The development of states—large-scale, populous, politically centralized, and socially stratified polities/societies governed by powerful rulers—marks one of the major milestones in the evolution of human societies. Archaeologists often distinguish between primary (or pristine) states and secondary states. Primary states evolved independently through largely internal developmental processes rather than through the influence of any other pre-existing state. The earliest known primary states appeared in Mesopotamia c. 3700 BC, in Egypt c. 3300 BC, in the Indus Valley c. 2500 BC, India c. 1700 BC, and in China c. 1600 BC. As they interacted with their less developed neighbors through trade, warfare, migration, and more generalized ideological influences, the primary states directly or indirectly fostered the emergence of secondary states in surrounding areas, for example, the Hittites in Anatolia, the Minoan and Mycenaean states of the Aegean, or the Nubian kingdoms in the Sudan. According to Professor Gil Stein of the University of Chicago Oriental Institute, "The excavations and archaeological surveys of the last few decades have vastly increased both the quantity and quality of what we know about ancient states and urbanism. Archaeologists have broadened the scope of their research beyond the traditional focus on rulers and urban elites. Current research now aims at understanding the role of urban commoners, craft specialists, and village-based farmers in the overall organization of ancient states and societies. Given the immense geographical scope encompassed by the term 'the Ancient World'".[1] The notion of a sovereign state arises in the 16th century with the development of modern diplomacy. For earlier times, the term "sovereign state" is an anachronism. What corresponded to sovereign states in the medieval and ancient period were monarchs ruling by the grace of God, de facto feudal or imperial autocrats, or de facto independent nations or tribal confederations. This is a list of sovereign states that existed between 500 BC and 401 BC.
| Sovereign state | Years | |
|---|---|---|
| Achaemenid Empire | 550 - 330 BC | |
| Adena culture | 1000 - 200 BC | |
| Ammon | c. 10th century - 332 BC | |
| Anga | 1380 - 550 BC | |
| Athens | 510 - 322 BC | |
| Avanti | 900 - 322 BC | |
| Bithynia | 297 - 74 BC | |
| Cappadocia | 320 BC - 17 AD | |
| Carthaginian Empire | 650 - 146 BC | |
| Chavín culture | 900 - 200 BC | |
| Chedi | 600 - 300 BC | |
| Chen | 855 - 479 BC | |
| Chera Kingdom | 5th century BC - 1102 AD | |
| Chola | 2645 BC - 1279 AD | |
| Chorrera | 1800 - 300 BC | |
| Chu | 1030 - 223 BC | |
| Colchis | 1300 - 2nd century AD | |
| Corinth | 700 - 338 BC | |
| Cyrene | 631 - 525 BC | |
| Dʿmt | c. 980 - c. 400 BC | |
| Dardanian Kingdom | c.448 BC - 28 BC | |
| Edom | 1200 - 125 BC | |
| Gandhara | 800 BC - 500 AD | |
| Gojoseon | 2333 - 108 BC | |
| Han | 403 - 230 BC | |
| Kalinga | 1376 - 285 BC | |
| Kamboja | 1450 - 195 BC | |
| Kasi | 600 - 345 BC | |
| Kikata | 2000 - 1700 BC | |
| Kosala | 1000 - 266 BC | |
| Kuru | 1376 - 285 BC | |
| Kush | 1070 BC - 350 AD | |
| Lu | 856 - 256 BC | |
| Lycaonia | 8th century - 200 BC | |
| Macedonia | 8th century - 146 BC | |
| Mahajanapadas | 600 - 345 BC | |
| Malla Republics | c. 7th century BCE - c. 4th century BCE | |
| Mannai | 1110 - 616 BC | |
| Maya civilization | 2000 BC - 900 AD | |
| Minaea | 580 - 85 BC | |
| Moab | 1300 - 400 BC | |
| Mysia | 1320 - 301 BC | |
| Nanda Empire | 424 - 321 BC | |
| Olmec | 1400 - 400 BC | |
| Panchala | 700 - 323 BC | |
| Pandya | 1350 - 460 BC | |
| Paphlagonia | 1480 - 183 BC | |
| Paracas culture | 600 - 175 BC | |
| Pisidia | 8000 BC - 11th century AD | |
| Qi | 1046 - 241 BC | |
| Qin | 845 - 221 BC | |
| Roman Republic | 509 - 27 BC | |
| Saba | 12th/8th century BC - 275 AD | |
| Scythia | 8th century BC - 2nd century AD | |
| Sparta | 11th century - 195 BC | |
| Surasena | 1000 - 323 BC | |
| Ta Netjeru/Land of Punt | 2400 - 1069 BC | |
| Thebes | 3200 - 30 BC | |
| Vajjika League | - | |
| Văn Lang | 2879 - 258 BC | |
| Vatsa | 1100 - 323 BC | |
| Wei | 403 - 225 BC | |
| Yan | 865 - 222 BC | |
| Zapotec civilization | 700 BC - 1521 AD | |
| Zheng | 806 - 375 BC | |
| Zhou | 1045 - 256 BC |