List of vaccine topics explained

This is a list of vaccine-related topics.

A vaccine is a biological preparation that improves immunity to a particular disease. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism, and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe or its toxins. The agent stimulates the body's immune system to recognize the agent as foreign, destroy it, and "remember" it, so that the immune system can more easily recognize and destroy any of these microorganisms that it later encounters.^[1]

Human vaccines

Viral diseases

List of vaccines for viral diseases

Vaccine(s)	Virus	Virus type	Diseases or conditions	Brands
COVID-19 vaccine	Coronavirus	RNA	COVID-19
Dengue vaccine	Dengue virus	RNA	Dengue fever	Dengvaxia, Qdenga
Ebola vaccine	Ebolavirus	RNA	Ebola
H1N1 vaccine	H1N1 virus	RNA		Panvax
Hepatitis A vaccine	Hepatitis A virus	RNA	Hepatitis A
Hepatitis B vaccine	Hepatitis B virus	DNA	Hepatitis B	Comvax, ComBE Five, Easyfive TT, Elovac B, Engerix-B, Genevac B, Pediarix, Pentabio, Pentavac PFS, Quinvaxem, Recombivax HB, Sci-B-Vac, Shan-5, Shanvac B, Twinrix
Hepatitis E vaccine		RNA		Hecolin
HPV vaccine		DNA		Cervarix, Gardasil
Influenza vaccine		RNA		Agriflu, Fluarix, Flubio, FluLaval, FluMist, Fluvirin, Fluzone, Influvac, Pandemrix, Vaxigrip
Japanese encephalitis vaccine		RNA		Encevac, Imojev, Ixiaro, Jeev, Jenvac, Jespect, JEvax
Junin vaccine^[2]		RNA		Candid 1
Measles vaccine, MMR vaccine, MMRV vaccine		RNA		MMR II, Priorix, Priorix Tetra, ProQuad, Tresivac, Trimovax
Mumps vaccine, MMR vaccine, MMRV vaccine		RNA		MMR II, Priorix, Priorix Tetra, ProQuad, Tresivac, Trimovax
Polio vaccine		RNA		Ipol, Kinrix, Pediacel, Pediarix, Pentacel, Quadracel
Rabies vaccine		RNA		Abhayrab, Imovax, RabAvert, Rabipur, Rabivax, Speeda, Verovab
Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) vaccine	Respiratory Syncytial virus	RNA	RSV pneumonia	Arexvy, Abrysvo
Rotavirus vaccine		RNA		Rotarix, Rotateq
Rubella vaccine, MMR vaccine, MMRV vaccine		RNA		MMR II, Priorix, ProQuad, Tresivac, Trimovax
Tick-borne encephalitis vaccine		RNA		Encepur, EnceVi, FSME-Immun, TBE-Moscow
Varicella vaccine, Shingles vaccine, MMRV vaccine		DNA		Priorix Tetra, ProQuad, Shingrix, Varilrix, Varivax, Zostavax
Smallpox vaccine		DNA		ACAM2000, Dryvax, Imvanex, Jynneos
Yellow fever vaccine		RNA		Stamaril, YF-VAX
Chikungunya vaccine	Chikungunya virus	RNA	Chikungunya	Ixchiq

Bacterial diseases

List of vaccines for bacterial diseases

Vaccine(s)	Bacterium	Diseases or conditions	Brands
Anthrax vaccines			BioThrax
DPT vaccine			Boostrix, Adacel, Daptacel, Infanrix, Tripedia, Kinrix, Pediarix, Pentacel, Tetramune, Quinvaxem, Pentavac PFS, Easyfive TT, Shan-5, ComBE Five
Brucella vaccine^[3]			RB51
DPT vaccine			Boostrix, Adacel, Decavac, Tenivac, Daptacel, Infanrix, Tripedia, Kinrix, Pediarix, Pentacel, Tetramune, Quinvaxem, Pentavac PFS, Easyfive TT, Shan-5, ComBE Five
DPT vaccine			Boostrix, Adacel, Decavac, Tenivac, Daptacel, Infanrix, Tripedia, Kinrix, Pediarix, Pentacel, Tetramune, Quinvaxem, Pentavac PFS, Easyfive TT, Shan-5, ComBE Five
Q fever vaccine			Q-Vax
Hib vaccine	Haemophilus influenzae type B (Hib)		Hiberix, Pentacel, ActHIB, Pedvax HIB, Tetramune, Quinvaxem, Pentavac PFS, Easyfive TT, Shan-5, ComBE Five
Tuberculosis (BCG) vaccine			Tice BCG
Meningococcal vaccine			Serotype C: Neisvac C and Meningitec. Serotypes A/C/W-135/Y: Mencevax, Nimenrix, Menveo, Menactra. Serotype B: Bexsero
Typhoid vaccine			Typhim Vi, Typherix, Ty21a
Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine, Pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine			Pneumovax, Prevnar
Cholera vaccine			Dukoral, Shanchol, Vaxchora

Vaccines under research

Viral diseases

• Adenovirus vaccine^[4]
• COVID-19 vaccine (Part of today's pandemic since 2019)
• Coxsackie B virus vaccine^[5]
• Cytomegalovirus vaccine^[6]
• Chikungunya vaccine^[7]
• Eastern Equine encephalitis virus vaccine for humans^[8]
• Enterovirus 71 vaccine^[9]
• Epstein–Barr vaccine^[10]
• H5N1 vaccine^[11]
• Hepatitis C vaccine^[12]
• HIV vaccine^[13]
• HTLV-1 T-lymphotropic leukemia vaccine for humans^{[14] [15]}
• Marburg virus disease vaccine^[16]
• MERS vaccine^[17]
• Nipah virus vaccine^{[18] [19]}
• Norovirus vaccine^[20]
• Respiratory syncytial virus vaccine^[21]
• SARS vaccine^[22]
• West Nile virus vaccine for humans^[23]
• Zika fever vaccine^[24]

Bacterial diseases

• Caries vaccine^[25]
• Gonorrhea vaccine^[26]
• Ehrlichiosis vaccine^[27]
• Helicobacter pylori vaccine ^{[28] [29]}
• Leprosy vaccine^[30]
• Lyme disease vaccine^[31]
• Staphylococcus aureus vaccine^[32]
• Streptococcus pyogenes vaccine^[33]
• Syphilis vaccine^[34]
• Tularemia vaccine^[35]
• Yersinia pestis vaccine^[36]

Parasitic diseases

• Chagas disease vaccine^{[37] [38]}
• Hookworm vaccine^[39]
• Leishmaniasis vaccine^[40]
• Malaria vaccine^[41]
• Onchocerciasis river blindness vaccine for humans^[42]
• Schistosomiasis vaccine^[43]
• Trypanosomiasis vaccine^[44]

Non-infectious diseases

• Alzheimer's disease amyloid protein vaccine^[45]
• Breast cancer vaccine^[46]
• Ovarian cancer vaccine^[47]
• Prostate cancer vaccine^[48]
• Talimogene laherparepvec (T-VEC), - Herpes virus engineered to produce immune-boosting molecule

Other

• Heroin vaccine^[49]

Vaccine components

• Adjuvant
• List of vaccine ingredients
• Preservative
• Thiomersal
• Vaccine types

Vaccine trials

• Vaccine trial

Vaccination strategies

• Pulse vaccination strategy
• Ring vaccination
• Cocooning (immunization)

Vaccine safety

• Adverse effect (medicine)
  • Adverse drug reaction
• Artificial induction of immunity
• Eczema vacinatum
• Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System
• Vaccine injury
• Vaccine Safety Datalink

People

Developers of vaccines

• Leila Denmark
• Grace Eldering
• John Franklin Enders
• Thomas Francis, Jr.
• Ian Frazer
• Sarah Gilbert
• Loney Gordon
• Leonard Hayflick
• Maurice Hilleman
• Edward Jenner
• Pearl Kendrick
• Hilary Koprowski
• Marshall Lightowlers
• Paul Offit
• Louis Pasteur
• Stanley Plotkin
• Albert Sabin
• Jonas Salk
• Max Theiler
• Pablo DT Valenzuela
• Jian Zhou

Organizations, conferences and publications

Manufacturers

• AstraZeneca
• Bharat Biotech
• BioMérieux
• BioNTech
• CSL Limited
• Crucell
• Eli Lilly
• Emergent BioSolutions
• GlaxoSmithKline
• Intercell
• Johnson & Johnson
• MassBiologics, part of University of Massachusetts Medical School
• MedImmune
• Merck & Co.
• Moderna
• Novartis
• Pfizer
• Sanofi-Aventis
  • Sanofi Pasteur
• Serum Institute of India
• Sinopharm
• Schering-Plough
• Sinovac Biotech
• Teva Pharmaceuticals

Other

• 2000 Simpsonwood CDC conference
• American Academy of Pediatrics
• Coalition for Epidemic Preparedness Innovations
• Council of State and Territorial Epidemiologists
• Edward Jenner Institute for Vaccine Research
• Every Child By Two
• Emory University
• Expanded Program on Immunization (Philippines)
• GAVI Alliance
• Immunization Alliance
• International AIDS Vaccine Initiative
• Israel Institute for Biological Research
• March of Dimes
• National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases
• National Immunization Technical Advisory Group (NITAG)
  • Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices
  • Australian Technical Advisory Group on Immunisation
  • Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation
  • National Advisory Committee on Immunization
  • National Immunisation Advisory Committee
  • Standing Committee on Vaccination
• Nature Reviews Immunology
• Nature Reviews Microbiology
• Pasteur Institute
• Rotary International
• Sabin Vaccine Institute
• Strategic Advisory Group of Experts
• Uganda Virus Research Institute
• UNICEF
• Vaccination Week In The Americas
• World Immunization Week
• Yerkes National Primate Research Center

Advocacy of anti-vaccination opinions

• Generation Rescue
• National Vaccine Information Center
• Children's Health Defense
• Informed Consent Action Network
• SafeMinds
• Australian Vaccination-Skeptics Network
• National League for Liberty in Vaccination (France)
• Vaccine Choice Canada
• Freedom Angels Foundation
• Learn the Risk

Films supporting vaccination

Legal aspects

• Project Bioshield Act
• Biodefense and Pandemic Vaccine and Drug Development Act of 2005
• National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act
• Public Readiness and Emergency Preparedness Act
• Vaccine court
• Vaccines for the New Millennium Act

Other

• 2001 United Kingdom foot-and-mouth crisis
• Active immunization
• AIDS origins opposed to scientific consensus
• Antibiotic resistance
• Antiviral drug
• BCG disease outbreak in Finland in the 2000s
• Bioterrorism
• Clostridium vaccine
• Controversies in autism
• Death rates in the 20th century
• Efficacy
• Fill and finish
• Flying syringe
• Gamma globulin
• Genetic engineering
• Genetics
• Herd immunity
• History of medicine
• History of science
• Original antigenic sin
• Host (biology)
• Immortality
• Immunization
• Immunology
• Immunostimulant
• Inoculation
• Intramuscular injection
• Jehovah's Witnesses and blood transfusions
• Lipid A
• Live virus reference strain
• Molecular virology
• Naked DNA
• Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
• Number needed to vaccinate
• OPV AIDS hypothesis
• Pet passport
• Pharmacology
• Poliomyelitis eradication
• Post-exposure prophylaxis
• Precautionary principle
• Pregnancy
• Prophylaxis
• Public health
• Quarantine
• Recombinant DNA
• Science and technology in the United States
• Strategic National Stockpile
• Superantigen
• Thiomersal and vaccines
• Timeline of vaccines
• Toxoid
• Travel medicine
• United States and weapons of mass destruction
• Vaccination
• Vaccination policy
• Vaccination schedule
• Vaccinator
• Vaccine
• Vaccine controversies
• Vaccine line jumping
• Vaccine wastage
• Vaccine-induced seropositivity
• Viral shift
• Virology
• Virus-like particle
• World AIDS Vaccine Day

See also

• Indian states ranking by vaccination coverage
• List of infectious diseases

Notes and References

1. Book: Loehr, Jamie . Vaccine Basics . The Vaccine Answer Book . Sourcebooks Inc.. Naperville, IL . 2009 . https://books.google.com/books?id=-u5nbWzQxw8C&q=What+is+a+Vaccine&pg=PA3 . 978-1402223785 .
2. Enria. D. A.. Ambrosio. A. M.. Briggiler. A. M.. Feuillade. M. R.. Crivelli. E.. Study Group on Argentine Hemorrhagic Fever Vaccine. 2010. Candid#1 vaccine against Argentine hemorrhagic fever produced in Argentina. Immunogenicity and safety. Medicina. 70. 3. 215–222. 20529769.
3. Notes from the Field: Human Brucella abortus RB51 Infections Caused by Consumption of Unpasteurized Domestic Dairy Products – United States, 2017–2019. 10.15585/mmwr.mm6807a6. 2019. Negrón. María E.. Kharod. Grishma A.. Bower. William A.. Walke. Henry. MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 68. 7. 185. 30789879. 6385706.
4. Kuschner . R. A. . Russell . K. L. . Abuja . M. . Bauer . K. M. . Faix . D. J. . Hait . H. . Henrick . J. . Jacobs . M. . Liss . A. . Lynch . J. A. . Liu . Q. . Lyons . A. G. . Malik . M. . Moon . J. E. . Stubbs . J. . Sun . W. . Tang . D. . Towle . A. C. . Walsh . D. S. . Wilkerson . D. . Adenovirus Vaccine Efficacy Trial Consortium . A phase 3, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the safety and efficacy of the live, oral adenovirus type 4 and type 7 vaccine, in U.S. Military recruits . 10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.04.035 . Vaccine . 31 . 28 . 2963–2971 . 2013 . 23623865 .
5. Kim . D. S. . Nam . J. H. . 10.1517/14712590903379502 . Characterization of attenuated coxsackievirus B3 strains and prospects of their application as live-attenuated vaccines . Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy . 10 . 2 . 179–190 . 2010 . 20088713 . 2700243 .
6. Book: 10.1007/978-3-540-77349-8_20 . Schleiss . M. R. . Cytomegalovirus Vaccine Development . Human Cytomegalovirus . Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology . 325 . 361–382 . 2008 . 978-3-540-77348-1 . 18637516 . 2831992.
7. Web site: DoD Vaccine Research Saves Military, Civilian Lives. 31 May 2017. 7 July 2018. Rick. Docksai. US Department of Defense.
8. Pandya . J. . Gorchakov . R. . Wang . E. . Leal . G. . Weaver . S. C. . A vaccine candidate for eastern equine encephalitis virus based on IRES-mediated attenuation . 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.12.121 . Vaccine . 30 . 7 . 1276–1282 . 2012 . 22222869. 3283035 .
9. Zhu . F. C. . Liang . Z. L. . Li . X. L. . Ge . H. M. . Meng . F. Y. . Mao . Q. Y. . Zhang . Y. T. . Hu . Y. M. . Zhang . Z. Y. . Li . 10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61764-4 . J. X. . Gao . F. . Chen . Q. H. . Zhu . Q. Y. . Chu . K. . Wu . X. . Yao . X. . Guo . H. J. . Chen . X. Q. . Liu . P. . Dong . Y. Y. . Li . F. X. . Shen . X. L. . Wang . J. Z. . Immunogenicity and safety of an enterovirus 71 vaccine in healthy Chinese children and infants: A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 2 clinical trial . The Lancet . 381 . 9871 . 1037–1045 . 2013 . 23352749. 27961719 .
10. News: Epstein-Barr Virus Vaccine May Soon Enter Phase 3 Trial. Pullen, L.C.. Medscape Today. November 7, 2011. April 24, 2013.
11. H5N1 Influenza Virus Vaccine, manufactured by Sanofi Pasteur, Inc. Questions and Answers. FDA. 12 April 2019.
12. News: Hepatitis C vaccine by Inovio could be tested in humans by end of year. Philadelphia Business Journal. January 9, 2013. April 24, 2013.
13. News: Researchers a step closer to making HIV vaccine. Medical News Today. April 5, 2013. April 24, 2013.
14. 10.1093/jnci/93.23.1775 . Hanabuchi . S. . Ohashi . T. . Koya . Y. . Kato . H. . Hasegawa . A. . Takemura . F. . Masuda . T. . Kannagi . M. . Regression of human T-cell leukemia virus type I (HTLV-I)-associated lymphomas in a rat model: Peptide-induced T-cell immunity . Journal of the National Cancer Institute . 93 . 23 . 1775–1783 . 2001 . 11734593. free .
15. De Thé . G. . Bomford . R. . Kazanji . M. . Ibrahim . F. . Human T cell lymphotropic virus: Necessity for and feasibility of a vaccine . Ciba Foundation Symposium . Novartis Foundation Symposia . 187 . 47–55; discussion 55–60 . 1994 . 10.1002/9780470514672.ch4 . 7796676. 9780470514672 .
16. Hampton . T. . Marburg Vaccine Shows Promise: Offers Postexposure Protection in Monkeys . 10.1001/jama.295.20.2346 . JAMA . 295 . 20 . 2346 . 2006 . 16720816.
17. Web site: MERS vaccine shows promise in clinical trial, say researchers.
18. . Developing a vaccine against Nipah virus. April 15, 2019 .
19. 10.1038/s41541-019-0109-5 . Rabies-based vaccine induces potent immune responses against Nipah virus . 2019 . Keshwara . Rohan . Shiels . Thomas . Postnikova . Elena . Kurup . Drishya . Wirblich . Christoph . Johnson . Reed F. . Schnell . Matthias J. . npj Vaccines . 4 . 15 . 31016033 . 6465360 .
20. News: Norovirus leading cause of intestinal disorders in kids. Sifferlin . A. . CNN. March 22, 2013. April 24, 2013.
21. Lindell . D. M. . Morris . S. B. . White . M. P. . Kallal . L. E. . Lundy . P. K. . Hamouda . T. . Baker . J. R. . Lukacs . N. W. . Semple . Malcolm Gracie . 10.1371/journal.pone.0021823 . A Novel Inactivated Intranasal Respiratory Syncytial Virus Vaccine Promotes Viral Clearance without Th2 Associated Vaccine-Enhanced Disease . PLOS ONE . 6 . 7 . e21823 . 2011 . 21789184. 3137595 . 2011PLoSO...621823L . free .
22. Jiang . S. . Lu . L. . Du . L. . Development of SARS vaccines and therapeutics is still needed . 10.2217/fvl.12.126 . Future Virology . 8 . 1–2 . 2013 . 1 . 32201503. 7079997 .
23. Hall . R. A. . Khromykh . A. A. . 10.1517/14712598.4.8.1295 . West Nile virus vaccines . Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy . 4 . 8 . 1295–1305 . 2004 . 15268663 . 34176756 .
24. U.S. Launches 'Full-court Press' for a Zika Vaccine . Time . 21 January 2016 . 23 January 2016 . Sifferlin, Alexandra.
25. 10.4103/0970-9290.49066 . Shivakumar . K. M. . Vidya . S. K. . Chandu . G. N. . Dental caries vaccine . Indian Journal of Dental Research . 20 . 1 . 99–106 . 2009 . 19336869. free .
26. Web site: europeanpharmaceuticalreview.com . 25 August 2020 . 5 May 2023 . Collaboration to develop the world's first prophylactic gonorrhoea vaccine.
27. Rudoler . N. . Baneth . G. . Eyal . O. . Van Straten . M. . Harrus . S. . Evaluation of an attenuated strain of Ehrlichia canis as a vaccine for canine monocytic ehrlichiosis . 10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.10.003 . Vaccine . 31 . 1 . 226–233 . 2012 . 23072894 .
28. Svennerholm . AM . Lundgren . A . Progress in vaccine development against Helicobacter pylori. . FEMS Immunology and Medical Microbiology . July 2007 . 50 . 2 . 146–56 . 10.1111/j.1574-695X.2007.00237.x . 17442014 . free .
29. Book: Walduck . AK . Raghavan . S . Immunity and Vaccine Development Against Helicobacter pylori. . Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology . 2019 . 1149 . 257–275 . 10.1007/5584_2019_370 . 31016627. 978-3-030-21915-4 . 129943113 .
30. News: Search for leprosy vaccine continues as disease still affects thousands. McGuinness, R.. Metro News. November 20, 2012. May 29, 2013.
31. Web site: Lyme Disease Vaccine. Lyme Info. April 24, 2013.
32. Bagnoli . F. . Bertholet . S. . Grandi . G. . Inferring Reasons for the Failure of Staphylococcus aureus Vaccines in Clinical Trials . 10.3389/fcimb.2012.00016 . Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology . 2 . 2012 . 16 . 22919608 . 3417391 . free .
33. Guilherme . L. . Ferreira . F. M. . Köhler . K. F. . Postol . E. . Kalil . J. . A Vaccine against Streptococcus pyogenes . 10.1007/s40256-013-0005-8 . American Journal of Cardiovascular Drugs . 13 . 1 . 1–4 . 2013 . 23355360 . 13071864 . free .
34. Cullen . P. A. . Cameron . C. E. . 10.1586/14760584.5.1.67 . Progress towards an effective syphilis vaccine: The past, present and future . Expert Review of Vaccines . 5 . 1 . 67–80 . 2006 . 16451109 . 31534855 .
35. Conlan . J. W. . Tularemia vaccines: Recent developments and remaining hurdles . 10.2217/fmb.11.22 . Future Microbiology . 6 . 4 . 391–405 . 2011 . 21526941 .
36. Titball . R. W. . Williamson . E. D. . 10.1517/14712598.4.6.965 . Yersinia pestis (plague) vaccines . Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy . 4 . 6 . 965–973 . 2004 . 15174978 . 43565534 .
37. Potential Chagas Vaccine Candidate Shows Unprecedented Efficacy. ScienceDaily. 26 March 2013. 14 September 2013.
38. 10.1371/journal.pone.0059434 . free . TcVac3 Induced Control of Trypanosoma cruzi Infection and Chronic Myocarditis in Mice . 2013 . Gupta . Shivali . Garg . Nisha Jain . PLOS ONE . 8 . 3 . e59434 . 23555672 . 3608676 . 2013PLoSO...859434G .
39. News: Human hookworm vaccine trial. Grace . Rattue . Medical News Today. January 20, 2012. April 24, 2013.
40. News: New vaccine trials to prevent visceral leishmaniasis. Nakkazi, E.. New Science Journalism. March 12, 2012. June 16, 2013.
41. News: More Sobering Results for Malaria Vaccine. Vogel, G.. Science Magazine. March 20, 2013. April 24, 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20130510071852/http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow/2013/03/sobering-results-for-malaria-vac.html. May 10, 2013. dead.
42. News: Study raises hopes of vaccine for river blindness. Sanjit Bagchi. SciDev Net. April 26, 2006. April 24, 2013.
43. Siddiqui . A. A. . Siddiqui . B. A. . Ganley-Leal . L. . 10.4161/hv.7.11.17017 . Schistosomiasis vaccines . Human Vaccines . 7 . 11 . 1192–1197 . 2011 . 22048120 . 3323497 .
44. La Greca . F. . Magez . S. . 10.4161/hv.7.11.18203 . Vaccination against trypanosomiasis: Can it be done or is the trypanosome truly the ultimate immune destroyer and escape artist? . Human Vaccines . 7 . 11 . 1225–1233 . 2011 . 22205439. 3323498 .
45. News: Alzheimer's Vaccine Shows Efficacy Without Adverse Effects. Keller, D. M.. Medscape News. April 22, 2013. May 29, 2013.
46. News: Revolutionary breast cancer vaccine 100% effective in mice: awaits human trials. McFadden, M.. WNDU. October 11, 2012. May 12, 2013. June 27, 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20170627095306/http://www.wndu.com/home/headlines/Breast-Cancer-Vaccine-100-effective-in-mice-Waiting-for-human-trials-173738701.html. dead.
47. News: Ovarian cancer vaccine shows promise in trial. Fox News. April 8, 2013. April 24, 2013.
48. News: Prostate Cancer Vaccine Shows Promise. Jonhson, K.. Medscape Today. March 21, 2013. April 24, 2013.
49. News: Ball . Philip . 2017-08-26 . Could a heroin vaccine cure the west's drug epidemic? . . 2022-03-06.