List of submarine topographical features explained

This is a list of submarine topographical features, oceanic landforms and topographic elements.

Abyssal plain

An abyssal plain is an underwater plain on the deep ocean floor, usually found at depths between 3000m (10,000feet) and 6000m (20,000feet). Lying generally between the foot of a continental rise and a mid-ocean ridge, abyssal plains are among the flattest, smoothest and least explored regions on Earth.[1] Abyssal plains are key geologic elements of oceanic basins (the other elements being an elevated mid-ocean ridge and flanking abyssal hills). In addition to these elements, active oceanic basins (those that are associated with a moving plate tectonic boundary) also typically include an oceanic trench and a subduction zone. Abyssal plains cover more than 33% of the ocean floor (about 23% of Earth's surface),[2] but they are poorly preserved in the sedimentary record because they tend to be consumed by the subduction process.[1] [3] [4]

The abyssal plain is formed when the lower oceanic crust is melted and forced upwards by the asthenosphere layer of the upper mantle. As this basaltic material reaches the surface at mid-ocean ridges, it forms new oceanic crust. Abyssal plains result from the blanketing of an originally uneven surface of oceanic crust by fine-grained sediments, mainly clay and silt. Much of this sediment is deposited from turbidity currents that have been channeled from the continental margins along submarine canyons down into deeper water. The remainder of the sediment is composed chiefly of pelagic sediments.

Use of a continuously recording fathometer enabled Tolstoy & Ewing in the summer of 1947 to identify and describe the first abyssal plain.[1] This plain, located to the south of Newfoundland, is now known as the Sohm Abyssal Plain.[5] Following this discovery many other examples were found in all the oceans.[6] [7] [8] [9] [10]

List of abyssal plains and oceanic basins

See also: Abyssal plain and Oceanic basin. Following is a list of named abyssal plains and oceanic basins:[1] [11] [12]

NameAlternate nameOceanCoordinates
Adriatic Abyssal Plain(Adriatic Basin)Mediterranean43°N 15°W
Agulhas Bank[13] (Agulhas Basin)South Atlantic Ocean-35.5°N 21°W
Alaska Plain(Alaskan Abyssal Plain, Alaskan Plain)North Pacific Ocean55°N -143°W
Alborán Plain(Alboran Abyssal Plain)Alboran Sea (Mediterranean Sea)35.9167°N -53°W
Aleutian Basin(Aleutskaya Kotlovina, Bering Abyssal Plain, Bering Basin, Bering Sea Basin)North Pacific Ocean57°N 177°W
Amerasia Basin(Central Polar Basin; consists of the Canada Basin and the Makarov Basin)
Amundsen Basin(Amundsen Basin)Arctic Ocean89°N 80°W
Amundsen Plain(Amundsen Abyssal Plain)Southern Ocean-65°N -125°W
Angola Plain[14] [15] [16] [17] (Angola Abyssal Plain, Angola Basin)South Atlantic Ocean-15°N 2°W
Argentine Abyssal Plain(Argentine Plain, Argentine Basin)South Atlantic Ocean-47.5°N -50°W
Atlantic-Indian Basin[18] [19] Indian Ocean-60°N 15°W
Balearic Abyssal PlainMediterranean Sea
Baffin Basin(Baffin Bay Basin)North Atlantic Ocean
Barracuda Plain(Barracuda Abyssal Plain)North Atlantic Ocean17°N -86°W
Bauer Basin
Bellingshausen Plain(Bellingshausen Abyssal Plain)Southern Ocean-64°N -90°W
Biscay Plain[20] (Biscay Abyssal Plain)North Atlantic Ocean45°N -22°W
Blake Basin(Blake Abyssal Plain)North Atlantic Ocean29.5°N -80°W
Boreas Plain(Boreas Abyssal Plain)Arctic Ocean77°N 1°W
Burdwood Abyssal PlainSouth Atlantic Ocean
Canada Plain(Canada Abyssal Plain, Canada Basin, Canada Deep, Canadian Plain, Kanadskaya Abissal'naya Ravnina Kanadskaya). One of two sub-basins of the Amerasia Basin.Arctic Ocean80°N -140°W
Canary Basin
Cape Plain(Cape Abyssal Plain, Cape Basin)South Atlantic Ocean-34.75°N 6°W
Cape Verde Plain[21] (Cape Verde Abyssal Plain)North Atlantic Ocean23°N -26°W
Cascadia Plain(Cascadia Abyssal Plain, Cascadia Basin, Bassin Cascadia, Great Trough)North Pacific Ocean47°N -157°W
Ceará Plain(Brazil Basin, Ceara Abyssal Plain)North Atlantic Ocean0°N -66°W
Central Pacific Basin
Ceylon Plain(Ceylon Abyssal Plain)Indian Ocean-4°N 82°W
Chile Basin
Chukchi Plain(Chukchi Abyssal Plain)Arctic Ocean77°N -172°W
Cocos Abyssal Plain(Cocos Basin)Indian Ocean
Colombian Plain(Colombia Abyssal Plain, Colombian Abyssal Plain)Caribbean (Atlantic Ocean)13°N -76°W
Comoro Plain(Comores Abyssal Plain)Mozambique Channel (Indian Ocean)-13.75°N 74°W
Cuvier Plain(Cuvier Abyssal Plain)Indian Ocean-22°N 111°W
Demerara Plain(Demerara Abyssal Plain)North Atlantic Ocean10°N -48°W
Dibble BasinSouthern Ocean
Dumshaf Plain(Dumshaf Abyssal Plain)Arctic Ocean68°N 5°W
Enderby Plain[22] [23] (Enderby Abyssal Plain, East Abyssal Plain)Southern Ocean-60°N 40°W
Eratosthenes Abyssal Plain[24] [25] (Eratosthenes Seamount)Mediterranean Sea33.6667°N 72°W
Eurasian Basin(Norway Abyssal Plain, Norwegian Basin; consists of the Amundsen Basin and the Nansen Basin)Arctic Ocean80°N 90°W
Euxine Abyssal Plain[26] [27] [28] Black Sea
Fernando de Noronha Plain(Fernando de Noronha Abyssal Plain, Planicie Abissal de Fernando de Noronha)South Atlantic Ocean-3°N -31°W
Ferradura Plain(Ferradura Abyssal Plain, Planicie Abissal da Ferradura)North Atlantic Ocean36°N -55°W
Fletcher Plain(Abissal’naya Ravnina Fletchera)Arctic Ocean86°N -238°W
Florida Plain(Florida Abyssal Plain)Gulf of Mexico (Atlantic Ocean)25.5°N -86°W
Fram Basin[29] (Barents Abyssal Plain, Barents Plain) One of two sub-basins of the Eurasian Basin.Arctic Ocean83°N 35°W
Gambia Plain(Gambia Abyssal Plain, Gambia Basin)North Atlantic Ocean12°N -28°W
Gascoyne Plain(Exmouth Abyssal Plain, Gascogne Plain, Gascoyne Abyssal Plain)Indian Ocean-16°N 110°W
Greenland Plain(Greenland Abyssal Plain, Iceland Basin, Plaine du Groenland)Arctic Ocean75°N -3°W
Grenada Abyssal PlainCaribbean Sea (Atlantic Ocean)
Guiana Basin
Guinea Plain(Guinea Abyssal Plain)North Atlantic Ocean1°N -3°W
Hatteras Plain(Hatteras Abyssal Plain)North Atlantic Ocean31°N -71°W
Herodotus Basin(Herodotus Abyssal Plain, Herodotus Plain)Levantine Sea (Mediterranean Sea)33°N 28°W
Hellenic Trench(Metapan Deep System)Ionian Sea36.3833°N 60°W
Hispaniola Plain(Hispaniola Abyssal Plain)North Atlantic Ocean20.3°N -106°W
Horseshoe Plain(Horseshoe Abyssal Plain)North Atlantic Ocean35.6667°N -32°W
Iberian Plain[30] [31] (Iberia Abyssal Plain, Iberian Abyssal Plain)North Atlantic Ocean43.75°N -43°W
Jamaican Abyssal PlainCaribbean Sea (Atlantic Ocean)
Japan Plain(Japan Abyssal Plain)Sea of Japan (Pacific Ocean)41.5°N 135°W
JOIDES BasinSouthern Ocean-74.5°N 174°W[32]
Labrador Basin(Labrador Sea Basin)North Atlantic Ocean53°N -48°W
Laurentian AbyssNorth Atlantic Ocean
Lichte TroughAntarctica Ocean-76.4167°N -30°W
Madeira Abyssal Plain(Madeira Plain)North Atlantic Ocean32°N -21°W
Makarov Basinone of two sub-basins of the Amerasia Basin.Arctic Ocean
Mascarene Plain[33] (Madagascar Basin, Malagasy Abyssal Plain, Seychelles-Mauritius Plateau)Indian Ocean-19°N 52°W
Melanesian Basin
Mendeleyev Plain(Mendeleyev Abyssal Plain)Arctic Ocean81°N -170°W
Mid Indian Abyssal Plain(Mid-Indian Basin)Indian Ocean
Mornington Abyssal PlainSouth Pacific Ocean
Namibia Abyssal PlainSouth Atlantic Ocean
Nansen BasinOne of two sub-basins of the Eurasian Basin.Arctic Ocean
Nares Plain(Fosse Nares, Nares Abyssal Plain, Nares Deep, Nares Tiefe)North Atlantic Ocean23.5°N -63°W
Natal Basin
Newfoundland BasinNorth Atlantic Ocean43.5°N -45°W
North Australian Basin(Argo Abyssal Plain, Bassin Nord de l' Australie, Severo-Avstralijskaja Kotlovina)Indian Ocean-14.5°N 146°W
North Polar Basin(consists of the Amerasia Basin and the Eurasian Basin)
Northwest Pacific Basin
Northwind Plain USCGC Northwind (WAGB-282)(Northwind Abyssal Plain)Arctic Ocean76°N -161°W
Okhotsk Abyssal PlainSea of Okhotsk (western Pacific Ocean)
Oman Plain(Arabian Basin, Oman Abyssal Plain)Arabian Sea (Indian Ocean)23°N 61°W
Panama Plain(Clark Abyssal Plain)Caribbean Sea (Atlantic Ocean)11°N -79°W
Papua Plain(Papua Abyssal Plain)South Pacific Ocean-14°N 181°W
Para Abyssal PlainNorth Atlantic Ocean
Penrhyn Basin
Pernambuco Plain(Pernambuco Abyssal Plain)South Atlantic Ocean-7.5°N -27°W
Perth Plain[34] (Perth Abyssal Plain, Perth Basin, West Australian Basin)Indian Ocean-28.5°N 110°W
Peru Basin
Pole Plain(Central Polar Basin, Pole Abyssal Plain)Arctic Ocean89°N 45°W
Porcupine Abyssal Plain[35] [36] (Porcupine Plain, West European Plain)North Atlantic Ocean49°N -16°W
Raukumara Abyssal PlainSouth Pacific Ocean
Rhodes Basin(Rhodes Abyssal Plain, Ró2dhos Basin)Sea of Crete (Mediterranean Sea)35.9167°N 58°W
Roggeveen Basin
Sardino-Balearic Plain(Algerian Plain, Balearic Abyssal Plain, Balearic Plain, Sardino-Balearic Abyssal Plain)Mediterranean Sea39°N 26°W
Seine Plain(Seine Abyssal Plain)North Atlantic Ocean34°N -27°W
Siberian Abyssal PlainArctic Ocean
Sicilia Plain(Messina Abyssal Plain, Sicily Plain)Mediterranean Sea36°N 18°W
Sierra Leone Plain(Sierra Leone Abyssal Plain, Sierra Leone Basin)North Atlantic Ocean5°N -17°W
Sigsbee Deep(Mexico Basin, Sigsbee Abyssal Plain, Sigsbee Deep, Sigsbee Basin)Gulf of Mexico (Atlantic Ocean)23.5°N -93°W
Silver Plain(Silver Abyssal Plain)North Atlantic Ocean22.5°N -99°W
Sirte Basin[37] (Ionian Abyssal Plain, Sidra Abyssal Plain, Sidra Plain, Sirte Abyssal Plain, Surt Plain)Libyan Sea (Mediterranean Sea)34.1667°N 41°W
Sohm Abyssal Plain(Fosse de Suhm, Plaine Sohm, Sohm Deep, Sohm Plain, Suhm Abyssal Plain, Suhm Deep, Suhm Plain)North Atlantic Ocean36°N -55°W
Somali Plain(Somali Abyssal Plain, Somali Basin)Indian Ocean1°N 81°W
South Australian Plain(Eyre Abyssal Plain, Great Bight Abyssal Plain, South Australian Abyssal Plain)Indian Ocean-37.5°N 130°W
South China Basin(South China Sea Abyssal Plain)South China Sea (Pacific Ocean)15°N 115°W
Southeast Pacific Basin
South Fiji Basin
South Indian Plain(South Indian Abyssal Plain, South Indian Basin, South Indian Ocean Plain)Southern Ocean-59°N 125°W
South West Pacific Abyssal Plain[38] [39] [40] (South West Pacific Basin)South Pacific Ocean
Tagus Abyssal Plain(Tagus Plain)North Atlantic Ocean37.5°N -12°W
Tasman Plain(Tasman Abyssal Plain, Tasman Apron, Tasman Basin)Tasman Sea (South Pacific Ocean)-34.5°N 168°W
Town Abyssal PlainSouth Atlantic Ocean
Tsushima Basin(Ulleung Basin)Korea Strait (Sea of Japan, Pacific Ocean)36.5833°N 179°W
Tufts Plain(Tufts Abyssal Plain)North Pacific Ocean47°N -140°W
Tyrrhenian Plain(Tyrrhenian Abyssal Plain)Tyrrhenian Sea (Mediterranean Sea)40°N 57°W
Valdivia Abyssal PlainSouthern Ocean-62.5°N 70°W
Venezuelan Plain(Venezuela Abyssal Plain)Caribbean Sea (Atlantic Ocean)14°N -67°W
Vidal Abyssal PlainNorth Atlantic Ocean
Weddell Plain[41] (Weddell Abyssal Plain)Southern Ocean-65°N -20°W
Wrangellia Terrane[42] [43] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] (Wrangel Abyssal Plain)Arctic Ocean81°N 160°W
Yamato BasinSea of Japan (Pacific Ocean)37.5°N 135°W
Yucatán Abyssal Plain(Guatemala Basin)Caribbean Sea (Atlantic Ocean)

Oceanic trenches

Oceanic trenches are long, narrow topographic depressions of the seabed. They are the deepest parts of the ocean floor, and they define one of the most important natural boundaries on the Earth's solid surface: the one between two lithospheric plates. Trenches are a distinctive morphological feature of plate boundaries. Trenches are found in all oceans with the exception of the Arctic Ocean and they are most common in the North and South Pacific Oceans.[2]

There are three types of lithospheric plate boundaries: 1.) divergent (where lithosphere and oceanic crust is created at mid-ocean ridges), 2.) convergent (where one lithospheric plate sinks beneath another and returns to the mantle), and 3.) transform (where two lithospheric plates slide past each other).

An oceanic trench is a type of convergent boundary at which two oceanic lithospheric slabs meet; the older (and therefore denser) of these slabs flexes and subducts beneath the other slab. Oceanic lithosphere moves into trenches at a global rate of about a tenth of a square meter per second. Trenches are generally parallel to a volcanic island arc, and about 200 km from a volcanic arc. Oceanic trenches typically extend 3 to 4 km (1.9 to 2.5 mi) below the level of the surrounding oceanic floor. The greatest ocean depth to be sounded is in the Challenger Deep of the Mariana Trench, at a depth of 10,911 m (35,798 ft) below sea level.

List of oceanic trenches

See main article: Oceanic trench. The following is a list of the deepest parts of the Earth's oceans and seas (all depths are measured from sea level):

NameLocationDepth (meters)Depth (feet)Depth (miles)
1Challenger DeepIzu–Bonin–Mariana Arc, Mariana Trench, Pacific Ocean11,03436,1976.86
2Tonga TrenchPacific Ocean10,88235,7026.76
3Galathea DepthPhilippine Trench, Pacific Ocean10,54534,5806.54
4Kuril–Kamchatka TrenchPacific Ocean10,54234,4496.52
5Kermadec TrenchPacific Ocean10,04732,9636.24
6Izu–Ogasawara TrenchPacific Ocean9,81032,0876.08
7Japan TrenchPacific Ocean9,00029,5275.59
8Puerto Rico TrenchAtlantic Ocean8,60528,2325.35
9Yap TrenchPacific Ocean8,52727,9765.30
10Richards DeepPeru–Chile Trench, Pacific Ocean8,06526,4565.01
11Diamantina DeepDiamantina Fracture Zone, Indian Ocean8,04726,4015.00
12Romanche TrenchAtlantic Ocean7,76025,4604.82
13Cayman TroughCaribbean7,68725,2384.78
14Aleutian TrenchPacific Ocean7,67925,1944.77
15Java TrenchIndian Ocean7,45524,4604.63
16Weber DeepBanda Sea7,35124,1174.56
17South Sandwich TrenchAtlantic Ocean7,43124,3804.62
18Dordrecht DeepIndian Ocean7,01923,0284.36
19Middle America TrenchPacific Ocean6,66921,8804.14
20Puysegur TrenchPacific Ocean6,30020,7003.9
21Vityaz TrenchPacific Ocean6,15020,1773.8
22Sulu TrenchSouth China Sea5,60018,4003.48
23Litke DeepEurasian Basin, Arctic Ocean5,45017,8813.39
24Manila TrenchSouth China Sea5,40017,7003.36
25Calypso DeepHellenic Trench, Mediterranean5,26717,2803.27
26Ryukyu TrenchPacific Ocean5,21217,1003.24
27Murray CanyonSouthern Ocean, Australia5,00016,4003.1

Oceanic plateau

An oceanic plateau is a large, relatively flat submarine region that rises well above the level of the ambient seabed.[50] While many oceanic plateaus are composed of continental crust, and often form a step interrupting the continental slope, some plateaus are undersea remnants of large igneous provinces. Continental crust has the highest amount of silicon (such rock is called felsic). Oceanic crust has a smaller amount of silicon (mafic rock).

The anomalous volcanism associated with the formation of oceanic plateaux at the time of the Cenomanian–Turonian boundary (90.4 million years) ago may have been responsible for the environmental disturbances that occurred at that time. The physical manifestations of this were elevated atmospheric and oceanic temperatures, a significant sea-level transgression, and a period of widespread anoxia, leading to the extinction of 26% of all genera.[51] These eruptions would also have resulted in the emission of large quantities of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, leading to global warming. Additionally, the emission of sulfur monoxide, hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide, and halogens into the oceans would have made seawater more acidic resulting in the dissolution of carbonate, and further release of . This runaway greenhouse effect was probably put into reverse by the decline of the anomalous volcanic activity and by increased -driven productivity in oceanic surface waters, leading to increased organic carbon burial, black shale deposition, anoxia and mass extinction in the ocean basins.[51]

List of oceanic plateaus

See main article: Oceanic plateau.

Mid-ocean ridges

A mid-ocean ridge is a general term for an underwater mountain system that consists of various mountain ranges (chains), typically having a valley known as a rift running along its spine, formed by plate tectonics. This type of oceanic ridge is characteristic of what is known as an oceanic spreading center, which is responsible for seafloor spreading.

List of mid-ocean ridges

See main article: Mid-ocean ridge.

See also

References

Further reading

External links

Notes and References

  1. Book: Geology and Geochemistry of Abyssal Plains . P.P.E. Weaver . J. Thomson . P. M. Hunter . 1987 . Blackwell Scientific Publications . Oxford . x . 978-0-632-01744-7 . 27 June 2010 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20101224060317/http://sp.lyellcollection.org/cgi/issue_pdf/frontmatter_pdf/31/1.pdf . 24 December 2010.
  2. Harris P.T., MacMillan-Lawler M., Rupp J., Baker E.K. . 2014 . Geomorphology of the oceans . Marine Geology . 352 . 4–24 . 10.1016/j.margeo.2014.01.011. 2014MGeol.352....4H.
  3. Craig R. Smith. Fabio C. De Leo. Angelo F. Bernardino. Andrew K. Sweetman. Pedro Martinez Arbizu. amp. Abyssal food limitation, ecosystem structure and climate change. Trends in Ecology and Evolution. 23. 518–528. 2008. 18584909. 9. 10.1016/j.tree.2008.05.002. 27 June 2010. 20 July 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110720075942/http://cmbc.ucsd.edu/Students/Current_Students/SIO277/Smith%20et%20al.%20TREE%202008.pdf. dead.
  4. Book: N.G. Vinogradova. The Biogeography of the Oceans. Zoogeography of the Abyssal and Hadal Zones. 32. 325–387. 1997. 10.1016/S0065-2881(08)60019-X. Advances in Marine Biology. 978-0-12-026132-1.
  5. Ivan Tolstoy . Maurice Ewing . amp. North Atlantic hydrography and the mid-Atlantic Ridge. Geological Society of America Bulletin. 60. 10. 1527–40. October 1949. 10.1130/0016-7606(1949)60[1527:NAHATM]2.0.CO;2. 1949GSAB...60.1527T .
  6. Bruce C. Heezen, Maurice Ewing and D.B. Ericson. Submarine topography in the North Atlantic. Geological Society of America Bulletin. 62. 12. 1407–1417. December 1951. 10.1130/0016-7606(1951)62[1407:STITNA]2.0.CO;2. 0016-7606. 1951GSAB...62.1407H .
  7. Bruce C. Heezen, D.B. Ericson and Maurice Ewing. Further evidence for a turbidity current following the 1929 Grand banks earthquake. Deep-Sea Research. 1. 4. 193–202. July 1954. 10.1016/0146-6313(54)90001-5. 1954DSR.....1..193H.
  8. F.F. Koczy. A survey on deep-sea features taken during the Swedish deep-sea expedition. Deep-Sea Research. 1. 3. 176–184. 1954. 10.1016/0146-6313(54)90047-7. 1954DSR.....1..176K.
  9. Book: Bruce C. Heezen. Heezen, Bruce C., Marie Tharp, and Maurice Ewing: The Floors of the Oceans. I. The North Atlantic. Text to Accompany the Physiographic Diagram of the North Atlantic. With 49 fig., 30 plates. – New York, N.Y.: The Geological Society of America, Special Paper 65, 1959. 122 p. $10.00. Internationale Revue der Gesamten Hydrobiologie und Hydrographie. Marie Tharp. Maurice Ewing. amp. The Floors of the Oceans. I. The North Atlantic. Text to Accompany the Physiographic Diagram of the North Atlantic. H. Caspers. WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Company. Weinheim. 47. 3. 487. 1962. 10.1002/iroh.19620470311. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/114044381/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0. 26 June 2010.
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  12. Book: DK Millennium World Atlas: A Portrait of the Earth in the Year 2000. Viewing the Earth from space. Dorling Kindersley Publishing. New York. 1 October 1999. xvi–xvii. 978-0-7894-4604-6.
  13. Gabriele Uenzelmann-Neben, Karsten Gohl, Axel Ehrhardt, Michael Seargent. Agulhas Plateau, SW Indian Ocean: New Evidence for Excessive Volcanism. Geophysical Research Letters. 26. 13. 1941–1944. 1999. 10.1029/1999GL900391. 27 June 2010. 1999GeoRL..26.1941U. 129742780. free.
  14. Frank Scheckenbach . Klaus Hausmann . Claudia Wylezich . Markus Weitere . Hartmut Arndt . Large-scale patterns in biodiversity of microbial eukaryotes from the abyssal sea floor. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 107. 1. 115–120. 5 January 2010. 10.1073/pnas.0908816106. 20007768. 2806785. 2010PNAS..107..115S . free .
  15. Pedro Martínez Arbizu . Horst Kurt Schminke . amp. DIVA-1 expedition to the deep sea of the Angola Basin in 2000 and DIVA-1 workshop 2003. Organisms Diversity & Evolution. 5. Supplement 1. 1–2. 18 February 2005. 10.1016/j.ode.2004.11.009. free.
  16. Schmid, C., Brenke, N. & J.W. Wägele. On abyssal isopods (Crustacea: Isopoda: Asellota) from the Angola Basin: Eurycope tumidicarpus n.sp. and redescription of Acanthocope galathea Wolff, 1962. Organisms Diversity & Evolution. 2. 1. 87–88. 2002. 10.1078/1439-6092-00030. free.
  17. Book: Mursch, A., Brenke, N. & J.W. Wägele. Bringing light into deep-sea biodiversity (Zootaxa 1866). Pedro Martinez Arbizu . Saskia Brix . Results of the DIVA-1 expedition of RV "Meteor" (Cruise M48:1): Three new species of Munnopsidae Sars, 1864 from abyssal depths of the Angola Basin (Crustacea: Isopoda: Asellota). Magnolia Press. Auckland, New Zealand. 978-1-86977-260-4. 2008. 493–539. http://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/2008/f/zt01866p539.pdf. 27 June 2010.
  18. Book: Affholder. M.. Valiron. F.. Descriptive Physical Oceanography. 2001. CRC Press. 978-0-203-96927-4. 317.
  19. Web site: Antarctica Detail. geonames.usgs.gov-us. 2017-03-07.
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  25. Kempler, Ditza (1998). Eratosthenes Seamount: the possible spearhead of incipient continental collision in the Eastern Mediterranean, in Robertson, A.H.F., Emeis, K.-C., Richter, C., and Camerlenghi, A. (eds.), Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, Vol. 160, Chapter 53, 709–721.
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