List of psychoactive plants explained
See main article: Psychoactive plant.
This is a list of plant species that, when consumed by humans, are known or suspected to produce psychoactive effects: changes in nervous system function that alter perception, mood, consciousness, cognition or behavior. Many of these plants are used intentionally as psychoactive drugs, for medicinal, religious, and/or recreational purposes. Some have been used ritually as entheogens for millennia.[1] [2]
The plants are listed according to the specific psychoactive chemical substances they contain; many contain multiple known psychoactive compounds.
Cannabinoids
Species of the genus Cannabis, known colloquially as marijuana, including Cannabis sativa and Cannabis indica, is a popular psychoactive plant that is often used medically and recreationally. The principal psychoactive substance in Cannabis, tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), contains no nitrogen, unlike many (but not all) other psychoactive substances and is not an indole, tryptamine, phenethylamine, anticholinergic (deliriant) or dissociative drug. THC is just one of more than 100 identified cannabinoid compounds in Cannabis, which also include cannabinol (CBN) and cannabidiol (CBD).
Cannabis plants vary widely, with different strains producing dynamic balances of cannabinoids (THC, CBD, etc.) and yielding markedly different effects. Popular strains are often hybrids of C. sativa and C. indica.
The medicinal effects of cannabis are widely studied, and are active topics of research both at universities and private research firms. Many jurisdictions have laws regulating or prohibiting the cultivation, sale and/or use of medical and recreational cannabis.
Tryptamines
Many of the psychedelic plants contain dimethyltryptamine (DMT), or other tryptamines, which are either snorted (Virola, Yopo snuffs), vaporized, or drunk with MAOIs (Ayahuasca). It cannot simply be eaten as it is not orally active without an MAOI and it needs to be extremely concentrated to be vaporized.
"Species, Alkaloid content, where given, refers to dried material"
- Acer saccharinum (silver maple) was found to contain the indole alkaloid gramine (not active and extremely toxic) 0.05% in the leaves, so it is possible that other members of this plant family contain active compounds.[3]
- Delosperma acuminatum, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT[4]
- Delosperma cooperi, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT[4]
- Delosperma ecklonis, DMT[4]
- Delosperma esterhuyseniae, DMT[4]
- Delosperma hallii, 5-MeO-DMT[4]
- Delosperma harazianum, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT[4]
Delosperma harazianum
Shibam, DMT[4]
- Delosperma hirtum, DMT[4]
Delosperma hallii
aff. litorale
- Delosperma lydenbergense, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT[4]
- Delosperma nubigenum, 5-MeO-DMT[4]
- Delosperma pageanum, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT[4]
- Delosperma pergamentaceum, Traces of DMT[4]
- Delosperma tradescantioides, DMT[4]
- Erythroxylum pungens: DMT[6]
See also: List of Acacia species known to contain psychoactive alkaloids.
- Acacia acuminata, Up to 1.5% alkaloids, mainly consisting of dimethyltryptamine in bark & leaf[7] Also, harman, tryptamine, NMT, other alkaloids in leaf.
- Acacia alpina, Active principles in leaf[8]
- Acaciella angustissima, β-methyl-phenethylamine,[9] NMT and DMT in leaf (1.1-10.2 ppm)[10]
- Vachellia aroma, Tryptamine alkaloids.[11] Significant amount of tryptamine in the seeds.[12]
- Acacia auriculiformis, 5-MeO-DMT in stem bark[13]
- Acacia baileyana, 0.02% tryptamine and β-carbolines, in the leaf, Tetrahydroharman
- Acacia beauverdiana, Psychoactive[14] Ash used in Pituri.[15]
- Senegalia berlandieri, DMT, phenethylamine, mescaline, nicotine[16]
- Senegalia catechu, DMT and other tryptamines in leaf, bark
- Vachellia caven, Psychoactive
- Senegalia chundra, DMT and other tryptamines in leaf, bark
- Acacia colei, DMT[17]
- Acacia complanata, 0.3% alkaloids in leaf and stem, almost all N-methyl-tetrahydroharman, with traces of tetrahydroharman, some of tryptamine[18] [19] [20]
- Acacia confusa, DMT & NMT in leaf, stem & bark 0.04% NMT and 0.02% DMT in stem.[8] Also N,N-dimethyltryptamine N-oxide[21]
- Vachellia cornigera, Psychoactive, Tryptamines[22] DMT according to C. Rastch.
- Acacia cultriformis, Tryptamine, in the leaf, stem and seeds. Phenethylamine in leaf and seeds
- Acacia cuthbertsonii, Psychoactive
- Acacia decurrens, Psychoactive, but less than 0.02% alkaloids[23]
- Acacia delibrata, Psychoactive
- Acacia falcata, Psychoactive, but less than 0.02% alkaloids
- Vachellia farnesiana, Traces of 5-MeO-DMT[24] in fruit. β-methyl-phenethylamine, flower.[25] Ether extracts about 2–6% of the dried leaf mass.[26] Alkaloids are present in the bark[27] and leaves.[28]
- Acacia flavescens, Strongly Psychoactive, Bark
- Acacia floribunda, Tryptamine, phenethylamine,[29] in flowers other tryptamines,[30] DMT,tryptamine,NMT 0.3–0.4% phyllodes.[31]
- Acacia georginae, Psychoactive, plus deadly toxins
- Vachellia horrida, Psychoactive
- Acacia implexa, Psychoactive[32]
- Mimosa jurema, DMT, NMT
- Vachellia karroo, Psychoactive
- Senegalia laeta, DMT, in the leaf
- Acacia longifolia, 0.2% tryptamine in bark, leaves, some in flowers, phenylethylamine in flowers, 0.2% DMT in plant.[33] Histamine alkaloids.
- Acacia sophorae, Tryptamine in leaves, bark
- Acacia macradenia, Tryptamine
- Acacia maidenii, 0.6% NMT and DMT in about a 2:3 ratio in the stem bark, both present in leaves
- Acacia mangium, Psychoactive
- Acacia melanoxylon, DMT, in the bark and leaf,[34] but less than 0.02% total alkaloids
- Senegalia mellifera, DMT, in the leaf
- Vachellia nilotica, DMT, in the leaf
- Vachellian ilotica subsp. adstringens, Psychoactive, DMT in the leaf
- Acacia neurophylla DMT in bark, Harman in leaf.[35]
- Acacia obtusifolia, Tryptamine, DMT, NMT, other tryptamines,[36] 0.4–0.5% in dried bark,0.15–0.2% in leaf, 0.07% in branch tips.[37]
- Vachellia oerfota, Less than 0.1% DMT in leaf,[38] NMT
- Acacia penninervis, Psychoactive
- Acacia phlebophylla, 0.3% DMT in leaf, NMT
- Acacia podalyriifolia, Tryptamine in the leaf, 0.5% to 2% DMT in fresh bark, phenethylamine, trace amounts. Although this species is claimed to contain 0.5% to 2% DMT in fresh bark the reference for this is invalid as there is no reference to Acacia Podalyriffolia anywhere in the reference article. Additionally, well known and proven extraction techniques for DMT have failed to produce any DMT or alkaloids from fresh bark or the leaves on multiple sample taken at various seasons. Should DMT actually exist in this species of Acacia then it exists in extremely small amounts and have failed to produce any alkaloids with Acid/Base extraction techniques using HCl/Na(OH)2. On the same note, more academic research is definitely required into the DMT content of this and other Australian Acacia species with proper chemical analysis of sample.
- Senegalia polyacantha, DMT in leaf and other tryptamines in leaf, bark
- Senegalia polyacantha ssp. campylacantha, Less than 0.2% DMT in leaf, NMT; DMT and other tryptamines in leaf, bark[39]
- Senegalia rigidula: Phenethylamine, tryptamine, tyramine, and β-Methylphenethylamine.[40]
- Acacia sassa, Psychoactive
- Vachellia schaffneri, β-methyl-phenethylamine, Phenethylamine[41]
- Senegalia senegal, Less than 0.1% DMT in leaf, NMT, other tryptamines. DMT in plant, DMT in bark.[12]
- Vachellia seyal, DMT, in the leaf. Ether extracts about 1–7% of the dried leaf mass.[26]
- Vachellia sieberiana, DMT, in the leaf
- Acacia simplex, DMT and NMT, in the leaf, stem and trunk bark, 0.81% DMT in bark, MMT[42]
- Vachellia tortilis, DMT, NMT, and other tryptamines
- Acacia vestita, Tryptamine, in the leaf and stem,[8] but less than 0.02% total alkaloids[23]
- Acacia victoriae, tryptamines, 5-MeO-alkyltryptamine[12]
- List of acacia species having little or no alkaloids in the material sampled:[23]
(0% C 0.02%, Concentration of alkaloids)
- Pseudalbizzia inundata leaves contain DMT.
- Anadenanthera colubrina, Bufotenin, Beans,[43] [44] Bufotenin oxide, Beans, N,N-Dimethyltryptamine, Beans,[43] [44] pods,[43]
- Anadenanthera colubrina var. cebil – Bufotenin and Dimethyltryptamine have been isolated from the seeds and seed pods, 5-MeO-DMT from the bark of the stems.[45] The seeds were found to contain 12.4% bufotenine, 0.06% 5-MeO-DMT and 0.06% DMT.[46]
- Anadenanthera peregrina,
1,2,3,4-Tetrahydro-6-methoxy-2,9-dimethyl-beta-carboline, Plant,[47] 1,2,3,4-Tetrahydro-6-methoxy-2-methyl-beta-carboline, Plant, 5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine, Bark, 5-Methoxy-N-methyltryptamine, Bark, Bufotenin, plant, beans,[43] Bufotenin N-oxide, Fruit, beans, N,N-Dimethyltryptamine-oxide, Fruit[48]
- Anadenanthera peregrina var. peregrina, Bufotenine is in the seeds.[49]
- Desmanthus illinoensis, 0–0.34% DMT in root bark, highly variable.[50] Also NMT, N-hydroxy-N-methyltryptamine, 2-hydroxy-N-methyltryptamine, and gramine (toxic).[51]
- Desmanthus leptolobus, 0.14% DMT in root bark, more reliable than D. illinoensis
- Desmodium caudatum (syn. Ohwia caudata), Roots: 0.087% DMT,
- Codariocalyx motorius(syn. Desmodium gyrans), DMT, 5-MeO-DMT, leaves, roots
- Desmodium racemosum, 5-MeO-DMT
- Desmodium triflorum, 0.0004% DMT-N-oxide, roots,[52] less in stems[52] and trace in leaves.[52]
- Lespedeza capitata
- Lespedeza bicolor, DMT, Lespedamine,[53] and 5-MeO-DMT in leaves and roots
- Lespedeza bicolor var. japonica, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT in leaves and root bark
- Mimosa ophthalmocentra, Dried root: DMT 1.6%, NMT 0.0012% and hordenine 0.0065%[54]
- Mimosa scabrella, tryptamine, NMT, DMT and N-methyltetrahydrocarboline in bark[55]
- Mimosa somnians, tryptamines and MMT
- Mimosa tenuiflora (syn. "Mimosa hostilis"), 0.31-0.57% DMT (dry root bark).[56]
- Mimosa verrucosa, DMT[57] in root bark
- Mucuna pruriens, the seeds of the plant contain about 3.1–6.1% .[58]
- Petalostylis casseoides, 0.4–0.5% tryptamine, DMT, etc. in leaves and stems
- Petalostylis labicheoides var. casseoides, DMT in leaves and stems; 0.4–0.5% alkaloids in leaves and stems;[59] Tryptamines in leaves and stems, MAO's up to 0.5%[60]
- Phyllodium pulchellum(syn. Desmodium pulchellum), DMT; 0.2% 5-MeO-DMT, small quantities of DMT DMT (dominates in seedlings and young plants), 5-MeO-DMT (dominates in mature plant), whole plant, roots, stems, leaves, flowers;
- Erythrina flabelliformis, other Erythrina species, seeds contain the alkaloids erysodin and erysovin[61]
- Zornia latifolia, the flavones genistein, apigenin and syzalterin may explain the cannabis-like effects[62] [63]
- Horsfieldia superba: 5-MeO-DMT, Horsfiline,[66] and beta-carbolines[59]
- Iryanthera macrophylla: 5-MeO-DMT in bark;
- Iryanthera ulei: 5-MeO-DMT in bark
- Osteophloem platyspermum: DMT, 5-MeO-DMT in bark
- Virola calophylla, Leaves 0.149% DMT, leaves 0.006% MMT 5-MeO-DMT in bark[67]
- Virola calophylloidea, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT
- Virola carinata, DMT in leaves; DMT, 5-MeO-DMT
- Virola cuspidata, DMT[60]
- Virola divergens, DMT in leaves
- Virola elongata(syn. Virola theiodora), DMT, 5-MeO-DMT in bark, roots, leaves and flowers
- Virola melinonii, DMT in bark; DMT, 5-MeO-DMT
- Virola multinervia, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT in bark and roots
- Virola pavonis, DMT in leaves
- Virola peruviana, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT; 5-MeO-DMT, traces of DMT and 5-MeO-tryptamine in bark
- Virola rufula, Alkaloids in bark and root, 95% of which is MeO-DMT[68] 0.190% 5-MeO-DMT in bark, 0.135% 5-MeO-DMT in root, 0.092% DMT in leaves.
- Virola sebifera, The bark contains 0.065% to 0.25% alkaloids, most of which are DMT and 5-MeO-DMT.[69]
- Virola venosa, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT in roots, leaves DMT
- Genus Pandanus (Screw Pine): DMT in nuts
Some Graminae (grass) species contain gramine, which can cause brain damage, other organ damage, central nervous system damage and death in sheep.[70]
- Arundo donax, 0.0057% DMT in dried rhizome, no stem, 0.026% bufotenine, 0.0023% 5-MeO-MMT[71]
- Phalaris aquatica, 0.0007–0.18% Total alkaloids, 0.100% DMT,[72] 0.022% 5-MeO-DMT, 0.005% 5-OH-DMT
- Phalaris arundinacea, 0.0004–0.121% Total alkaloids[73]
- Phalaris brachystachys, aerial parts up to 3% total alkaloids, DMT present
- Phalaris coerulescens, Coerulescine and 2-methyl-1,2,3,4-Tetrahydro-β-carboline in rhizome.[74]
- Phragmites australis, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT, bufotenine and gramine in the rhizome.[75]
None of the above alkaloids are said to have been found in Phalaris californica, Phalaris canariensis, Phalaris minor and hybrids of P. arundinacea together with P. aquatica.
- Psychotria carthagenensis, 0.2% average DMT in dried leaves.[76]
- Psychotria colorata, Presence of mu opioid receptor(MOR) agonist and NMDA antagonist: hodgkinsine, psychotridine. Also mentioned in The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Plants: Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications.[77]
- Psychotria expansa, DMT[60]
- Psychotria forsteriana, DMT[60]
- Psychotria insularum, DMT[60]
- Psychotria poeppigiana,[78] DMT[60]
- Psychotria rostrata, DMT[60]
- Psychotria rufipilis, DMT[60]
- Psychotria viridis, DMT 0.1–0.61% dried mass.[79]
- Dictyoloma incanescens, 5-MeO-DMT in leaves,[68] 0.04% 5-MeO-DMT in bark[82]
- Dutaillyea drupacea, > 0.4% 5-MeO-DMT in leaves[32]
- Dutaillyea oreophila, 5-MeO-DMT in leaves
- Tetradium ruticarpum(syn. Evodia rutaecarpa), 5-MeO-DMT in leaves, fruit and roots
- Limonia acidissima, Traces of DMT; 5-MeO-DMT in stems
- Euodia leptococca (formerly Melicope), 0.2% total alkaloids, 0.07% 5-MeO-DMT; 5-MeO-DMT in leaves and stems, also "5-MeO-DMT-Oxide and a beta-carboline"[59]
- Pilocarpus organensis, DMT, 5-MeO-DMT in leaves[83] (Might also contain pilocarpine)
- Vepris ampody, Up to 0.2% DMT in leaves and branches[82]
- Zanthoxylum arborescens, Traces of DMT; DMT in leaves
- Zanthoxylum procerum, DMT in leaves
- Citrus limon, DMT, N-Methylated tryptamine derivative in leaves[84] [85]
- Citrus sinesis,DMT, N-Methylated tryptamine derivative
- Citrus bergamia,DMT, N-Methylated tryptamine derivative
- Mandarin orange Traces of N-methylated tryptamine derivative in leaf.[86]
- Chinotto Tree, N-Methylated tryptamine derivative in leaf
- Citrus medica, N-Methylated tryptamine derivative in leaf
Phenethylamines
See main article: Psychoactive cactus.
Species, Alkaloid Content (Fresh) – Alkaloid Content (Dried)
- Coryphantha contains various phenethylamine alkaloids including macromerine, coryphanthine, O-methyl-candicine, corypalmine, and N-methyl-corypalmine.[87] [88]
- Cylindropuntia echinocarpa (syn. Opuntia echinocarpa), Mescaline 0.01%, DMPEA 0.01%, 4-hydroxy-3-5-dimethoxyphenethylamine 0.01%
- Cylindropuntia spinosior (syn. Opuntia spinosior),[89] Mescaline 0.00004%, 3-methoxytyramine 0.001%, tyramine 0.002%, 3-4-dimethoxyphenethylamine.
- Echinopsis lageniformis (syns Echinopsis scopulicola, Trichocereus bridgesii), Mescaline > 0.025%,[90] also DMPEA < 1%, 3-methoxytyramine < 1%, tyramine < 1%; Mescaline 2%[91]
- Echinopsis macrogona (syn. Trichocereus macrogonus), > 0.01–0.05% Mescaline[92]
- Echinopsis pachanoi (syn. Trichocereus pachanoi), Mescaline 0.006–0.12%, 0.05% Average; Mescaline 0.01%–2.375%
- Echinopsis peruviana (syn. Trichocereus peruvianus), Mescaline 0.0005%–0.12%;[93] Mescaline
- Echinopsis spachiana (syn. Trichocereus spachianus), Mescaline;[94] Mescaline[94]
- Echinopsis tacaquirensis subsp. taquimbalensis (syn. Trichocereus taquimbalensis),[95] > 0.005–0.025% mescaline[92]
- Echinopsis terscheckii (syn. Trichocereus terscheckii, Trichocereus werdemannianus)[96] > 0.005–0.025% Mescaline;[92] mescaline 0.01%–2.375%
- Echinopsis valida, 0.025% mescaline
- Lophophora williamsii (Peyote), 0.4% Mescaline;[97] 3–6% Mescaline[94]
- Opuntia acanthocarpa Mescaline[98]
- Opuntia basilaris Mescaline 0.01%, plus 4-hydroxy-3-5-dimethoxyphenethylamine[94]
- Pelecyphora aselliformis, mescaline[97]
Beta-carbolines
Beta-carbolines are "reversible" MAO-A inhibitors. They are found in some plants used to make Ayahuasca. In high doses the harmala alkaloids are somewhat hallucinogenic on their own. β-carboline is a benzodiazepine receptor inverse agonist and can therefore have convulsive, anxiogenic and memory enhancing effects.[99]
- Hammada leptoclada, Harman; Tetrahydroharman, etc.
- Kochia scoparia, Harman; Harmine, etc.
- Elaeagnus angustifolia, Harman, etc.
- Elaeagnus commutata, Beta-carbolines[100]
- Elaeagnus hortensis, Tetrahydroharman, etc.
- Elaeagnus orientalis, Tetrahydroharman
- Elaeagnus spinosa, Tetrahydroharman
- Hippophae rhamnoides, Harman, etc.
- Shepherdia argentea, Tetrahydroharmol
- Shepherdia canadensis, Tetrahydroharmol
- Nectandra megapotamica, Beta-carbolines[100]
- Acacia baileyana, Tetrahydroharman
- Acacia complanata, Tetrahydroharman, etc.
- Burkea africana, Harman, etc.
- Desmodium gangeticum, Beta-carbolines[100]
- Desmodium gyrans, Beta-carbolines[100]
- Desmodium pulchellum, Harman, etc.
- Mucuna pruriens, 6-Methoxyharman, Dihydroharman, Harman
- Petalostylis labicheoides, Tetrahydroharman; MAO's up to 0.5%[60]
- Prosopis nigra, Harmalicin, Harman, etc.
- Shepherdia pulchellum, Beta-carbolines[100]
- Banisteriopsis argentia, 5-methoxytetrahydroharman, (−)-N(6)-methoxytetrahydroharman, dimethyltryptamine-N(6)-oxide[9]
- Banisteriopsis caapi, Harmine 0.31–0.84%,[101] tetrahydroharmine, telepathine, dihydroshihunine,[102] 5-MeO-DMT in bark[103]
- Banisteriopsis inebrians, Beta-carbolines[100]
- Banisteriopsis lutea, Harmine, telepathine[9]
- Banisteriopsis metallicolor, Harmine, telepathine[9]
- Banisteriopsis muricata Harmine up to 6%, harmaline up to 4%, plus DMT[104]
- Diplopterys cabrerana, Beta-carbolines[100]
- Cabi pratensis, Beta-carbolines[100]
- Callaeum antifebrile(syn. Cabi paraensis), Harmine
- Tetrapterys methystica(syn. Tetrapteris methystica), Harmine[105]
- Plectocomiopsis geminiflora, Beta-carbolines[100]
- Passiflora actinia, Harman
- Passiflora alata, Harman
- Passiflora alba, Harman
- Passiflora bryonoides, Harman
- Passiflora caerulea, Harman
- Passiflora capsularis, Harman
- Passiflora decaisneana, Harman
- Passiflora edulis, Harman, 0–7001 ppm in fruit
- Passiflora eichleriana, Harman
- Passiflora foetida, Harman
- Passiflora incarnata (with bee), Harmine, Harmaline, Harman, etc. 0.03%.[106] Alkaloids in rind of fruit 0.25%
- Passiflora quadrangularis, Harman
- Passiflora ruberosa, Harman
- Passiflora subpeltata, Harman
- Passiflora warmingii, Harman
- Calligonum minimum, Beta-carbolines[100]
- Leptactinia densiflora, Tetrahydroharmine, etc.
- Ophiorrhiza japonica, Harman
- Pauridiantha callicarpoides, Harman
- Pauridiantha dewevrei, Harman
- Pauridiantha lyalli, Harman
- Pauridiantha viridiflora, Harman
- Simira klugei, Harman
- Simira rubra, Harman
- Borreria verticillata, Beta-carbolines[100]
- Leptactinia densiflora, Beta-carbolines[100]
- Nauclea diderrichii, Beta-carbolines[100]
- Ophiorrhiza japonica, Beta-carbolines[100]
- Pauridiantha callicarpoides, Beta-carbolines[100]
- Pauridiantha dewevrei, Beta-carbolines[100]
- Pauridiantha yalli, Beta-carbolines[100]
- Pauridiantha viridiflora, Beta-carbolines[100]
- Pavetta lanceolata, Beta-carbolines[100]
- Psychotria carthagenensis, Beta-carbolines[100]
- Psychotria viridis, Beta-carbolines[100]
- Simira klugei, Beta-carbolines[100]
- Simira rubra, Beta-carbolines[100]
- Uncaria attenuata, Beta-carbolines[100]
- Uncaria canescens, Beta-carbolines[100]
- Uncaria orientalis, Beta-carbolines[100]
- Nauclea latifolia, Tramadol
Opiates
Opiates are the natural products of many plants, the most famous and historically relevant of which is Papaver somniferum. Opiates are defined as natural products (or their esters and salts that revert to the natural product in the human body), whereas opioids are defined as semi-synthetic or fully synthetic compounds that trigger the Opioid receptor of the mu sub-type. Other opiate receptors, such as kappa- and delta-opiate receptors are part of this system but do not cause the characteristic behavioral depression and analgesia which is mostly mediated through the mu-opiate receptor.
An opiate, in classical pharmacology, is a substance derived from opium. In more modern usage, the term opioid is used to designate all substances, both natural and synthetic, that bind to opioid receptors in the brain (including antagonists). Opiates are alkaloid compounds naturally found in the Papaver somniferum plant (opium poppy). The psychoactive compounds found in the opium plant include morphine, codeine, and thebaine. Opiates have long been used for a variety of medical conditions with evidence of opiate trade and use for pain relief as early as the eighth century AD. Opiates are considered drugs with moderate to high abuse potential and are listed on various "Substance-Control Schedules" under the Uniform Controlled Substances Act of the United States of America.
In 2014, between 13 and 20 million people used opiates recreationally (0.3% to 0.4% of the global population between the ages of 15 and 65). According to the CDC, from this population, there were 47,000 deaths, with a total of 500,000 deaths from 2000 to 2014. In 2016, the World Health Organization reported that 27 million people suffer from Opioid use disorder. They also reported that in 2015, 450,000 people died as a result of drug use, with between a third and a half of that number being attributed to opioids.
The plant contains a latex that thickens into opium when it is dried. Opium contains approximately 40 alkaloids, which are summarized as opium alkaloids. The main psychoactive alkaloids are:
3 to 20% in opium
Laurelia novae-zelandiae ~ pukateine
Approx. 0.33% in dried leaves
See also
Bibliography
- Book: Al Zarouni, Yousif . The Effects of Khat (Catha Edulis) . London . Yousif Al Zarouni . 2015.
External links
- Descriptions of psychoactive Cacti. Lycaeum Visionary Cactus Guide
- Erowid Tryptamine FAQ – More Plants Containing Tryptamines
- John Stephen Glasby, Dictionary of Plants Containing Secondary Metabolites, Published by CRC Press
- Golden Guide to Hallucinogenic Plants
- Hallucinogens on the Internet: A Vast New Source of Underground Drug Information John H. Halpern, M.D. and Harrison G. Pope, Jr., M.D.
- Chemical Investigations of the Alkaloids from the Plants of the Family Elaeocarpaceae – Peter L. Katavic, Chemical Investigations of the Alkaloids From the Plants Of The Family Elaeocarpaceae, School of Science/Natural Product Discovery (NPD), Faculty of Science, Griffith University
- Alexander T. Shulgin, Psychotomimetic Drugs: Structure-Activity Relationships
- UNODC The plant kingdom and hallucinogens (part II)
- UNODC The plant kingdom and hallucinogens (part III)
- Virola – Dried Herbarium Specimens
- Virola Species Pictures – USGS
- Desmanthus illinoensis – USDA
- Psychedelic Reader (Google Books)
Notes and References
- Book: Sayin, H. Umit . Neuropathology of Drug Addictions and Substance Misuse . Psychoactive Plants Used during Religious Rituals . Elsevier . 2016 . 10.1016/b978-0-12-800634-4.00002-0 . 17–28. 9780128006344 .
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