.

A disease outbreak was first reported in Equatorial Guinea on 7 February 2023, and on 13 February 2023, it was identified as being Marburg virus disease. It was the first time the disease was detected in the country.[96] Neighbouring Cameroon detected two suspected cases of Marburg virus disease on 13 February 2023,[97] but they were later ruled out.[98] On 25 February, a suspected case of Marburg was reported in the Spanish city of Valencia,[99] however this case was subsequently discounted.[100] As of 4 April 2023, there were 14 confirmed cases and 28 suspected cases, including ten confirmed deaths from the disease in Equatorial Guinea.[101] [57] On 8 June 2023, the World Health Organization declared the outbreak over.[102] In total, 17 laboratory-confirmed cases and 12 deaths were recorded. All the 23 probable cases reportedly died. Four patients recovered from the virus and have been enrolled in a survivors programme to receive psychosocial and other post-recovery support.[103]

2023 Tanzania outbreak

See main article: 2023 Tanzania Marburg virus disease outbreak.

A Marburg virus disease outbreak in Tanzania was first reported on 21 March 2023 by the Ministry of Health of Tanzania.[104] This was the first time that Tanzania had reported an outbreak of the disease. On 2 June 2023, Tanzania declared the outbreak over.[105] There were 9 total infections, resulting in 6 total deaths.[59] [60]

Research

Experimentally, recombinant vesicular stomatitis Indiana virus (VSIV) expressing the glycoprotein of MARV has been used successfully in nonhuman primate models as post-exposure prophylaxis.[106] A vaccine candidate has been effective in nonhuman primates.[107] Experimental therapeutic regimens relying on antisense technology have shown promise, with phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomers (PMOs) targeting the MARV genome[108] New therapies from Sarepta[109] and Tekmira[110] have also been successfully used in humans as well as primates.

See also

Further reading

External links

Notes and References

  1. Web site: Marburg virus disease . www.who.int . 8 February 2020 . en.
  2. Web site: Spickler. Anna. Ebolavirus and Marburgvirus Infections.
  3. Web site: Ebola Virus Disease & Marburg Virus Disease - Chapter 3 - 2018 Yellow Book Travelers' Health CDC . wwwnc.cdc.gov . 19 July 2019 . en-us.
  4. Kortepeter . MG . Dierberg . K . Shenoy . ES . Cieslak . TJ . Medical Countermeasures Working Group of the National Ebola Training and Education Center's (NETEC) Special Pathogens Research Network (SPRN) . Marburg virus disease: A summary for clinicians . International Journal of Infectious Diseases . October 2020 . 99 . 233–242 . 10.1016/j.ijid.2020.07.042 . 32758690 . 7397931 .
  5. Bausch . D. G. . Nichol . S. T. . Muyembe-Tamfum . J. J. . Borchert . M. . Rollin . P. E. . Sleurs . H. . Campbell . P. . Tshioko . F. K. . Roth . C. . Colebunders . 10.1056/NEJMoa051465 . R. . Pirard . P. . Mardel . S. . Olinda . L. A. . Zeller . H. . Tshomba . A. . Kulidri . A. . Libande . M. L. . Mulangu . S. . Formenty . P. . Grein . T. . Leirs . H. . Braack . L. . Ksiazek . T. . Zaki . S. . Bowen . M. D. . Smit . S. B. . Leman . P. A. . Burt . F. J. . Kemp . A. . Swanepoel . R. . Marburg Hemorrhagic Fever Associated with Multiple Genetic Lineages of Virus . New England Journal of Medicine . 355 . 9 . 909–919 . 2006 . 16943403.
  6. Martini . G. A. . Knauff . H. G. . Schmidt . H. A. . Mayer . G. . Baltzer . G. . 10.1055/s-0028-1105098 . Über eine bisher unbekannte, von Affen eingeschleppte Infektionskrankheit: Marburg-Virus-Krankheit . Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift . 93 . 12 . 559–571 . 2009 . 4966280. 260056835 .
  7. Stille . W.. Böhle . E.. Helm . E.. Van Rey . W.. Siede . W.. 10.1055/s-0028-1105099. Über eine durch Cercopithecus aethiops übertragene Infektionskrankheit. Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift. 93. 12. 572–582. 2009. 4966281. 260058558.
  8. Book: Martini. G. A.. 1971. Marburg Virus Disease. Clinical Syndrome. Martini. G. A.. Siegert. R.. Marburg Virus Disease. 1–9. Springer-Verlag. Berlin, Germany. 978-0-387-05199-4.
  9. Mehedi. Masfique. Allison Groseth . Heinz Feldmann . Hideki Ebihara . Clinical aspects of Marburg hemorrhagic fever. Future Virol.. September 2011. 6. 9. 1091–1106. 10.2217/fvl.11.79. 3201746 . 22046196.
  10. Book: Singh. Sunit K.. Ruzek. Daniel. Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers. 2014. CRC Press. Boca Raton. 978-1-4398-8431-7. 457–480. https://books.google.com/books?id=WzzOBQAAQBAJ&q=MVD+is+caused+by+:+Marburg+virus+and+Ravn+virus&pg=PA458. 28 October 2017. en. Steven B. Bradfute . Sina Bavari . Peter B. Jahrling . Jens H. Kuhn . Marburg Virus Disease . 10.1201/b15172-30.
  11. Peterson . A. T. . Bauer . J. T. . Mills . J. N. . 10.3201/eid1001.030125 . Ecologic and Geographic Distribution of Filovirus Disease . Emerging Infectious Diseases . 10 . 1 . 40–47 . 2004 . 15078595 . 3322747 .
  12. Pinzon . E. . Wilson . J. M. . Tucker . C. J. . Climate-based health monitoring systems for eco-climatic conditions associated with infectious diseases . Bulletin de la Société de Pathologie Exotique . 98 . 3 . 239–243 . 2005 . 16267968.
  13. Peterson . A. T. . Lash . R. R. . Carroll . D. S. . Johnson . K. M. . Geographic potential for outbreaks of Marburg hemorrhagic fever . The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene . 75 . 1 . 9–15 . 2006 . 16837700 . 10.4269/ajtmh.2006.75.1.0750009. free . 1808/6529 . free .
  14. Towner . J. S. . Amman . B. R. . Sealy . T. K. . Carroll . S. A. R. . Comer . J. A. . Kemp . A. . Swanepoel . R. . Paddock . C. D. . Balinandi . S. . Khristova . M. L. . Formenty . P. B. . Albarino . C. G. . Miller . D. M. . Reed . Z. D. . Kayiwa . J. T. . Mills . J. N. . Cannon . D. L. . Greer . P. W. . Byaruhanga . E. . Farnon . E. C. . Atimnedi . P. . Okware . S. . Katongole-Mbidde . E. . Downing . R. . Tappero . J. W. . Zaki . S. R. . Ksiazek . T. G. . Nichol . S. T. . Rollin . P. E. . Fouchier . Ron A. M. . Isolation of Genetically Diverse Marburg Viruses from Egyptian Fruit Bats . 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000536 . PLOS Pathogens . 5 . 7 . e1000536 . 2713404 . 2009 . 19649327 . free .
  15. Tucker. C. J.. Wilson. J. M.. Mahoney. R.. Anyamba. A.. Linthicum. K.. Myers. M. F.. 2002. Climatic and Ecological Context of the 1994–1996 Ebola Outbreaks. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing. 68. 2. 144–52.
  16. Gear . J. H. . Clinical aspects of African viral hemorrhagic fevers . Reviews of Infectious Diseases . 11 . S777–S782 . 1989 . Suppl 4 . 2665013 . 10.1093/clinids/11.supplement_4.s777.
  17. Gear . J. H. . Ryan . J. . Rossouw . E. . A consideration of the diagnosis of dangerous infectious fevers in South Africa . South African Medical Journal . 53 . 7 . 235–237 . 1978 . 565951.
  18. Grolla . A. . Lucht . A. . Dick . D. . Strong . J. E. . Feldmann . H. . Laboratory diagnosis of Ebola and Marburg hemorrhagic fever . Bulletin de la Société de Pathologie Exotique . 98 . 3 . 205–209 . 2005 . 16267962.
  19. Bogomolov . B. P. . Differential diagnosis of infectious diseases with hemorrhagic syndrome . Terapevticheskii Arkhiv . 70 . 4 . 63–68 . 1998 . 9612907.
  20. Hofmann . H. . Kunz . C. . "Marburg virus" (Vervet monkey disease agent) in tissue cultures . Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde, Infektionskrankheiten und Hygiene. 1. Abt. Medizinisch-hygienische Bakteriologie, Virusforschung und Parasitologie. Originale . 208 . 1 . 344–347 . 1968 . 4988544.
  21. Ksiazek . Thomas G. . 1991 . Laboratory diagnosis of filovirus infections in nonhuman primates . Lab Animal . 20 . 7 . 34–6.
  22. Geisbert . T. W. . Jahrling . P. B. . 1995 . Differentiation of filoviruses by electron microscopy . Virus Research . 39 . 2–3 . 129–150 . 10.1016/0168-1702(95)00080-1 . 8837880.
  23. Gibb . T. . Norwood Jr . D. A. . Woollen . N. . Henchal . E. A. . Development and evaluation of a fluorogenic 5′-nuclease assay to identify Marburg virus . 10.1006/mcpr.2001.0369 . Molecular and Cellular Probes . 15 . 5 . 259–266 . 2001 . 11735297.
  24. Drosten . C. . Göttig . S. . Schilling . S. . Asper . M. . Panning . M. . Schmitz . H. . Günther . S. . Rapid Detection and Quantification of RNA of Ebola and Marburg Viruses, Lassa Virus, Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever Virus, Rift Valley Fever Virus, Dengue Virus, and Yellow Fever Virus by Real-Time Reverse Transcription-PCR . Journal of Clinical Microbiology . 40 . 7 . 2323–2330 . 2002 . 12089242 . 120575 . 10.1128/jcm.40.7.2323-2330.2002.
  25. Weidmann . M. . Mühlberger . E. . Hufert . F. T. . Rapid detection protocol for filoviruses . 10.1016/j.jcv.2003.09.004 . Journal of Clinical Virology . 30 . 1 . 94–99 . 2004 . 15072761.
  26. Zhai . J. . Palacios . G. . Towner . J. S. . Jabado . O. . Kapoor . V. . Venter . M. . Grolla . A. . Briese . T. . Paweska . J. . Swanepoel . R. . Feldmann . H. . Nichol . S. T. . Lipkin . W. I. . Rapid Molecular Strategy for Filovirus Detection and Characterization . 10.1128/JCM.01893-06 . Journal of Clinical Microbiology . 45 . 1 . 224–226 . 2006 . 1828965 . 17079496.
  27. Weidmann . M. . Hufert . F. T. . Sall . A. A. . Viral load among patients infected with Marburgvirus in Angola . 10.1016/j.jcv.2006.12.023 . Journal of Clinical Virology . 39 . 1 . 65–66 . 2007 . 17360231.
  28. Saijo . M. . Niikura . M. . Maeda . A. . Sata . T. . Kurata . T. . Kurane . I. . Morikawa . S. . 10.1002/jmv.20332 . Characterization of monoclonal antibodies to Marburg virus nucleoprotein (NP) that can be used for NP-capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay . Journal of Medical Virology . 76 . 1 . 111–118 . 2005 . 15778962. 24207187 .
  29. Saijo . M. . Niikura . M. . Ikegami . T. . Kurane . I. . Kurata . T. . Morikawa . S. . Laboratory Diagnostic Systems for Ebola and Marburg Hemorrhagic Fevers Developed with Recombinant Proteins . 10.1128/CVI.13.4.444-451.2006 . Clinical and Vaccine Immunology . 13 . 4 . 444–451 . 1459631 . 2006 . 16603611.
  30. Saijo . M. . Georges-Courbot . M. C. . Fukushi . S. . Mizutani . T. . Philippe . M. . Georges . A. J. . Kurane . I. . Morikawa . S. . Marburgvirus nucleoprotein-capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using monoclonal antibodies to recombinant nucleoprotein: Detection of authentic Marburgvirus . Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases . 59 . 5 . 323–325 . 2006 . 10.7883/yoken.JJID.2006.323 . 17060700.
  31. Siegert . R. . Shu . H. L. . Slenczka . W. . Peters . D. . Müller . G. . 10.1055/s-0028-1106144 . Zur Ätiologie einer unbekannten, von Affen ausgegangenen menschlichen Infektionskrankheit . Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift . 92 . 51 . 2341–2343 . 2009 . 4294540. 116556454 .
  32. 10.1128/JVI.78.10.5458-5465.2004 . Garbutt . M. . Liebscher . R. . Wahl-Jensen . V. . Jones . S. . Möller . P. . Wagner . R. . Volchkov . V. . Klenk . H. D. . Feldmann . H. . Ströher . U. . Properties of Replication-Competent Vesicular Stomatitis Virus Vectors Expressing Glycoproteins of Filoviruses and Arenaviruses . Journal of Virology . 78 . 10 . 5458–5465 . 2004 . 15113924 . 400370.
  33. Daddario-Dicaprio . K. M. . Geisbert . T. W. . Geisbert . J. B. . Ströher . U. . Hensley . L. E. . Grolla . A. . Fritz . E. A. . Feldmann . F. . Feldmann . H. . Jones . S. M. . Cross-Protection against Marburg Virus Strains by Using a Live, Attenuated Recombinant Vaccine . 10.1128/JVI.00959-06 . Journal of Virology . 80 . 19 . 9659–9666 . 1617222 . 2006 . 16973570.
  34. Swenson . D. L. . Warfield . K. L. . Larsen . T. . Alves . D. A. . Coberley . S. S. . Bavari . S. . 10.1586/14760584.7.4.417 . Monovalent virus-like particle vaccine protects guinea pigs and nonhuman primates against infection with multiple Marburg viruses . Expert Review of Vaccines . 7 . 4 . 417–429 . 2008 . 18444889. 23200723 .
  35. 10.1016/S0264-410X(03)00362-1 . Riemenschneider . J. . Garrison . A. . Geisbert . J. . Jahrling . P. . Hevey . M. . Negley . D. . Schmaljohn . A. . Lee . J. . Hart . M. K. . Vanderzanden . L. . Custer . D. . Bray . M. . Ruff . A. . Ivins . B. . Bassett . A. . Rossi . C. . Schmaljohn . C. . Comparison of individual and combination DNA vaccines for B. Anthracis, Ebola virus, Marburg virus and Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus . Vaccine . 21 . 25–26 . 4071–4080 . 2003 . 12922144.
  36. Hevey. M.. Negley. D.. Pushko. P.. Smith. J.. Schmaljohn. A.. Nov 1998. Marburg virus vaccines based upon alphavirus replicons protect guinea pigs and nonhuman primates. Virology. 251. 1. 28–37. 10.1006/viro.1998.9367. 0042-6822. 9813200. free.
  37. M.. Live attenuated recombinant vaccine protects nonhuman primates against Ebola and Marburg viruses . T. W.. Geisbert . P. B.. Jahrling . L. E.. Hensley. Nature Medicine . K. M.. 11. Daddario. 7. 786–790. 2005. 10.1038/nm1258 . E. A.. 15937495. Jones. Feldmann. H.. Ströher. Fritz. U.. Geisbert. J. B.. Fernando. L.. Grolla. A.. Klenk. H. D.. Sullivan. N. J.. Volchkov. V. E.. 5450135 . free.
  38. Ebola/Marburg Vaccine Development. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. 2008-09-15. https://web.archive.org/web/20100306223732/https://www3.niaid.nih.gov/topics/ebolaMarburg/default.htm. 2010-03-06.
  39. Book: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and World Health Organization. Infection Control for Viral Haemorrhagic Fevers in the African Health Care Setting. 2009-05-31. 1998. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Atlanta, Georgia, USA. CITEREFCDCWHO1998. https://web.archive.org/web/20090507233051/http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/spb/mnpages/vhfmanual/entire.pdf. 2009-05-07.
  40. Web site: Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (BMBL) 5th Edition. 2011-10-16. US Department of Health and Human Services.
  41. Bausch . D. G. . Feldmann . H. . Geisbert . T. W. . Bray . M. . Sprecher . A. G. . Boumandouki . P. . Rollin . P. E. . Roth . C. . Winnipeg Filovirus Clinical Working Group . Outbreaks of Filovirus Hemorrhagic Fever: Time to Refocus on the Patient . 10.1086/520542 . The Journal of Infectious Diseases . 196 . S136–S141 . 2007 . 17940941 . free .
  42. Jeffs . B. . 10.1258/004947506775598914 . A clinical guide to viral haemorrhagic fevers: Ebola, Marburg and Lassa . Tropical Doctor . 36 . 1 . 1–4 . 2006 . 16483416. 101015 .
  43. Cuomo-Dannenburg G, McCain K, McCabe R, Unwin HJ, Doohan P, Nash RK, Hicks JT, Charniga K, Geismar C, Lambert B, Nikitin D, Skarp J, Wardle J, Kont M, Bhatia S, Imai N, van Elsland S, Cori A, Morgenstern C . Marburg virus disease outbreaks, mathematical models, and disease parameters: a systematic review . Lancet Infect Dis . 24. 5. e307–e317. November 2023 . 38040006 . 10.1016/S1473-3099(23)00515-7 . Systematic review. 7615873 .
  44. Web site: Outbreak Table Marburg Hemorrhagic Fever CDC . www.cdc.gov . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . 4 August 2018 . en.
  45. Web site: WHO Marburg haemorrhagic fever in Uganda. https://web.archive.org/web/20141008044427/http://www.who.int/csr/don/2007_08_03/en/. October 8, 2014. www.who.int. 23 October 2017.
  46. Web site: Imported Case of Marburg Hemorrhagic Fever --- Colorado, 2008. cdc.gov. 23 October 2017.
  47. Web site: Marburg hemorrhagic fever outbreak continues in Uganda. October 2012.
  48. Web site: WHO Marburg haemorrhagic fever in Uganda – update. https://web.archive.org/web/20140810103334/http://www.who.int/csr/don/2012_10_31/en/. August 10, 2014. www.who.int. 29 October 2017.
  49. Web site: 1st LD-Writethru: Deadly Marburg hemorrhagic fever breaks out in Uganda. October 5, 2014.
  50. Web site: WHO Marburg virus disease – Uganda. https://web.archive.org/web/20141117004432/http://www.who.int/csr/don/13-november-2014-marburg/en/. November 17, 2014. www.who.int. 29 October 2017.
  51. Web site: Uganda controls deadly Marburg fever outbreak, WHO says. ABC News. 8 December 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20171208164055/https://abcnews.go.com/Health/wireStory/uganda-controls-deadly-marburg-fever-outbreak-51664552. 8 December 2017.
  52. Web site: Guinea records probable case of Ebola-like Marburg virus. Reuters. 7 August 2021. 7 August 2021.
  53. Web site: West Africa's first-ever case of Marburg virus disease confirmed in Guinea. 9 August 2021. who.int.
  54. News: August 10, 2021. Guinea records West Africa's first Marburg virus death, WHO says. Reuters. August 10, 2021.
  55. News: Ghana confirms first cases of deadly Marburg virus . BBC News . 18 July 2022 . 18 July 2022.
  56. News: Equatorial Guinea declares outbreak of Ebola-like Marburg virus . . 13 February 2023 . 14 February 2023.
  57. News: Schnirring . Lisa . Equatorial Guinea confirms another Marburg virus case . 4 April 2023 . CIDRAP . University of Minnesota . 4 April 2023.
  58. News: Schnirring . Lisa . New fatal Marburg case reported in Equatorial Guinea . 25 April 2023 . CIDRAP . University of Minnesota . 24 April 2023.
  59. News: Schnirring . Lisa . Tanzania declares Marburg virus outbreak . 22 March 2023 . CIDRAP . University of Minnesota . 22 March 2023.
  60. News: Tanzania reports additional Marburg virus disease case . 25 April 2023 . Outbreak News Today . 24 April 2023 . 24 April 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230424235514/https://outbreaknewstoday.com/tanzania-reports-additional-marburg-virus-disease-case-47802/ . dead .
  61. Kissling . R. E. . Robinson . R. Q. . Murphy . F. A. . Whitfield . S. G. . Agent of disease contracted from green monkeys . Science . 160 . 830 . 888–890 . 1968 . 4296724 . 10.1126/science.160.3830.888. 1968Sci...160..888K . 30252321 .
  62. Bonin . O. . The Cercopithecus monkey disease in Marburg and Frankfurt (Main), 1967 . Acta Zoologica et Pathologica Antverpiensia . 48 . 319–331 . 1969 . 5005859.
  63. Jacob . H. . Solcher . H. . An infectious disease transmitted by Cercopithecus aethiops ("marbury disease") with glial nodule encephalitis . Acta Neuropathologica . 11 . 1 . 29–44 . 1968 . 5748997 . 10.1007/bf00692793. 12791113 .
  64. Book: Stojkovic . L.. Bordjoski . M.. Gligic . A.. Stefanovic . Z.. 1971. Two Cases of Cercopithecus-Monkeys-Associated Haemorrhagic Fever . Martini. G. A.. Siegert. R.. Marburg Virus Disease. 24–33. Springer-Verlag. Berlin, Germany. 978-0-387-05199-4.
  65. Gear. J. S.. Cassel. G. A.. Gear. A. J.. Trappler. B.. Clausen. L.. Meyers. A. M.. Kew. M. C.. Bothwell. T. H.. Sher. R.. Miller. G. B.. Schneider. J.. 1975. Outbreake of Marburg virus disease in Johannesburg. British Medical Journal. 4. 5995. 489–493. 10.1136/bmj.4.5995.489. 1675587. 811315. Gear. J. H.. M.. Isaäcson. E. D.. Gomperts. H. J.. Koornhof.
  66. Gear . J. H. . Haemorrhagic fevers of Africa: An account of two recent outbreaks . Journal of the South African Veterinary Association . 48 . 1 . 5–8 . 1977 . 406394.
  67. Conrad . J. L. . Isaacson . M. . Smith . E. B. . Wulff . H. . Crees . M. . Geldenhuys . P. . Johnston . J. . Epidemiologic investigation of Marburg virus disease, Southern Africa, 1975 . The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene . 27 . 6 . 1210–1215 . 1978 . 569445 . 10.4269/ajtmh.1978.27.1210.
  68. Dellatola. Lesley. May 1980. Victory for Virology. South African Panorama. 25. 5. 2–6. Internet Archive.
  69. 10.1016/S0140-6736(82)91871-2 . Smith . D. H. . Johnson . B. K. . Isaacson . M. . Swanapoel . R. . Johnson . K. M. . Killey . M. . Bagshawe . A. . Siongok . T. . Keruga . W. K. . Marburg-virus disease in Kenya . Lancet . 1 . 8276 . 816–820 . 1982 . 6122054 . 42832324 .
  70. Book: Preston. Richard. Richard Preston. 1994. The Hot Zone – A Terrifying New Story. Random House. New York, USA. 978-0-385-47956-1.
  71. Johnson. E. D.. Johnson. B. K.. Silverstein. D.. Tukei. P.. Geisbert. T. W.. Sanchez. A. N.. Jahrling. P. B.. Imported Virus Infections . Characterization of a new Marburg virus isolated from a 1987 fatal case in Kenya . 1996. Archives of Virology Supplement II . Tino F. Schwarz . Springer . 0939-1983 . Günter Siegl. 11 . 101–114. 10.1007/978-3-7091-7482-1_10. 978-3-211-82829-8. 8800792.
  72. Beer . B. . Kurth . R. . Bukreyev . A. . Characteristics of Filoviridae: Marburg and Ebola viruses . Die Naturwissenschaften . 86 . 1 . 8–17 . 1999 . 10024977 . 10.1007/s001140050562. 1999NW.....86....8B . 25789824 . free .
  73. Book: Alibek. Ken. Handelman. Steven. Ken Alibek. Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World—Told from Inside by the Man Who Ran It. Random House. New York, USA. 978-0-385-33496-9. 1999.
  74. Nikiforov. V. V.. Turovskiĭ. I.. Kalinin. P. P.. Akinfeeva. L. A.. Katkova. L. R.. Barmin. V. S.. Riabchikova. E. I.. Popkova. N. I.. Shestopalov. A. M.. Nazarov. V. P.. 1994. A case of a laboratory infection with Marburg fever. Zhurnal Mikrobiologii, Epidemiologii, I Immunobiologii. 3. 104–106. 7941853.
  75. Bertherat . E. . Talarmin . A. . Zeller . H. . Democratic Republic of the Congo: Between civil war and the Marburg virus. International Committee of Technical and Scientific Coordination of the Durba Epidemic . Médecine Tropicale: Revue du Corps de Santé Colonial . 59 . 2 . 201–204 . 1999 . 10546197.
  76. 10.3201/eid0912.030355 . Bausch . D. G. . Borchert . M. . Grein . T. . Roth . C. . Swanepoel . R. . Libande . M. L. . Talarmin . A. . Bertherat . E. . Muyembe-Tamfum . J. J. . Tugume . B. . Colebunders . R. . Kondé . K. M. . Pirad . P. . Olinda . L. L. . Rodier . G. R. . Campbell . P. . Tomori . O. . Ksiazek . T. G. . Rollin . P. E. . Risk Factors for Marburg Hemorrhagic Fever, Democratic Republic of the Congo . Emerging Infectious Diseases . 9 . 12 . 1531–1537 . 2003 . 14720391 . 3034318.
  77. Roddy. P.. Thomas. S. L.. Jeffs. B.. Nascimento Folo. P.. Pablo Palma. P.. Moco Henrique. B.. Villa. L.. Damiao Machado. F. P.. Bernal. O.. Jones. S. M.. Strong. J. E.. 2010. Factors Associated with Marburg Hemorrhagic Fever: Analysis of Patient Data from Uige, Angola. The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 201. 12. 1909–1918. 10.1086/652748. 3407405. 20441515. Borchert. H.. Feldmann. M..
  78. Hovette . P. . Epidemic of Marburg hemorrhagic fever in Angola . Médecine Tropicale: Revue du Corps de Santé Colonial . 65 . 2 . 127–128 . 2005 . 16038348.
  79. Ndayimirije . N. . Kindhauser . M. K. . 10.1056/NEJMp058115 . Marburg Hemorrhagic Fever in Angola—Fighting Fear and a Lethal Pathogen . New England Journal of Medicine . 352 . 21 . 2155–2157 . 2005 . 15917379. free .
  80. Towner . J. S. . Khristova . M. L. . Sealy . T. K. . Vincent . M. J. . Erickson . B. R. . Bawiec . D. A. . Hartman . A. L. . Comer . J. A. . Zaki . S. R. . Ströher . U. . Gomes Da Silva . F. . Del Castillo . F. . Rollin . P. E. . Ksiazek . T. G. . Nichol . S. T. . Marburgvirus Genomics and Association with a Large Hemorrhagic Fever Outbreak in Angola . 10.1128/JVI.00069-06 . Journal of Virology . 80 . 13 . 6497–6516 . 1488971 . 2006 . 16775337.
  81. Jeffs . B. . Roddy . P. . Weatherill . D. . De La Rosa . O. . Dorion . C. . Iscla . M. . Grovas . I. . Palma . P. P. . Villa . L. . Bernal . O. . Rodriguez-Martinez . J. . Barcelo . B. . Pou . D. . Borchert . M. . The Médecins Sans Frontières Intervention in the Marburg Hemorrhagic Fever Epidemic, Uige, Angola, 2005. I. Lessons Learned in the Hospital . 10.1086/520548 . The Journal of Infectious Diseases . 196 . S154–S161 . 2007 . 17940944 . free .
  82. Roddy . P. . Weatherill . D. . Jeffs . B. . Abaakouk . Z. . Dorion . C. . Rodriguez-Martinez . J. . Palma . P. P. . De La Rosa . O. . Villa . L. . Grovas . I. . Borchert . M. . The Médecins Sans Frontières Intervention in the Marburg Hemorrhagic Fever Epidemic, Uige, Angola, 2005. II. Lessons Learned in the Community . 10.1086/520544 . The Journal of Infectious Diseases . 196 . S162–S167 . 2007 . 17940945 . free .
  83. Roddy . P. . Marchiol . A. . Jeffs . B. . Palma . P. P. . Bernal . O. . De La Rosa . O. . Borchert . M. . 10.1016/j.trstmh.2008.09.001 . Decreased peripheral health service utilisation during an outbreak of Marburg haemorrhagic fever, Uíge, Angola, 2005 . Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene . 103 . 2 . 200–202 . 2009 . 18838150 . 10144/41786 . free . 2018-04-29 . 2017-08-09 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170809065650/http://fieldresearch.msf.org/msf/bitstream/10144/41786/1/Roddy%20Haemorrhagic%20fever%20Trans.pdf .
  84. Adjemian . J. . Farnon . E. C. . Tschioko . F. . Wamala . J. F. . Byaruhanga . E. . Bwire . G. S. . Kansiime . E. . Kagirita . A. . Ahimbisibwe . S. . Katunguka . F. . Jeffs . B. . Lutwama . J. J. . Downing . R. . Tappero . J. W. . Formenty . P. . Amman . B. . Manning . C. . Towner . J. . Nichol . S. T. . Rollin . P. E. . Outbreak of Marburg Hemorrhagic Fever Among Miners in Kamwenge and Ibanda Districts, Uganda, 2007 . 10.1093/infdis/jir312 . Journal of Infectious Diseases . 204 . Suppl 3 . 3203392 . S796–S799 . 2011 . 21987753.
  85. Timen . A. . Aura Timen . Koopmans . M. P. . Vossen . A. C. . Van Doornum . G. J. . Günther . S. . Van Den Berkmortel . F. . Verduin . K. M. . Dittrich . S. . Emmerich . P. . Osterhaus . A. D. M. E. . Van Dissel . J. T. . Coutinho . R. A. . Response to Imported Case of Marburg Hemorrhagic Fever, the Netherlands . Emerging Infectious Diseases . 15 . 8 . 1171–1175 . 2009 . 19751577 . 2815969 . 10.3201/eid1508.090015.
  86. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) . Imported case of Marburg hemorrhagic fever - Colorado, 2008 . MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report . 58 . 49 . 1377–1381 . 2009 . 20019654.
  87. Web site: Marburg virus disease – Uganda and Kenya. https://web.archive.org/web/20171109232727/http://www.who.int/csr/don/7-november-2017-marburg/en/. November 9, 2017. WHO. 7 November 2017. 2017-12-04.
  88. News: WHAT IS MARBURG? THIS VIRUS CAUSES VICTIMS TO BLEED FROM EVERY ORIFICE AND DIE. 18 November 2017. 2017-12-04. Dana Dovey. Newsweek.
  89. Web site: Marburg virus disease - Guinea . 2022-11-29 . www.who.int . en.
  90. Koundouno . Fara R. . Kafetzopoulou . Liana E. . Faye . Martin . Renevey . Annick . Soropogui . Barrè . Ifono . Kékoura . Nelson . Emily V. . Kamano . Aly A. . Tolno . Charles . Annibaldis . Giuditta . Millimono . Saa L. . Camara . Jacob . Kourouma . Karifa . Doré . Ahmadou . Millimouno . Tamba E. . 2022-06-30 . Detection of Marburg Virus Disease in Guinea . New England Journal of Medicine . en . 386 . 26 . 2528–2530 . 10.1056/NEJMc2120183 . 35767445 . 7613962 . 250114159 . 0028-4793.
  91. Makenov . Marat . Boumbaly . Sanaba . Tolno . Faya Raphael . Sacko . Nouminy . N'Fatoma . Leno Tamba . Mansare . Oumar . Kolie . Bonaventure . Stukolova . Olga . Morozkin . Evgeny . Kholodilov . Ivan . Zhurenkova . Olga . Fyodorova . Marina . Akimkin . Vasily . Popova . Anna . Conde . Namoudou . 2022-11-04 . Investigating the Zoonotic Origin of the Marburg Virus Outbreak in Guinea in 2021 . en . 10.1101/2022.11.03.514981v1.
  92. Web site: Ghana reports first-ever suspected cases of Marburg virus disease . . 7 July 2022 . 7 July 2022.
  93. News: 2022-07-18 . Ghana confirms its first outbreak of highly infectious Marburg virus . en . Reuters . 2022-07-18.
  94. News: 2022-07-18 . Ghana Declares First Marburg Virus Disease Outbreak . en . Bloomberg.com . 2022-07-18.
  95. Ghana. We are Ghana . 1552716814974689280 . Update on Marburg Virus Disease Outbreak in Ghana.
  96. Web site: Equatorial Guinea confirms first-ever Marburg virus disease outbreak . . 13 February 2023 . 13 February 2023.
  97. Web site: Cameroon detects two suspected cases of Marburg virus near Eq. Guinea . . 14 February 2023 . 2023-02-21 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230221132513/https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/who-increasing-health-surveillance-after-equatorial-guinea-finds-marburg-virus-2023-02-14/ . live .
  98. Web site: | By Ministère de la Santé Publique du Cameroun | Facebook. www.facebook.com. 2023-02-28. 2023-02-28. https://web.archive.org/web/20230228190904/https://www.facebook.com/MINSANTE.PageOfficielle/videos/c4534e7c/757499088848735/. live.
  99. Web site: Aislado un paciente en Valencia por sospechas de que padezca la grave fiebre de Marburgo. 25 February 2023 . El Pais. 25 February 2023. 2023-02-25. https://web.archive.org/web/20230225073702/https://elpais.com/espana/comunidad-valenciana/2023-02-25/aislado-un-paciente-en-valencia-por-sospechas-de-que-padezca-la-grave-fiebre-de-marburgo.html. live.
  100. Web site: Spain says patient does not have Marburg disease . . 28 February 2023 . 2023-02-27 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230227191716/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/spanish-authorities-detect-first-suspected-case-marburg-disease-2023-02-25/ . live .
  101. Web site: Equatorial Guinea declares outbreak of Ebola-like Marburg virus. 13 February 2023 . BNO News. 13 February 2023. 20 February 2023. https://web.archive.org/web/20230220120932/https://bnonews.com/index.php/2023/02/equatorial-guinea-declares-outbreak-of-ebola-like-marburg-virus/. live.
  102. Web site: WHO declares end to Marburg virus outbreak in Equatorial Guinea . . 8 June 2023 . 19 June 2023.
  103. Web site: 2023-06-08 . Marburg Virus Disease outbreak in Equatorial Guinea ends . 2023-07-05 . WHO Regional Office for Africa . en.
  104. Web site: Tanzania confirms first-ever outbreak of Marburg Virus Disease . 2023-04-19 . WHO Regional Office for Africa . 21 March 2023 . en.
  105. News: Tanzania declares end of Marburg viral outbreak . . 2 June 2023 . 19 June 2023.
  106. Daddario-Dicaprio . K. M. . Geisbert . T. W. . Ströher . U. . Geisbert . J. B. . Grolla . A. . Fritz . E. A. . Fernando . L. . Kagan . E. . Jahrling . P. B. . Hensley . 10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68546-2 . L. E. . Jones . S. M. . Feldmann . H. . Postexposure protection against Marburg haemorrhagic fever with recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus vectors in non-human primates: An efficacy assessment . The Lancet . 367 . 9520 . 1399–1404 . 2006 . 16650649 . 14039727 . 2018-04-29 . 2017-09-27 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170927010820/http://www.dtic.mil/get-tr-doc/pdf?AD=ADA447898 . live .
  107. Woolsey . Courtney . Cross . Robert W. . Agans . Krystle N. . Borisevich . Viktoriya . Deer . Daniel J. . Geisbert . Joan B. . Gerardi . Cheryl . Latham . Theresa E. . Fenton . Karla A. . Egan . 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010433 . Michael A. . Eldridge . John H. . Geisbert . Thomas W. . Mattasov . Demetrius . A highly attenuated Vesiculovax vaccine rapidly protects nonhuman primates against lethal Marburg virus challenge . PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases . 16 . 5 . 2022 . e0010433 . 35622847 . 9182267 . free .
  108. Warren . T. K. . Warfield . K. L. . Wells . J. . Swenson . D. L. . Donner . K. S. . Van Tongeren . S. A. . Garza . N. L. . Dong . L. . Mourich . D. V. . Crumley . 10.1038/nm.2202 . S. . Nichols . D. K. . Iversen . P. L. . Bavari . S. . Advanced antisense therapies for postexposure protection against lethal filovirus infections . Nature Medicine . 16 . 9 . 991–994 . 2010 . 20729866. 205387144 .
  109. Sarepta Therapeutics Announces Positive Safety Results from Phase I Clinical Study of Marburg Drug Candidate - Business Wire. 12 October 2014. 2014-02-10.
  110. Web site: Successful Marburg Virus Treatment Offers Hope for Ebola Patients. https://web.archive.org/web/20140822032906/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/08/140820-marburg-ebola-virus-treatment-monkey-africa/. August 22, 2014. National Geographic. 12 October 2014. 2014-08-20.

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Marburg virus disease".

Except where otherwise indicated, Everything.Explained.Today is © Copyright 2009-2024, A B Cryer, All Rights Reserved. Cookie policy.