List of organisms by chromosome count explained

The list of organisms by chromosome count describes ploidy or numbers of chromosomes in the cells of various plants, animals, protists, and other living organisms. This number, along with the visual appearance of the chromosome, is known as the karyotype,^{[1] [2] [3]} and can be found by looking at the chromosomes through a microscope. Attention is paid to their length, the position of the centromeres, banding pattern, any differences between the sex chromosomes, and any other physical characteristics.^[4] The preparation and study of karyotypes is part of cytogenetics.

S. No.	Organism (B SULLAR)	Chromosome number	Picture	Karyotype	Notes	Source
1	Jack jumper ant (Myrmecia pilosula)				2 for females, males are haploid and thus have 1; smallest number possible. Other ant species have more chromosomes.	^[5]
2	Spider mite (Tetranychidae)				Spider mites (family Tetranychidae) are typically haplodiploid (males are haploid, while females are diploid)	^[6]
3	Cricotopus sylvestris					^[7]
4	Oikopleura dioica					^[8]
5	Yellow fever mosquito (Aedes aegypti)				The 2n=6 chromosome number is conserved in the entire family Culicidae, except in Chagasia bathana, which has 2n=8.	^[9]
6	Indian muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak)				2n = 6 for females and 7 for males. The lowest diploid chromosomal number in mammals.^[10]	^[11]
7	Hieracium
8	Fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster)				6 autosomal and 2 allosomic (sex)	^[12]
9	Macrostomum lignano				^[13]
10	Marchantia polymorpha				Typically haploid with dominant gametophyte stage. 8 autosomes and 1 allosome (sex chromosome). The sex-determination system used by this species and most other bryophytes is called UV. Spores can carry either the U chromosome, which results in female gametophytes, or the V chromosome, which results in males. The chromosome number n = 9 is the basic number in many species of Marchantiales. In some species of Marchantiales, plants with various ploidy levels (having 18 or 27 chromosomes) were reported, but this is rare in nature.	^[14]
11	Thale cress (Arabidopsis thaliana)	10
12	Swamp wallaby (Wallabia bicolor)				11 for male, 10 for female	^[15]
13	Australian daisy (Brachyscome dichromosomatica)				This species can have more B chromosomes than A chromosomes at times, but 2n=4.	^[16]
14	Nematode (Caenorhabditis elegans)				12 for hermaphrodites, 11 for males
15	Spinach (Spinacia oleracea)	12				^[17]
16	Broad bean (Vicia faba)	12				^[18]
17	Yellow dung fly (Scathophaga stercoraria)	12			10 autosomal and 2 allosomic (sex) chromosomes. Males have XY sex chromosomes and females have XX sex chromosomes. The sex chromosomes are the largest chromosomes and constitute 30% of the total length of the diploid set in females and about 25% in males.	^[19]
18	Slime mold (Dictyostelium discoideum)	12				^[20]
19	Cucumber (Cucumis sativus)	14				^[21]
20	Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii)	14
21	Rye (Secale cereale)	14
22	Pea (Pisum sativum)	14
23	Barley (Hordeum vulgare)	14				^[22]
24	Aloe vera	14			The diploid chromosome number is 2n = 14 with four pair of long acrocentric chromosomes ranging from 14.4 μm to 17.9 μm and three pair of short sub metacentric chromosomes ranging from 4.6 μm to 5.4 μm.	^[23]
25	Koala (Phascolarctos cinereus)	16
26	Kangaroo	16			This includes several members of genus Macropus, but not the red kangaroo (M. rufus, 20)	^[24]
27	Botryllus schlosseri					^[25]
28	Schistosoma mansoni	16			2n=16. 7 autosomal pairs and ZW sex-determination pair.	^[26]
29	Welsh onion (Allium fistulosum)	16				^[27]
30	Garlic (Allium sativum)	16
31	Itch mite (Sarcoptes scabiei)				According to the observation of embryonic cells of egg, chromosome number of the itch mite is either 17 or 18. While the cause for the disparate numbers is unknown, it may arise because of an XO sex determination mechanism, where males (2n=17) lack the sex chromosome and therefore have one less chromosome than the female (2n=18).	^[28]
32	Radish (Raphanus sativus)	18
33	Carrot (Daucus carota)	18			The genus Daucus includes around 25 species. D. carota has nine chromosome pairs (2n = 2x = 18). D. capillifolius, D. sahariensis and D. syrticus are the other members of the genus with 2n = 18, whereas D. muricatus (2n = 20) and D. pusillus (2n = 22) have a slightly higher chromosome number. A few polyploid species as for example D. glochidiatus (2n = 4x = 44) and D. montanus (2n = 6x = 66) also exist.	^[29]
34	Cabbage (Brassica oleracea)	18			Broccoli, cabbage, kale, kohlrabi, brussels sprouts, and cauliflower are all the same species and have the same chromosome number.
35	Citrus (Citrus)	18			Chromosome number of the genus Citrus, which including lemons, oranges, grapefruit, pomelo and limes, is 2n = 18.^[30]	^[31]
36	Passion fruit (Passiflora edulis)	18				^[32]
37	Setaria viridis (Setaria viridis)	18				^[33]
38	Maize (Zea mays)	20
39	Cannabis (Cannabis sativa)	20
40	Western clawed frog (Xenopus tropicalis)	20				^[34]
41	Australian pitcher plant (Cephalotus follicularis)	20				^[35]
42	Cacao (Theobroma cacao)	20				^[36]
43	Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus)	22			Although some contradictory cases have been reported, the large homogeneity of the chromosome number 2n = 22 is now known for 135 (33.5%) distinct species among genus Eucalyptus.^[37]	^[38]
44	Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana)	22				^[39]
45	Bean (Phaseolus sp.)	22			All species in the genus Phaseolus have the same chromosome number, including common bean (P. vulgaris), runner bean (P. coccineus), tepary bean (P. acutifolius) and lima bean (P. lunatus).
46	Snail	24
47	Melon (Cucumis melo)	24				^[40]
48	Rice (Oryza sativa)	24
49	Silverleaf nightshade (Solanum elaeagnifolium)	24				^[41]
50	Sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa)	24				^[42]
51	Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum)	24				^[43]
52	European beech (Fagus sylvatica)	24				^[44]
53	Bittersweet nightshade (Solanum dulcamara)	24				^[45] ^[46]
54	Cork oak (Quercus suber)	24				^[47]
55	Edible frog (Pelophylax kl. esculentus)	26			Edible frog is the fertile hybrid of the pool frog and the marsh frog.^[48]	^[49]
56	Axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum)	28				^[50]
57	Bed bug (Cimex lectularius)				26 autosomes and varying number of the sex chromosomes from three (X1X2Y) to 21 (X1X2Y+18 extra Xs).^[51]
58	Pill millipede (Arthrosphaera magna attems)	30				^[52]
59	Giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis)	30				^[53]
60	American mink (Neogale vison)	30
61	Pistachio (Pistacia vera)	30				^[54]
62	Japanese oak silkmoth (Antheraea yamamai)	31				^[55]
63	Baker's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)	32
64	European honey bee (Apis mellifera)	32/16			32 for females (2n = 32), males are haploid and thus have 16 (1n =16).	^[56]
65	American badger (Taxidea taxus)	32
66	Alfalfa (Medicago sativa)	32			Cultivated alfalfa is tetraploid, with 2n=4x=32. Wild relatives have 2n=16.	^[57]
67	Red fox (Vulpes vulpes)	34			Plus 0-8 B chromosomes.	^[58]
68	Sunflower (Helianthus annuus)	34				^[59]
69	Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum)	34
70	Globe artichoke (Cynara cardunculus var. scolymus)	34				^[60]
71	Yellow mongoose (Cynictis penicillata)	36
72	Tibetan sand fox (Vulpes ferrilata)	36
73	Starfish (Asteroidea)	36
74	Red panda (Ailurus fulgens)	36
75	Meerkat (Suricata suricatta)	36
76	Cassava (Manihot esculenta)	36				^[61]
77	Long-nosed cusimanse (Crossarchus obscurus)	36
78	Earthworm (Lumbricus terrestris)	36
79	African clawed frog (Xenopus laevis)	36
80	Waterwheel plant (Aldrovanda vesiculosa)	38
81	Tiger (Panthera tigris)	38
82	Sea otter (Enhydra lutris)	38
83	Sable (Martes zibellina)	38
84	Raccoon (Procyon lotor)	38				^[62]
85	Pine marten (Martes martes)	38
86	Pig (Sus)	38
87	Oriental small-clawed otter (Aonyx cinerea)	38
88	Lion (Panthera leo)	38
89	Fisher (Pekania pennanti)	38
90	European mink (Mustela lutreola)	38
91	Coatimundi	38
92	Cat (Felis catus)	38
93	Beech marten (Martes foina)	38
94	Baja California rat snake (Bogertophis rosaliae)	38				^[63]
95	American marten (Martes americana)	38
96	Trans-Pecos ratsnake (Bogertophis subocularis)	40				^[64]
97	Mouse (Mus musculus)	40				^[65]
98	Mango (Mangifera indica)	40
99	Hyena (Hyaenidae)	40
100	Ferret (Mustela furo)	40
101	European polecat (Mustela putorius)	40
102	American beaver (Castor canadensis)	40
103	Peanut (Arachis hypogaea)	40			Cultivated peanut is an allotetraploid (2n = 4x = 40). Its closest relatives are the diploid (2n = 2x = 20).	^[66]
104	Wolverine (Gulo gulo)	42
105	Wheat (Triticum aestivum)	42			This is a hexaploid with 2n=6x=42. Durum wheat is Triticum turgidum var. durum, and is a tetraploid with 2n=4x=28.
106	Rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta)	42				^[67]
107	Rat (Rattus norvegicus)	42				^[68]
108	Oats (Avena sativa)	42			This is a hexaploid with 2n=6x=42. Diploid and tetraploid cultivated species also exist.
109	Giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca)	42
110	Fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox)	42
111	European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)	44
112	Eurasian badger (Meles meles)	44
113	Moon jellyfish (Aurelia aurita)	44				^[69]
114	Dolphin (Delphinidae)	44
115	Arabian coffee (Coffea arabica)	44			Out of the 103 species in the genus Coffea, arabica coffee is the only tetraploid species (2n = 4x = 44), the remaining species being diploid with 2n = 2x = 22.^[70]
116	Reeves's muntjac (Muntiacus reevesi)	46
117	Human (Homo sapiens)	46			44 autosomal. and 2 allosomic (sex)	^[71]
118	Olive (Olea Europaea)	46
119	Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus)	46				^[72]
120	Parhyale hawaiensis	46				^[73]
121	Water buffalo (swamp type) (Bubalus bubalis)	48
122	Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum)	48			Cultivated species N. tabacum is an amphidiploid (2n=4x=48) evolved through the interspecific hybridization of the ancestors of N. sylvestris (2n=2x=24, maternal donor) and N. tomentosiformis (2n=2x=24, paternal donor) about 200,000 years ago.	^[74]
123	Potato (Solanum tuberosum)	48			This is for common potato Solanum tuberosum (tetraploid, 2n = 4x = 48). Other cultivated potato species may be diploid (2n = 2x = 24), triploid (2n = 3x = 36), tetraploid (2n = 4x = 48), or pentaploid (2n = 5x = 60). Wild relatives mostly have 2n=24.	^[75]
124	Orangutan (Pongo)	48
125	Hare (Lepus)	48				^[76] ^[77]
126	Gorilla (Gorilla)	48
127	Deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus)	48
128	Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes)	48				^[78]
129	Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber)	48
130	Zebrafish (Danio rerio)	50				^[79]
131	Woodland hedgehogs Erinaceus	48				^[80]
132	African hedgehogs Atelerix	48				^[81]
133	Water buffalo (Riverine type) (Bubalus bubalis)	50
134	Striped skunk (Mephitis mephitis)	50
135	Pineapple (Ananas comosus)	50
136	Kit fox (Vulpes macrotis)	50
137	Spectacled bear (Tremarctos ornatus)	52
138	Platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus)	52			Ten sex chromosomes. Males have X1Y1X2Y2X3Y3X4Y4X5Y5, females have X1X1X2X2X3X3X4X4X5X5.^[82]	^[83]
139	Upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum)	52			This is for the cultivated species G. hirsutum (allotetraploid, 2n=4x=52). This species accounts for 90% of the world cotton production. Among 50 species in the genus Gossypium, 45 are diploid (2n = 2x = 26) and 5 are allotetraploid (2n = 4x = 52).	^[84]
140	Sheep (Ovis aries)	54
141	Hyrax (Hyracoidea)				Hyraxes were considered to be the closest living relatives of elephants,^[85] but sirenians have been found to be more closely related to elephants.	^[86]
142	Raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides procyonoides)	54			This number is for common raccoon dog (N. p. procyonoides), 2n=54+B(0–4). On the other hand, Japanese raccoon dog (N. p. viverrinus) with 2n=38+B(0–8). Here, B represents B chromosome and its variation in the number between individuals.^[87]	^[88]
143	Capuchin monkey (Cebinae)	54				^[89]
144	Silkworm (Bombyx mori)	56			This is for the species mulberry silkworm, B. mori (2n=56). Probably more than 99% of the world's commercial silk today come from this species.^[90] Other silk producing moths, called non-mulberry silkworms, have various chromosome numbers. (e.g. Samia cynthia with 2n=25–28,^[91] Antheraea pernyi with 2n=98.^[92])	^[93]
145	Strawberry (Fragaria × ananassa)	56			This number is octoploid, main cultivated species Fragaria × ananassa (2n = 8x = 56). In genus Fragaria, basic chromosome number is seven (x = 7) and multiple levels of ploidy, ranging from diploid (2n = 2x = 14) to decaploid (F. iturupensis, 2n = 10x = 70), are known.	^[94]
146	Gaur (Bos gaurus)	56
147	Elephant (Elephantidae)	56
148	†Woolly mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius)	58			extinct; tissue from a frozen carcass
149	Domestic yak (Bos grunniens)	60
150	Goat (Capra hircus)	60
151	Cattle (Bos taurus)	60
152	American bison (Bison bison)	60
153	Sable antelope (Hippotragus niger)	60				^[95]
154	Bengal fox (Vulpes bengalensis)	60
155	Gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar dispar)	62
156	Donkey (Equus asinus)	62
157	Scarlet macaw (Ara macao)	62–64				^[96]
158	Mule	63			semi-infertile (odd number of chromosomes – between donkey (62) and horse (64) makes meiosis much more difficult)
159	Guinea pig (Cavia porcellus)	64
160	Spotted skunk (Spilogale x)	64
161	Horse (Equus caballus)	64
162	Fennec fox (Vulpes zerda)	64
163	Echidna (Tachyglossidae)	63/64			63 (X1Y1X2Y2X3Y3X4Y4X5, male) and 64 (X1X1X2X2X3X3X4X4X5X5, female)^[97]
164	Chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera)	64				^[98]
165	Nine-banded armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus)	64				^[99]
166	Gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargenteus)	66
167	Red deer (Cervus elaphus)	68
168	Elk (wapiti) (Cervus canadensis)	68
169	Roadside hawk (Rupornis magnirostris)	68				^[100]
170	White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus)	70
171	Black nightshade (Solanum nigrum)	72				^[101]
172	Tropical blue bamboo (Bambusa chungii)	64–72				^[102]
173	Bat-eared fox (Otocyon megalotis)	72
174	Sun bear (Helarctos malayanus)	74
175	Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus)	74
176	Polar bear (Ursus maritimus)	74
177	Brown bear (Ursus arctos)	74
178	Asian black bear (Ursus thibetanus)	74
179	American black bear (Ursus americanus)	74
180	Bush dog (Speothos venaticus)	74
181	Maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus)	76
182	Gray wolf (Canis lupus)	78
183	Golden jackal (Canis aureus)	78
184	Dove (Columbidae)	78			Based on African collared dove	^[103]
185	Dog (Canis familiaris)	78			Normal dog karyotype is composed of 38 pairs of acrocentric autosomes and two metacentric sex chromosomes.^[104] ^[105]	^[106]
186	Dingo (Canis familiaris)	78
187	Dhole (Cuon alpinus)	78
188	Coyote (Canis latrans)	78
189	Chicken (Gallus gallus domesticus)	78
190	African wild dog (Lycaon pictus)	78				^[107]
191	Tropical pitcher plant (Nepenthes rafflesiana)	78
192	Turkey (Meleagris)	80				^[108]
193	Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum)	80			This is for S. officinarum (octoploid, 2n = 8× = 80). About 70% of the world's sugar comes from this species.^[109] Other species in the genus Saccharum, collectively known as sugarcane, have chromosome numbers in the range 2n=40–128.^[110]	^[111]
194	Pigeon (Columbidae)	80				^[112]
195	Azure-winged magpie (Cyanopica cyanus)	80				^[113]
196	Great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias)	82				^[114]
197	Bloody crane's-bill (Geranium sanguineum)	84				^[115]
198	Moonworts (Botrychium)	90
199	Grape fern (Sceptridium)	90
200	Pittier's crab-eating rat (Ichthyomys pittieri)	92			Previously thought to be the highest number in mammals, tied with Anotomys leander.	^[116]
201	Prawn (Penaeus semisulcatus)					^[117]
202	Aquatic rat (Anotomys leander)	92			Previously thought to be the highest number in mammals, tied with Ichthyomys pittieri.
203	Kamraj (fern) (Helminthostachys zeylanica)	94
204	Crucian carp (Carassius carassius)	100				^[118]
205	Red viscacha rat (Tympanoctomys barrerae)	102			Highest number known in mammals, thought to be a tetraploid^[119] or allotetraploid.^[120]	^[121]
206	Walking catfish (Clarias batrachus)	104				^[122]
207	American paddlefish (Polyodon spathula)	120				^[123]
208	Limestone fern (Gymnocarpium robertianum)	160			Tetraploid (2n = 4x = 160)	^[124]
209	African baobab (Adansonia digitata)	168			Also known as the "tree of life". 2n = 4x = 168	^[125]
210	Northern lampreys (Petromyzontidae)	174				^[126]
211	Rattlesnake fern (Botrypus virginianus)	184				^[127]
212	Red king crab (Paralithodes camtschaticus)	208
213	Field horsetail (Equisetum arvense)	216
214	Agrodiaetus butterfly (Agrodiaetus shahrami)	268			This insect has one of the highest chromosome numbers among all animals.	^[128]
215	Black mulberry (Morus nigra)	308			Highest ploidy among plants, 22-ploid (2n = 22x = 308)^[129]	^[130]
216	Atlas blue (Polyommatus atlantica)				2n = –452. Highest number of chromosomes in the non-polyploid eukaryotic organisms.	^[131]
217	Adders-tongue (Ophioglossum reticulatum)	1260			n=120–720 with a high degree of polyploidization.^[132] Ophioglossum reticulatum n=720 in hexaploid species, 2n=1260 in decaploid species.^[133]
218	Ciliated protozoa (Tetrahymena thermophila)				50x = 12,500 (in macronucleus, except minichromosomes) 10,000x = 10,000 (macronuclear minichromosomes)^[134]
219	Ciliated protozoa (Sterkiella histriomuscorum)	16000^[135]			Macronuclear "nanochromosomes"; ampliploid. MAC chromosomes × 1900 ploidy level = 2.964 × 10^7 chromosomes	^[136] ^[137] ^[138]

Further reading

• Book: Makino, Sajiro . An atlas of the chromosome numbers in animals . 1951 . Ames, Iowa State College Press . MBLWHOI Library.
• Book: Bell G . 1982 . The Masterpiece of Nature: The Evolution and Genetics of Sexuality . University of California Press . Berkeley . 450 . 9780856647536 . (table with a compilation of haploid chromosome number of many algae and protozoa, in column "HAP").
• Nuismer SL, Otto SP . Host-parasite interactions and the evolution of ploidy . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America . 101 . 30 . 11036–9 . July 2004 . 15252199 . 503737 . 10.1073/pnas.0403151101 . 2004PNAS..10111036N . free . Supporting Data Set, with information on ploidy level and number of chromosomes of several protists)

External links

• List of pages in English from Russian bionet site
• The dog through evolution (archived 1 March 2012)
• Shared synteny of human chromosome 17 loci in Canids (archived 24 September 2015)
• An atlas of the chromosome numbers in animals (1951); PDF downloads of each chapter on Internet Archive

Notes and References

1. Concise Oxford Dictionary
2. Book: White MJ . The chromosomes . registration . Chapman & Hall . London . 1973 . 6th . 28.
3. Book: Stebbins GL . Chapter XII: The Karyotype . Variation and evolution in plants . Columbia University Press . 1950 .
4. Book: King RC, Stansfield WD, Mulligan PK . A dictionary of genetics . Oxford University Press . 2006 . 242 . 7th .
5. Crosland MW, Crozier RH . Myrmecia pilosula, an Ant with Only One Pair of Chromosomes . Science . 231 . 4743 . 1278 . March 1986 . 17839565 . 10.1126/science.231.4743.1278 . 25465053 . 1986Sci...231.1278C .
6. Helle W, Bolland HR, Gutierrez J . Minimal chromosome number in false spider mites (Tenuipalpidae). Experientia. 1972. 28. 6. 10.1007/BF01944992. 707. 29547273.
7. Michailova P. 1976. Cytotaxonomical Diagnostics of Species from the Genus Cricotopus (Chironomidae, Diptera). Caryologia. 29. 3. 291–306. 10.1080/00087114.1976.10796669. free.
8. Körner WH . 1952. Untersuchungen über die Gehäusebildung bei Appendicularien (Oikopleura dioica Fol). Zeitschrift für Morphologie und Ökologie der Tiere. 41. 1. 1–53. 43261846. 10.1007/BF00407623. 19101198.
9. Book: Giannelli F, Hall JC, Dunlap JC, Friedmann T . Advances in Genetics, Volume 41 (Advances in Genetics) . Academic Press . Boston . 1999 . 2 . 978-0-12-017641-0 .
10. Wang W, Lan H . Rapid and parallel chromosomal number reductions in muntjac deer inferred from mitochondrial DNA phylogeny . Molecular Biology and Evolution . 17 . 9 . 1326–33 . September 2000 . 10958849 . 10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a026416 . free .
11. Wurster DH, Benirschke K . Indian muntjac, Muntiacus muntjak: a deer with a low diploid chromosome number . Science . 168 . 3937 . 1364–6 . June 1970 . 5444269 . 10.1126/science.168.3937.1364 . 1970Sci...168.1364W . amp . 45371297 .
12. Web site: Drosophila Genome Project. National Center for Biotechnology Information. 2009-04-14.
13. Zadesenets KS, Vizoso DB, Schlatter A, Konopatskaia ID, Berezikov E, Schärer L, Rubtsov NB . Evidence for Karyotype Polymorphism in the Free-Living Flatworm, Macrostomum lignano, a Model Organism for Evolutionary and Developmental Biology . PLOS ONE . 11 . 10 . e0164915 . 2016 . 27755577 . 5068713 . 10.1371/journal.pone.0164915 . 2016PLoSO..1164915Z . free .
14. Plant & Cell Physiology. 10.1093/pcp/pcv192. Marchantia polymorpha: Taxonomy, Phylogeny and Morphology of a Model System. 2016. Shimamura. Masaki. 57. 2. 230–256. 26657892. free.
15. Toder R, O'Neill RJ, Wienberg J, O'Brien PC, Voullaire L, Marshall-Graves JA . Comparative chromosome painting between two marsupials: origins of an XX/XY1Y2 sex chromosome system . Mammalian Genome . 8 . 6 . 418–22 . June 1997 . 9166586 . 10.1007/s003359900459 . 12515691 .
16. Leach CR, Donald TM, Franks TK, Spiniello SS, Hanrahan CF, Timmis JN . Organisation and origin of a B chromosome centromeric sequence from Brachycome dichromosomatica . Chromosoma . 103 . 10 . 708–14 . July 1995 . 7664618 . 10.1007/BF00344232 . 12246995 .
17. Fujito S, Takahata S, Suzuki R, Hoshino Y, Ohmido N, Onodera Y . Evidence for a Common Origin of Homomorphic and Heteromorphic Sex Chromosomes in Distinct Spinacia Species . G3 . 5 . 8 . 1663–73 . June 2015 . 26048564 . 4528323 . 10.1534/g3.115.018671 .
18. Patlolla AK, Berry A, May L, Tchounwou PB . Genotoxicity of silver nanoparticles in Vicia faba: a pilot study on the environmental monitoring of nanoparticles . International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health . 9 . 5 . 1649–62 . May 2012 . 22754463 . 3386578 . 10.3390/ijerph9051649 . free .
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