List of people considered father or mother of a scientific field explained

See also: List of people considered father or mother of a field. The following is a list of people who are considered a "father" or "mother" (or "founding father" or "founding mother") of a scientific field. Such people are generally regarded to have made the first significant contributions to and/or delineation of that field; they may also be seen as "a" rather than "the" father or mother of the field. Debate over who merits the title can be perennial.

Science as a whole

FieldPerson/s
Rationale
Science (modern)Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)[1] For systemic use of experimentation in science and contributions to scientific method, physics and observational astronomy
Science (ancient)Thales (c. 624/623 – c. 548/545 BC)[2] [3] Attempted to explain natural phenomena without recourse to mythology

Natural sciences

Biology

FieldPerson/s
Rationale
ZoologyAristotle (384–322 BC)His contributions to the field include vast quantities of information about the variety, structure, and behavior of animals
BacteriologyRobert Koch (1843–1910)
Ferdinand Cohn (1828–1898)[4]
Louis Pasteur (1822–1895)
First to produce precise, correct descriptions of bacteria.
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723)
BiogeographyAlfred Russel Wallace (1823–1913)"... Often described as the Father of Biogeography, Wallace shows the impact of human activity on the natural world."[5]
BioinformaticsMargaret Oakley Dayhoff (1925–1983)"... the mother and father of bioinformatics", according to David J. Lipman, former director of the National Center for Biotechnology Information.[6]
BiologyAristotle (384–322 BC)
BotanyTheophrastus (c. 371 – c. 287 BC)
Otto Brunfels (1488–1534)
Hieronymus Bock (1498–1554)
Leonhart Fuchs (1501–1566)
The three German fathers of botany.[7] [8]
BryologyJohann Hedwig (1730–1799)
CheloniologyArchie Carr (1909–1987)[9] [10] [11] [12] [13]
EcologyCarl Linnaeus (1707–1778)
Ernst Haeckel (1834–1919)
Eugenius Warming (1841–1924)[14]
Linnaeus founded an early branch of ecology that he called The Economy of Nature (1772), Haeckel coined the term "ecology" (German: Oekologie, Ökologie) (1866), Warming authored the first book on plant ecology. Plantesamfund (1895).
Modern elk managementOlaus Murie (1889–1963)[15]
EntomologyJan Swammerdam (1637–1680)[16]
Johan Christian Fabricius (1745–1808)[17] Fabricius described and published information on over 10,000 insects and refined Linnaeus's system of classification.
William Kirby (1759–1850)[18]
EthologyNikolaas Tinbergen (1907–1988)
Karl von Frisch (1886–1982)
Konrad Lorenz (1903–1989)
The modern discipline of ethology is generally considered to have begun during the 1930s with the work of Nikolaas Tinbergen, Konrad Lorenz and Karl von Frisch, joint awardees of the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.[19]
Charles Darwin (1809–1882)[20] [21] [22] [23] On the Origin of Species (1859).
GeneticsGregor Mendel (1822–1884)For his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants, which forms the basis for Mendelian inheritance[24]
William Bateson (1861–1926)Proponent of Mendelism.[25]
GerontologyÉlie Metchnikoff (1845–1916)Coined the term "gerontology" (1903). He was the first to perform systematic research on the effects of certain foods on lifespan and healthspan, developed the concept of probiotic diet that promotes long healthy life.[26] [27] [28] [29] [30] [31] [32]
HerpetologyJohn Edwards Holbrook (1796–1871)"John Edwards Holbrook... was considered by many to be the Father of Herpetology."[33] [34]

Notes and References

  1. Pamela Gossin, Encyclopedia of Literature and Science, 2002.
  2. Book: Singer, C. . A Short History of Science to the 19th century . Streeter Press . 2008 . 35.
  3. Book: Needham, C. W. . Cerebral Logic: Solving the Problem of Mind and Brain . Loose Leaf . 1978 . 75 . 978-0-398-03754-3.
  4. Drews G. (1999). "Ferdinand Cohn, a Founder of Modern Microbiology". ASM News 65 (8).
  5. Book: Explorers: Tales of Endurance and Exploration . 2010 . Penguin . 9780756675110 . DK Publishing . 272.
  6. Book: Moody, Glyn . 2004 . Digital Code of Life: How Bioinformatics is Revolutionizing Science, Medicine, and Business . John Wiley & Sons . 978-0-471-32788-2 .
  7. Web site: Early Herbals – The German Fathers of Botany . https://archive.today/20120629144256/http://www.museumwales.ac.uk/en/852/?article_id=131 . dead . June 29, 2012 . National Museum of Wales . July 4, 2007 . February 19, 2012 .
  8. Book: Yaniv . Zohara . Bachrach . Uriel . Handbook of Medicinal Plants . 2005 . 978-1-56022-994-0 . Haworth Press . Binghamton, New York . 157.
  9. Web site: Centennial Tribute to Archie Carr- The Father of Sea Turtle Research & Conservation – Sea Turtle Conservancy. en-US. 2019-03-21.
  10. Web site: Faces of Sea Turtle Conservation: Dr. Larisa Avens, Research Biologist NOAA Fisheries. Fisheries. NOAA. 2018-06-12. fisheries.noaa.gov. EN-US. 2019-03-21.
  11. Web site: Archie Carr Biography. InfoPlease. en. 2019-03-21.
  12. Web site: Telling the story of the father of sea turtle conservation. 2013-01-21. Mongabay Environmental News. en-US. 2019-03-21.
  13. Web site: Archie Carr: Father of Turtle Research. Heyman. Pat. 2009-11-28. Pat Heyman. en-US. 2019-03-21.
  14. 10.2307/3543715. Goodland. R.J.. 1975. The tropical origin of ecology: Eugen Warming's jubilee. Oikos. 26. 2. 240–245. 3543715. 1975Oikos..26..240G .
  15. Web site: A Lifelong Passion for Place and Conservation: Wyoming, Alaska, and the Muries' Arctic Love Affair. Medium.com. DanMcIlhenny. 29 July 2016.
  16. Book: Furfey, Paul Hanly . A History of Social Thought . 972992 . 208 . 1942 . Macmillan.
  17. Book: Stacey, Robyn . Museum: The Macleays, Their Collections and the Search for Order . 162 . 2007 . Cambridge University Press . Ashley Hay . 9780521874533 . Cambridge . 166255175.
  18. Book: Emling, Shelley . The Fossil Hunter: Dinosaurs, Evolution, and the Woman Whose Discoveries Changed the World . 2009 . Palgrave Macmillan . 9780230611566 . 118 . New York . 226357174.
  19. Web site: The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1973. Nobelprize.org . 9 September 2016. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1973 was awarded jointly to Karl von Frisch, Konrad Lorenz and Nikolaas Tinbergen 'for their discoveries concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns'..
  20. Web site: Darwin . Charles . "Pencil Sketch of 1842", in Darwin, Francis, The foundations of The origin of species . https://web.archive.org/web/20230131080702/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1556&viewtype=text&pageseq=1 . 2023-01-31 . 1909 . 2006-12-15 . darwin-online.org.uk.
  21. Book: Darwin, Charles . The Foundations of the Origin of Species - Scholar's Choice Edition . 2015-02-16 . Creative Media Partners, LLC . 9781298066015.
  22. Moore, James (2006), "Evolution and Wonder - Understanding Charles Darwin", Speaking of Faith (Radio Program), American Public Media, Evolution and Wonder: Understanding Charles Darwin | Transcript of Radio Program [Speaking of Faith® from American Public Media] . 2006 . 2008-11-22 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20081222020720/http://speakingoffaith.publicradio.org/programs/darwin/transcript.shtml . 2008-12-22.
  23. Web site: van Wyhe . John . 2002 . Charles Darwin: Gentleman Naturalist A Biographical Sketch . 2006-12-15 . darwin-online.org.uk.
  24. Web site: Gregor Mendel: The Father of Genetics. Cartage.org.lb. 15 January 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20130716053337/http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/sciences/lifescience/generalbiology/physiology/fathergenetics/fathergenetics/fathergenetics.htm. 16 July 2013. dead.
  25. p. 91, Theory change in science: strategies from Mendelian genetics, Lindley Darden, Oxford University Press US, 1991, .
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  121. Book: Boyer, Carl B.. Carl Benjamin Boyer. A History of Mathematics. Second. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. 1991. The Arabic Hegemony. 228. 978-0-471-54397-8. Diophantus sometimes is called "the father of algebra", but this title more appropriately belongs to al-Khwarizmi. It is true that in two respects the work of al-Khwarizmi represented a retrogression from that of Diophantus. First, it is on a far more elementary level than that found in the Diophantine problems and, second, the algebra of al-naren is thoroughly rhetorical, with none of the syncopation found in the Greek Arithmetica or in Brahmagupta's work. Even numbers were written out in words rather than symbols! It is quite unlikely that al-Khwarizmi knew of the work of Diophantus, but he must have been familiar with at least the astronomical and computational portions of Brahmagupta; yet neither al-Khwarizmi nor other Arabic scholars made use of syncopation or of negative numbers.. https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye/page/228.
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  146. O'Connor, John J; Edmund F. Robertson "Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro". MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.
  147. Book: Boyer . Carl Benjamin Boyer . A History of Mathematics . Second . John Wiley & Sons, Inc. . 1991 . 978-0-471-54397-8 . Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration . 162 . For some two and a half centuries, from Hippocrates to Eratosthenes, Greek mathematicians had studied relationships between lines and circles and had applied these in a variety of astronomical problems, but no systematic trigonometry had resulted. Then, presumably during the second half of the second century B.C., the first trigonometric table apparently was compiled by the astronomer Hipparchus of Nicaea (ca. 180 – ca. 125 B.C.), who thus earned the right to be known as the father of trigonometry. Aristarchus had known that in a given circle the ratio of arc to chord decreases from 180° to 0°, tending toward a limit of 1. However, it appears that not until Hipparchus undertook the task had anyone tabulated corresponding values of arc and chord for a whole series of angles. . https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye/page/162.
  148. Boyer's opinion may constructively be compared to Øystein Ore's opinion, that the Babylonians constructed trigonometric tables ca. 1600 BCE (Book: Ore. Number Theory and its History. Dover Publications, Inc.. 1988. Diophantine Problems. 176–179. 978-0-486-65620-5. The tablet, catalogued as Plimpton 322, is composed in Old Babylonian script so that it must fall in the period from 1900 B.C. and 1600 B.C., at least a millennium before the Pythagoreans... It is evident, however, that at this early date the Babylonians not only had completely mastered the Pythagorean problem, but also had used it as the basis for the construction of trigonometric tables.. https://archive.org/details/numbertheoryitsh0000orey/page/176.)
  149. Wheeler, Lynde, Phelps (1951). Josiah Willard Gibbs - the History of a Great Mind. Ox Bow Press.
  150. [Michael J. Crowe]
  151. Web site: Chaos Theory and Fractals. Mendelson Productions in collaboration with Blumenthal Enterprises. 4 July 2012. Jonathan Mendelson . Elana Blumenthal . amp. Henri Poincaré was really the "Father of Chaos [Theory]", however..
  152. Web site: Mistress of Girton whose mathematical work formed the basis of chaos theory. Obituaries Electronic Telegraph. 11 April 1998. 8 March 2017.
  153. [Freeman Dyson|Freeman J. Dyson]
  154. Web site: Edward Lorenz, father of chaos theory and butterfly effect, dies at 90. 16 April 2008 . MIT. 15 January 2018.
  155. Conway, F., and Siegelman, J., 2005. Dark Hero of the Information Age: in search of Norbert Wiener, the father of cybernetics. Basic Books, New York. 423 pp.
  156. Web site: Bell Labs website: "For example, Claude Shannon, the father of Information Theory, had a passion...". Bell Labs . 15 January 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20110605073153/http://www.bell-labs.com/news/2006/october/shannon.html. 5 June 2011. dead.
  157. Web site: 2004 Distinguished Alumni. IaState.edu. 15 January 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20110725203556/http://www.aere.iastate.edu/who-we-are/distinguished-alumni/2004-alumni.html. 25 July 2011. dead.
  158. Book: Bryson, A. E.. Ho, Y. C.. 1975. Applied optimal control. Washington, DC: Hemisphere.
  159. Web site: Jay Wright Forrester - Biography, Inventions, & Facts. Britannica.com. 15 January 2018.
  160. p. 22, A Short History of Scientific Ideas to 1900, Charles Singer, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1959.
  161. Ahmed Akbar S . 1984 . Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist . RAIN . 60 . 60. 9–10 . 10.2307/3033407. 3033407.
  162. Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshold [sic] Of A New Millennium – II, The Milli Gazette.
  163. Book: Otlet, P. . Traité De Documentation: Le Livre Sur Le Livre, Théorie Et Pratique . Editiones Mundaneum: Mons, Belgium . 1934.
  164. Rousseau, Ronald . Library Science: Forgotten Founder of Bibliometrics. . Nature . 2014 . 510 . 7504 . 218 . 10.1038/510218e . 24919911 . 2014Natur.510..218R . free.
  165. [Thomas Woods|Woods, Thomas]
  166. Book: D.J. . Boilot . Al-Biruni (Beruni), Abu'l Rayhan Muhammad b. Ahmad New Ed. . 1. 1236–1238.
  167. Book: Dani . Ahmed Hasan . Ahmad Hasan Dani . 1973 . Alberuni's Indica: A record of the cultural history of South Asia about AD 1030 . University of Islamabad Press.
  168. Web site: Who is called the father of political science?. Study.com. en. 2018-12-08.
  169. Web site: Niccolò Machiavelli is the Father of Modern Political Science - Fact or Myth?website=factmyth.com. 2 October 2017 . en-US. 2018-12-08.
  170. Akhtar S. W. . 1997 . The Islamic Concept of Knowledge . Al-Tawhid: A Quarterly Journal of Islamic Thought & Culture . 12 . 3.
  171. Book: Willcox, William Bradford . Arnstein, Walter L. . Sixth Edition, 1992 . The Age of Aristocracy, 1688 to 1830 . Volume III of A History of England, edited by Lacey Baldwin Smith . 133 . . 1966 . 978-0-669-24459-5 . Adam Ferguson of Edinburgh became 'the father of modern sociology'..
  172. http://www.britannica.com/ebi/article-9273765 Auguste Comte
  173. p. 87, Full Meridian of Glory, Paul Murdin, New York: Springer, 2009, (print), (online).
  174. Book: DIWAN, Jaswith. Accounting Concepts & Theories. Morre. London. id #94452. 001–002.
  175. I. M. Oweiss (1988), "Ibn Khaldun, the Father of Economics", Arab Civilization: Challenges and Responses, New York University Press, .
  176. L. K. Jha, K. N. Jha (1998). "Chanakya: the pioneer economist of the world", International Journal of Social Economics 25 (2–4), pp. 267–282
  177. Cleveland C. . Ruth M. . 1997 . When, where, and by how much do biophysical limits constrain the economic process? A survey of Georgescu-Roegen's contribution to ecological economics . Ecological Economics . 22 . 3. 203–223 . 10.1016/s0921-8009(97)00079-7. biophysical. free .
  178. Daly H. . 1995 . On Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen's contributions to economics: An obituary essay . Ecological Economics . 13 . 3. 149–154 . 10.1016/0921-8009(95)00011-w.
  179. Mayumi K. . 1995 . Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen (1906–1994) . Structural Change and Economic Dynamics . 6 . 3. 115–120 . 10.1016/0954-349x(95)00014-e.
  180. Book: Mayumi . Kozo . Kozo Mayumi . Gowdy . John . Bioeconomics and Sustainability: Essays in Honor of Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen . 1999 . Cheltenham: Edward Elgar . 978-1-85898-667-8.
  181. Book: Mayumi, Kozo . The Origins of Ecological Economics: The Bioeconomics of Georgescu-Roegen . 2001 . Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group . 978-0-415-23523-5.
  182. Web site: John Maynard Keynes. Investopedia. 11 February 2015.
  183. Web site: Blinder. Alan. Keynesian Economics. Library of Economics and Liberty. Liberty Fund. 11 February 2015.
  184. Web site: Briggs. Brad. John Maynard Keynes: The Man Who Transformed the Economic World. Investing Answers. 11 February 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20150221090737/http://www.investinganswers.com/education/economics/john-maynard-keynes-man-who-transformed-economic-world-621. 21 February 2015. dead.
  185. Rothbard, p. 379.
  186. Web site: "Expanding Microcredit in India: A Great Opportunity for Poverty Alleviation", Grameen Dialogue. . 2009-08-26 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120208173029/http://www.grameen-info.org/dialogue/Dialogue60/indiaFocus.htm . 2012-02-08 . dead.
  187. Web site: Ellen Swallow Richards - Vassar College Encyclopedia - Vassar College. VCEncyclopedia.Vassar.edu. 15 January 2018.
  188. Rothbard, p. 167
  189. Rothbard, p. 102
  190. Rothbard, pp. 100–101
  191. Web site: Find Local Contractors - Home Remodeling Contractors on Ecnext. goliath.Ecnext.com. 15 January 2018.
  192. Worthington, R. D.; Worthington, P. H. (1976). "John Edwards Holbrook, father of American herpetology". pp. xiii–xxvii. '''''In'':''' Holbrook J. E. ''North American Herpetology'' ... [second edition, 1842], reprint edition. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles, Facsimile Reprints in Herpetology series.|- style="vertical-align:top"

    | Ichthyology| Peter Artedi (1705–1735)| "Far greater than either of these... was he who has been justly called the Father of Ichthyology, Petrus (Peter) Artedi (1705–1735)."[34] |- style="vertical-align:top"

    | Immunology| Edward Jenner (1749–1823)| Pioneered the concept of vaccines including creating the smallpox vaccine, the world's first vaccine (in 1796).[35] [36] [37] [38] |- style="vertical-align:top"

    | Innate (natural) immunity| Élie Metchnikoff (1845–1916)| Research of phagocytosis by macrophages and microphages as a critical host-defense mechanism.[39] [40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45] |- style="vertical-align:top"

    | Humoral immunity| Paul Ehrlich (1854–1915)| Described the side-chain theory of antibody formation and the mechanisms of how antibodies neutralize toxins and induce bacterial lysis with the help of complement.|- style="vertical-align:top"

    | Lichenology| Erik Acharius (1757–1819)| "Erik Acharius, the father of lichenology..."[46] |- style="vertical-align:top"

    | Microbiology| Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723) / Louis Pasteur (1822–1895)[47] | The first to microscopically observe micro-organisms in water and the first to see bacteria.|- style="vertical-align:top"

    | Molecular biology| Linus Pauling (1901–1994)| |- style="vertical-align:top"

    | Molecular biophysics| Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran (1922–2001)[48] | Founded the [world's first?] molecular biophysics unit (1970).|- style="vertical-align:top"

    | Paleontology| Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519)
    George Cuvier (1769–1832)| |- style="vertical-align:top"

    | Parasitology| Francesco Redi (1626–1697)| The founder of experimental biology and the first person to challenge the theory of spontaneous generation by demonstrating that maggots come from eggs of flies.[49] |-|Population genetics|Ronald A. Fisher, Sewall Wright, J. B. S. Haldane|[50] |- style="vertical-align:top"

    | Protozoology| Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723)[51] | First to produce precise, correct descriptions of protozoa.|-|Quantitative genetics|Ronald A. Fisher|[52] |- style="vertical-align:top"

    | Taxonomy| Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778)[53] | Devised the system of naming living organisms that became universally accepted in the scientific world.|- style="vertical-align:top"| Virology| Martinus Beijerinck (1851–1931)[54] | Studies of agricultural microbiology and industrial microbiology that yielded fundamental discoveries.|- style="vertical-align:top"

    |}

    Chemistry

    FieldPerson/s
    Rationale
    Atomic theory (early)Democritus (c. 460 – c. 370 BC)[55] Founder of atomism in cosmology.
    Atomic theory (modern)Father Roger Boscovich (1711–1787)[56] First coherent description of atomic theory.
    John Dalton (1766–1844)[57] First scientific description of the atom as a building block for more complex structures.
    Atomic bombJ. Robert Oppenheimer (1904-1967)served as the director of the Manhattan Project's Los Alamos Laboratory during World War II. He is often called the "father of the atomic bomb" for his role in overseeing the development of the first nuclear weapons.
    Chemical thermodynamics (modern)Gilbert Lewis (1875–1946)
    Willard Gibbs (1839–1903)
    Merle Randall (1888–1950)
    Edward Guggenheim (1901–1970)[58]
    Thermodynamics and the Free Energy of Chemical Substances (1923) and Modern Thermodynamics by the Methods of Willard Gibbs (1933), which made a major contribution to the use of thermodynamics in chemistry.
    Chemistry (modern)Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794)[59] Elements of Chemistry (1787)
    Robert Boyle (1627–1691)The Sceptical Chymist (1661)
    Jöns Berzelius (1779–1848)[60] [61] Development of chemical nomenclature (1800s)
    John Dalton (1766–1844)Revival of atomic theory (1803)
    Green chemistryPaul Anastas (born 1962)Design and manufacture of chemicals that are non-hazardous and environmentally benign.
    Nuclear chemistryOtto Hahn (1879–1968)[62]
    Periodic tableDmitri Mendeleev (1834–1907)[63] Arranged the sixty-six elements known at the time in order of atomic weight by periodic intervals (1869).
    Physical chemistryMikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765)The first to read lectures in physical chemistry and coin the term (1752).
    Jacobus van 't Hoff (1852–1911)Jacobus van 't Hoff is considered one of the founders of the discipline of physical chemistry. His work helped found the discipline as it is today.[64] [65] [66]
    Svante Arrhenius (1859–1927)[67] Devised much of the theoretical foundation for physical chemistry. On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances (1876), Thermodynamik chemischer Vorgange (1882).
    Wilhelm Ostwald (1853–1932)"Wilhelm Ostwald is considered one of the founders of the discipline of physical chemistry..."[68]
    Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894)
    Theory of Chemical structureAugust Kekulé (1829–1896)Discovered the structure of the benzene ring (1865) and pioneered structural chemistry in general

    Earth sciences

    FieldPerson/s
    Rationale
    Geochemistry (modern)Victor Goldschmidt (1888–1947)For developing the Goldschmidt classification of elements.
    Early geodesy (mathematical geography)Eratosthenes (c. 276 – 195/194 BC)[69] [70] Eratosthenes was first to write the word Geography (from Geo- and -graphy, literally "writing about the Earth")
    Geodesy (modern)Al-Biruni (973 – c. 1050)[71] [72]
    Geology (modern)Georgius Agricola (1494–1555)[73] Wrote the first book on physical geology, De Ortu et Causis Subterraneorum (1546)
    Nicolas Steno (1638–1686)[74] For setting down most of the principles of modern geology.
    James Hutton (1726–1797)[75] For formulating uniformitarianism and the Plutonic theory.
    Geotechnical engineering (Soil mechanics)Karl von Terzaghi (1883–1963)[76]
    Limnology (modern)G. Evelyn Hutchinson (1903–1991)
    MineralogyGeorgius Agricola (1494–1555)
    Matthew Fontaine Maury (1806–1873)
    Plate tectonicsAlfred Wegener (1880–1930)
    Acoustical oceanographyLeonid Brekhovskikh (1917–2005)
    StratigraphyNicolas Steno (1638–1686)
    SpeleologyÉdouard-Alfred Martel (1859–1938)Began the first systematic exploration of cave systems and promoted speleology as a field separate from geology.

    Medicine and physiology

    FieldPerson/s
    Rationale
    Anatomy (modern)Marcello Malpighi (1628–1694)
    BiophysicsHenri Dutrochet (1776–1847) Discovered osmosis
    Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894) Explained hearing and vision.
    BiomechanicsChristian Wilhelm Braune (1831–1892)First to describe the methodology of human gait (walking).
    BioelectromagneticsLuigi Galvani (1737–1798)First to discover animal electricity through a series of experiments in 1780.
    Cardiovascular physiologyIbn al-Nafis (1213–1288)Father of circulatory and cardiovascular physiology.[77] [78] [79]
    Cognitive therapyAaron T. Beck (1921–2021)
    CryonicsRobert Ettinger (1918–2011)1962 book, The Prospect of Immortality
    DentistryPierre Fauchard (1679–1761)Widely known for writing the first complete scientific description of dentistry, Le Chirurgien Dentiste.
    ElectrophysiologyEmil du Bois-Reymond (1818–1896)The discoverer of nerve action potential.
    Emergency medicine
    Epidemiology (modern)John Snow (1813–1858)Determining the cause of the 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak with a combination of public interviews and mapping
    Gastrointestinal physiologyWilliam Beaumont[80] (1785–1853)
    GynaecologyJ. Marion Sims (1813–1883)
    HistologyMarcello Malpighi (1628–1694)
    Human anatomy (modern)Vesalius (1514–1564)[81] De humani corporis fabrica (1543)
    Medical geneticsVictor McKusick (1921–2008)Mendelian Inheritance in Man (started publishing in 1966)
    Medicine (early)
    Medicine (modern)
    NeurosurgeryHarvey Cushing[82] (1869–1939)Developed techniques that considerably reduced the risks involved with brain surgery in the early 20th century.
    Nutrition (modern)
    Organ transplantationThomas Starzl[83] (1926–2017)Performed the first human liver transplant and established the clinical utility of anti-rejection drugs including ciclosporin. Developed major advances in organ preservation, procurement and transplantation.
    Orthopedic surgery (modern)Hugh Owen Thomas[84] (1834–1891)He stressed the importance of rest in treatment and was responsible for many landmark contributions to orthopaedic surgery. He was especially celebrated for his design and use of splints; the famous Thomas knee splint was still in wide use at the end of World War II.
    PsychologyWilhelm Wundt[85] (1832–1920)Founded the first laboratory for psychological research, thereby establishing psychology as a distinct science.[86] Wundt is also regarded as the father of experimental psychology.[87]
    PediatricsMuhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi ("Rhazes")[88] Wrote The Diseases of Children, the first book to deal with pediatrics as an independent field.
    PhysiologyFrançois Magendie (1783–1855)Précis élementaire de Physiologie (1816)
    Physical cultureBernarr Macfadden (1868–1955)"It delighted the heart of our old friend Bernarr Macfadden, 'the Father of Physical Culture,' when we told him how much athletic activity and good sportsmanship had to do with the rehabilitation of boys."[89]
    Plastic surgeryWrote the Sushruta Samhita (ancient)
    PsychoanalysisSigmund Freud (1856–1939)
    PsychophysicsFormulating the Weber–Fechner law in Elements of Psychophysics (1860).[90] This publication is regarded as the beginning of psychophysics.[91] Fechner also coined the term psychophysics.[92]
    Space medicineHubertus Strughold (1898–1986)"After Wernher von Braun, he was the top Nazi scientist employed by the American government, and he was subsequently hailed by NASA as the 'father of space medicine'"[93]
    Surgery (early)Sushruta (sixth century?)Wrote the Sushruta Samhita (878 CE?)
    Surgery (modern)
    ToxicologyParacelsus (1493/1494 – 1541)[94]

    Physics and astronomy

    FieldPerson/s
    Rationale
    AcousticsErnst Chladni[95] For important research in vibrating plates
    Atomic bombEnrico Fermi
    J. Robert Oppenheimer
    Leslie Groves
    Edward Teller
    For their role in the Manhattan Project
    AerodynamicsNikolai Zhukovsky
    George Cayley[96]
    Zhukovsky was the first to undertake the study of airflow, was the first engineer scientist to explain mathematically the origin of aerodynamic lift. Cayley Investigated theoretical aspects of flight and experimented with flight a century before the first airplane was built
    Civil engineeringJohn Smeaton[97]
    Classical mechanicsIsaac Newton (founder)[98] Described laws of motion and law of gravity in Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687)
    Electrical EngineeringMichael Faraday[99] [100] Invented the generator, the first DC electric motor, the transformer, and also discovered Faraday's Law of Induction (1831)
    Pre-Maxwell ElectrodynamicsAndré-Marie Ampère[101] Book: Memoir on the Mathematical Theory of Electrodynamic Phenomena, Uniquely Deduced from Experience (1827)
    EnergeticsWillard Gibbs[102] Publication: On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances (1876)
    MeteoriticsErnst Chladni[103] First to publish in modern Western thought (in 1794) the then audacious idea that meteorites are rocks from space.[104]
    Modern astronomyNicolaus Copernicus[105] Developed the first explicit heliocentric model in De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (1543)
    Nuclear astrophysicsHans Bethe[106] Wrote a famous paper in 1938 on stellar nucleosynthesis
    Nuclear physicsErnest Rutherford[107] Developed the Rutherford atom model (1909)
    Nuclear scienceMarie Curie
    Pierre Curie[108]
    OpticsIbn al-Haytham (Alhazen)[109] Correctly explained vision and carried out the first experiments on light and optics in the Book of Optics (1021).
    Physical cosmologyGeorges Lemaître (founder)
    Albert Einstein
    Henrietta Leavitt (mother)[110]
    Edwin Hubble (father)
    Monsignor Lemaître is considered "the Father of the Big Bang" and the first to derive what is now known as Hubble's law. Leavitt discovered Cepheid variables, the "Standard Candle" by which Hubble later determined galactic distances. Einstein's general theory of relativity is usually recognized as the theoretic foundation of modern cosmology.
    Physics (modern)Galileo Galilei[111] His development and extensive use of experimental physics, e.g. the telescope
    Plasma physicsIrving Langmuir
    Hannes Alfvén[112]
    Langmuir first described ionised gas as plasma and observed fundamental plasma vibrations, Langmuir waves.
    Alfvén pioneered the theoretical description of plasma by developing magnetohydrodynamics.
    Quantum mechanicsMax Planck[113] Stated that electromagnetic energy could be emitted only in quantized form
    RelativityAlbert Einstein (founder)[114] Pioneered special relativity (1905) and general relativity (1915)
    Spaceflight (rocketry)Robert Hutchings Goddard
    Konstantin Tsiolkovsky
    Hermann Oberth
    Wernher von Braun
    Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket.
    Tsiolkovsky created the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation.
    Oberth was the first, who presented mathematically analyzed concepts and designs of space ships.[115]
    Braun´s V2 rocket was the first man made object in space.[116] He led the Apollo program.
    ThermodynamicsSadi Carnot (founder)[117]
    Rudolf Clausius (one of the founding fathers)
    Publication: On the Motive Power of Fire and Machines Fitted to Develop that Power (1824)
    Restated Carnot's principle known as the Carnot cycle and gave so the theory of heat a truer and sounder basis. His most important paper, "On the Moving Force of Heat",[118] published in 1850, first stated the second law of thermodynamics. In 1865 he introduced the concept of entropy. In 1870 he introduced the virial theorem, which applied to heat.[119]

    Formal sciences

    Mathematics

    FieldPerson/s
    Rationale
    Algebra
    Muhammad Al-Khwarizmi (Algorismi)[120]
    Diophantus[121] [122]
    Full exposition of solving quadratic equations in his Al-Jabr and recognized algebra as an independent discipline.
    First use of symbolism (syncopation) in his Arithmetica.
    Algebraic topologyHenri Poincaré[123] Published Analysis Situs in 1895,[124] introducing the concepts of homotopy and homology, which are now considered part of algebraic topology.
    AnalysisAugustin-Louis Cauchy[125]
    Karl Weierstrass[126]
    Analytic geometryRené Descartes
    Pierre de Fermat[127] (founders)
    For their independent invention of the Cartesian Coordinate System
    CalculusIsaac Newton[128]
    Gottfried Leibniz
    See Leibniz and Newton calculus controversy.
    Computer scienceCharles Babbage
    Alan Turing
    In the history of computer science Babbage is often regarded as one of the first pioneers of computing and Turing invented the principle of the modern computer and the stored program concept that almost all modern day computers use.
    Computer programmingAda Lovelace
    Charles Babbage
    Work on Charles Babbage's proposed mechanical general-purpose computer, the Analytical Engine
    CryptanalysisAl-Kindi[129] [130] [131] Developed the first code breaking algorithm based on frequency analysis. He wrote a book entitled "Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages", containing detailed discussions on statistics.
    Cryptography (modern)Claude Shannon[132] [133] Wrote a revolutionary paper that was released in 1949, and did work during WWII
    Descriptive geometryGaspard Monge[134]
    (founder)
    Developed a graphical protocol that creates three-dimensional virtual space on a two-dimensional plane
    Fractal geometryBenoit Mandelbrot
    GeometryEuclid[135] Euclid's Elements deduced the principles of Euclidean geometry from a set of axioms.
    Graph theoryLeonhard Euler[136] See Seven Bridges of Königsberg
    Italian school of algebraic geometryCorrado Segre[137] Publications and students developing algebraic geometry
    Modern algebraEmmy Noether[138]
    Emil Artin
    Provided the first general definitions of a commutative ring, and suggested that topology be studied algebraically. Combined the structure theory of associative algebras and the representation theory of groups into a single arithmetic theory of modules and ideals in rings satisfying ascending chain conditions.
    Non-Euclidean geometryCarl Friedrich Gauss, János Bolyai,
    Nikolai Lobachevsky[139] (founders)
    Independent development of hyperbolic geometry in which Euclid's fifth postulate is not true
    Number theoryPythagoras[140]
    ProbabilityGerolamo Cardano
    Pierre de Fermat
    Blaise Pascal
    Christiaan Huygens[141] (founders)
    Fermat and Pascal co-founded probability theory, about which Huygens wrote the first book
    Projective geometryGirard Desargues[142] (founder)By generalizing the use of vanishing points to include the case when these are infinitely far away
    Set theoryGeorg Cantor
    Statistics (modern)Ronald A. Fisher[143] [144] [145]
    Tensor calculusGregorio Ricci-Curbastro[146]
    (founder)
    Book: The Absolute Differential Calculus
    TrigonometryHipparchus[147] [148] Constructed the first trigonometric table.
    Vector algebra,
    vector calculus
    Willard Gibbs[149]
    Oliver Heaviside[150]
    (founders)
    For their development and use of vectors in algebra and calculus

    Systems theory

    FieldPerson/s
    Rationale
    Chaos theoryHenri Poincaré[151]
    Mary Cartwright[152] [153]
    Edward Lorenz[154]
    Poincaré's work on the three-body problem was the first discovered example of a chaotic dynamical system. Cartwright made the first mathematical analysis of dynamical systems with chaos. Lorenz introduced strange attractor notation.
    CyberneticsNorbert Wiener[155] Book Cybernetics: Or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine. 1948.
    Dynamic programmingRichard E. Bellman
    Fuzzy logicLotfi Asker Zadeh
    Information theoryClaude Shannon[156] Article: A Mathematical Theory of Communication (1948)
    Optimal controlArthur E. Bryson[157] Book: Applied Optimal Control[158]
    Robust controlGeorge ZamesSmall gain theorem and H infinity control.
    Stability theoryAlexander LyapunovLyapunov function
    System dynamicsJay Wright Forrester[159] Book: Industrial dynamics (1961)

    Social sciences

    FieldPerson/s
    Rationale
    AnthropologyHerodotus[160]
    Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī[161] [162]
    BibliometricsPaul OtletThe term bibliométrie was first used by Paul Otlet in 1934[163] and defined as "the measurement of all aspects related to the publication and reading of books and documents".[164]
    EgyptologyFather Athanasius Kircher[165] Jean-François ChampollionFirst to identify the phonetic importance of the hieroglyph, and he demonstrated Coptic as a vestige of early Egyptian, before the Rosetta Stone's discovery.
    Translated parts of the Rosetta Stone.
    HistoriographyThucydidesThucydides has been dubbed the father of "scientific history" by those who accept his claims to have applied strict standards of impartiality and evidence-gathering and analysis of cause and effect, without reference to intervention by the deities, as outlined in his introduction to his work.
    HistoryHerodotus (who also coined the term)
    IndologyAl-Biruni[166] Wrote the Indica[167]
    International lawAlberico Gentili
    Francisco de Vitoria
    Hugo Grotius
    Influential contributions to the theory of international law, war and human rights
    Linguistics (early)PaniniWrote the first descriptive grammar (of Sanskrit)
    Linguistics (modern)Ferdinand de Saussure
    Political scienceAristotle
    Niccolò Machiavelli
    Aristotle is called the father of political science largely because of his work entitled Politics. This treatise is divided into eight books, and deals with subjects such as citizenship, democracy, oligarchy and the ideal state.[168]

    *Machiavelli is considered the 'modern father of political science'[169]

    **Hobbes is considered the Father of Modern Political Philosophy for his postulation of the State of Nature in Leviathan.||- style="vertical-align:top"| Sociology| Ibn Khaldun[170]
    Adam Ferguson[171]
    Auguste Comte (who also coined the term)[172]
    Marquis de Condorcet (founder)[173] | Wrote the first sociological book, the Muqaddimah (Prolegomena).
    "Father of modern sociology"
    Introduced the scientific method into sociology.|}

    Economics

    FieldPerson(s)
    Rationale
    Accounting and bookkeeping Luca Pacioli (c. 1447–1517)[174] Establisher of accounting and the first person to publish a work on bookkeeping.
    Economics (early)Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406)[175]
    Chanakya / Kautilya (375 BCE – 283 BCE)[176]
    Publication: Muqaddimah (1370)
    Publication: Arthashastra (400 BCE – 200 CE)
    Economics (modern)
    Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen (1906–1994)[177] [178] [179] [180] [181] The Entropy Law and the Economic Process (1971)
    MacroeconomicsJohn Maynard Keynes (1883–1946)[182] Author of The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money and groundbreaking economist, Keynes spearheaded a revolution in economic thinking. Prior to Keynes, the general consensus among economists was that the economy was self-fixing. During the Great Depression, when people began to realize that the economy would not fix itself, Keynes proposed that the government needed to intervene to combat excessive boom and bust. This idea was the largest influence in U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal.[183] [184]
    Mathematical economicsDaniel Bernoulli (1700–1782)Forerunner of the Tableau économique.[185]
    Monetary economics
    MicrocreditMuhammad Yunus (born 1940)[186] Founded Grameen Bank
    Personnel economicsEdward Lazear (1948–2020)Published the first paper in the field.
    Family and consumer scienceEllen Swallow Richards (1842–1911)Founded the American Association of Home Economics, currently the American Association of Family & Consumer Sciences. "Bringing science into the home, Richards hoped to '...attain the best physical, mental, and moral development' for the family, which she believed was the basic unit of civilization."[187]

    Schools of thought

    FieldPerson(s)
    Rationale
    Austrian SchoolCarl Menger (1840–1921)[188]
    School of SalamancaFrancisco de Vitoria (c. 1483–1546)[189] Highly influential teacher and lecturer on commercial morality

    Theories

    FieldPerson(s)
    Rationale
    Expectations theoryThomas Cardinal Cajetan (1469–1534)[190] Recognised the effect of market expectations on the value of money
    Modern portfolio theoryHarry Markowitz (born 1927)[191]
    Social choice theoryKenneth Arrow (1921–2017)Created the field with his 1951 book Social Choice and Individual Values.
    Game theory

    See also

    References