The monarchs of Iran were the rulers of the various states and civilizations in Iran (Persia) from antiquity until the abolition of the Iranian monarchy in the Iranian Revolution (1979).
The earliest Iranian empire is generally considered to have been either the Median (727–550 BC) or succeeding Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC) After Alexander the Great's conquest of the Achaemenid Empire (beginning in 334 BC and mostly complete by 330 BC), much of Iran was under Hellenistic rule for two centuries, primarily under the Seleucid Empire (305–129 BC). Native Iranian rule was revived with the establishment of the Parthian Empire (247 BC–224 AD). The Parthians were succeeded by the Sasanian Empire (224 AD –651 AD), which ruled Iran until the Muslim conquest.
Medieval Iran was alternated between being ruled by large foreign empires and being divided into several smaller kingdoms. Most of the Sasanian lands were initially incorporated in the Rashidun Caliphate (633–661), as well as the succeeding Umayyad (661–750) and Abbasid (750–1258) caliphates. Diminishing authority of the caliphs led to the Iranian Intermezzo, when various Iranian warlords established their own dynasties and kingdoms, some of which revived Sasanian royal iconography and ideology. In the eleventh century, Iran was conquered by the Turkic (though culturally Persianate) Seljuk Empire (1038–1194), which was followed by succeeding conquests by various Persianate Turkic and Mongolian conquerors, most notably the Khwarazmian (1077–1220), Mongol (1220–1259), and Timurid (1370–1458) empires.
Native Iranian political unity was restored in 1501 through the Safavid Empire (1501–1722). The collapse of the Safavid Empire led to an intermediate period of turmoil, with rule contested between Safavid dynasts as well as the Hotak dynasty (1722–1729). Nader Shah replaced these with the Afsharid Empire (1736–1796), but after his assassination in 1747 the Afsharids competed with the Zand (1751–1794) dynasty under Karim Khan Zand and his successors for supremacy. Iran was reunified by the Qajar dynasty (1789–1925), which was followed by the Pahlavi dynasty (1925–1979), the last imperial dynasty of Iran. Since the revolution in 1979, Iran has been ruled by theocratic supreme leaders.
See also: Median dynasty and Medes. The Median dynasty is traditionally considered to have ruled the earliest Iranian state. Whether the Medes ruled an imperial state or merely a loose tribal confederation is disputed among historians. Median history is reconstructed almost solely through ancient Greek sources (particularly Herodotus) and disregards Near Eastern sources, which are fragmentary and do not support the existence of a unified Median Empire. There is also no material or textual evidence left behind by the supposed empire itself. The chronology and names of the Median kings mainly derives from the work of Herodotus.
No ruling title is securely attested for the Median rulers. They might have used the title xšāyaθiya xšāyaθiyānām ("King of Kings"). Ecbatana was the Median capital.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Deioces | 727–675 BC (c. 52 years) | First king of the Medes according to Herodotus. Perhaps elected by popular assembly. | ||
| Phraortes | c. 674–653 BC (c. 21 years) | Son of Deioces | ||
| Interregnum c. 652 – 625 BC. The Medes were invaded by Scythians, perhaps under a ruler named Madyes, who established some form of hegemony. The Scythian rulers were defeated by Cyaxares after about three decades, restoring the Medes to their previous power. | ||||
| Cyaxares | c. 624–585 BC (c. 39 years) | Son of Phraortes | ||
| Astyages | c. 584–550 BC (c. 34 years) | Son of Cyaxares | ||
| Portrait | Name | Tenure | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Phraortes II | 521 BC (less than a year) | Rebel in Media against Darius I of the Achaemenid Empire. Claimed kinship with Cyaxares. | ||
| Tritantaechmes | 521 BC (less than a year) | Rebel in Sagartia against Darius I of the Achaemenid Empire. Claimed kinship with Cyaxares. |
See also: Achaemenid dynasty and Achaemenid Empire. The Achaemenid dynasty originated as local rulers of Anshan under Median suzerainty. They are attributed various ancestors in later legends, including an eponymous figure called "Achaemenes". The earliest securely historical Achaemenid ruler is Cyrus I, king of Anshan in the second half of the seventh century BC. The Achaemenids united all Persian tribes under Cyrus I's son Cambyses I. Under Cambyses I's son, Cyrus II, the Achaemenids defeated the Medes and established the Achaemenid Empire, the largest ever Iranian state.
The standard title used by Achaemenid rulers in Iran from Cyrus II onwards was xšāyaθiya xšāyaθiyānām, xšāyaθiya dahyūnām ("King of Kings, King of the Lands"). The royal title varied in other parts of the empire. The Achaemenids had several royal cities, including Pasargadae, Susa, Ecbatana, Babylon, Bactra, and Persepolis.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cyrus I | c. 620–590 BC (c. 30 years) | Earliest historical Achaemenid ruler | ||
| Cambyses I | c. 590–559 BC (c. 31 years) | Son of Cyrus I | ||
| Cyrus II | c. 559–550 BC (c. 9 years) | Son of Cambyses I |
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cyrus II the Great | c. 550 – November (?) 530 BC (c. 20 years) | Defeated Astyages and captured Ecbatana c. 550 BC. Married Amytis, daughter of Astyages, according to ancient Greek historians. | ||
| Cambyses II | August 530 – July 522 BC | Son of Cyrus II | ||
| Bardiya | 1 July – 29 September 522 BC | Son of Cyrus II (possibly an impostor). Revolted against Cambyses on 11 March 522 BC and proclaimed himself ruler on 1 July. | ||
| Darius I the Great | 29 September 522 – October 486 BC | Claimed descent from Teispes (supposed father of Cyrus I). Seized the throne from Bardiya. | ||
| Xerxes I the Great | October 486 – August 465 BC | Son of Darius I and Atossa (daughter of Cyrus II) | ||
| Artaxerxes I Longimanus | August 465 – c. December 424 BC (c. 41 years and 4 months) | Son of Xerxes I | ||
| Xerxes II | c. December 424 – c. January 423 BC (45 days) | Son of Artaxerxes I | ||
| Sogdianus | c. January – February 423 BC (c. 1 month) | Illegitimate son of Artaxerxes I. Seized the throne from Xerxes II. | ||
| Darius II (Ochus) | February 423 – March 404 BC | Illegitimate son of Artaxerxes I. Seized the throne from Sogdianus. | ||
| Artaxerxes II (Arsakes) | March 404 – spring (?) 358 BC (46 years) | Son of Darius II | ||
| Artaxerxes III (Ochus) | Spring (?) 358 – September (?) 338 BC (20 years) | Son of Artaxerxes II | ||
| Artaxerxes IV (Arses) | September (?) 338 – June 336 BC (2 years) | Son of Artaxerxes III | ||
| Darius III (Artashata) | June 336 – July 330 BC (6 years) | Great-grandson of Artaxerxes II |
See also: Hellenistic period.
See also: Argead dynasty. The Achaemenid Empire was defeated and conquered by Alexander the Great, king of Macedonia, in 331–329 BC. After Alexander's death in 323 BC, the Wars of the Diadochi broke out between his successors, leading to the rapid disintegration of the empire.
Alexander did not assume the former Achaemenid royal title of 'King of Kings'. His main royal title, appearing on coins intended for his Asian territories, was instead basileus ("king"). To mark his rule over the Achaemenid territories he also sometimes used the new title "Lord of Asia" (sometimes "King of Asia"). The only royal title recorded for Alexander's two immediate heirs is basileus. Alexander ruled his empire from Babylon and planned to establish Babylon and Alexandria in Egypt as the twin imperial capitals. From 319 BC onwards, Alexander's heirs resided in Macedonia while the regency in Asia was contested by several generals.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Alexander the Great | 1 October 331 – 10/11 June 323 BC (7 years, 8 months and 10/11 days) | Conquered the Achaemenid Empire | ||
| Philip Arrhidaeus | June 323 – late 317 BC (6 years) | Brother of Alexander the Great | ||
| Alexander Aegus | August 323 – 309 BC (305 BC) (14 years, recognized for 18 years) | Son of Alexander the Great |
See also: Seleucid dynasty and Seleucid Empire. The main Hellenistic successors of Alexander's empire in Iran were the Seleucids, descendants of the Macedonian general Seleucus I Nicator and the Iranian noblewoman Apama. Seleucus seized most of the east, including Babylonia, in the Wars of the Diadochi and was firmly in control in the region from 312 BC onwards. After Alexander IV's death became public knowledge in 305 BC, Seleucus proclaimed himself king.
The main royal title used by the Seleucids was basileus, as was the case for the other Macedonian successor kingdoms (such as the Ptolemaic Kingdom). Only two Seleucid rulers (Antiochus III, 223–187 BC, and Antiochus VII, 139–129 BC) used the greater megas basileus ('Great King'), the style applied to Achaemenid kings in ancient Greek sources. The Seleucids at first ruled from Seleucia in Mesopotamia, though Antioch was soon made the main capital.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Seleucus I Nicator | 305 – September 280 BC (25 years) | Former general under Alexander the Great. Held most of the east of his empire from 312 BC onwards and proclaimed king in 305 BC. | ||
| Antiochus I Soter | September 280 – 261 BC (19 years) | Son of Seleucus I | ||
| Antiochus II Theos | 261–246 BC (15 years) | Son of Antiochus I | ||
| Seleucus II Callinicus | 246–226 BC (20 years) | Son of Antiochus II | ||
| Seleucus III Ceraunus | 226–223 BC (3 years) | Son of Seleucus II | ||
| Antiochus III the Great | 223–187 BC (36 years) | Son of Seleucus II | ||
| Seleucus IV Philopator | 187–175 BC (12 years) | Son of Antiochus III | ||
| Antiochus IV Epiphanes | 175 – late 164 BC (11 years) | Son of Antiochus III | ||
| Antiochus V Eupator | Late 164 – 162 BC (2 years) | Son of Antiochus IV | ||
| Demetrius I Soter | 162–150 BC (12 years) | Son of Seleucus IV. Overthrew Antiochus IV. | ||
| Alexander Balas | 152–145 BC (7 years) | Alleged son of Antiochus IV. Rival king against Demetrius I, supported by the Roman Empire. | ||
| Antiochus VI Dionysus | 145–142 BC (3 years) | Son of Alexander Balas | ||
| Demetrius II Nicator | 147–139 BC (8 years) | Son of Demetrius I. Revolted against Alexander Balas with support from the Ptolemaic Kingdom. Sole king after Antiochus VI's death. | ||
| Antiochus VII Sidetes | 139–129 BC (10 years) | Son of Demetrius I |
See also: Parthian Empire and List of monarchs of Parthia. The Arsacids of Parthia, initially Seleucid vassals, originated as leaders of the Iranian Parni tribe in the northeastern steppes. The Parthians gradually challenged Seleucid rule over Iran. Parthian control of Iran was secured through the c. 142 BC conquest of Babylonia. Although fighting continued for years, the death of Antiochus VII Sidetes in 129 BC effectively marked the collapse of the Seleucid Empire, which then lingered on as a rump state in Syria until conquered by the Roman Empire in the 60s BC.
The Parthians presented themselves as heirs of the Achaemenids, though ruled a much more decentralized state. Greek inscriptions were used on Parthian coins until the time of Vologases I (AD 51–78). Early Parthian rulers used the name of their dynastic founder (Arsaces) as a title. Their coins also have the legend krny (probably short for autokrator, i.e. autocrat or sole ruler). From the conquest of Babylonia onwards, rulers used basileus megas ('Great King'). Mithridates II (123–91 BC) adopted the Achaemenid 'King of Kings' (rendered in Greek as basileus basileon). After him, this title was used only by Mithridates IV (57–54 BC) and Orodes II (57–37 BC) before becoming a standard part of the Parthian title from the time of Phraates IV (26–2 BC) onwards. The title was used in its Persian form (šāhān šāh) after Greek ceased being used. The first Parthian capital was at Nisa in Parthia. In 217 BC, the capital was moved to Qumis and in 50 BC a multi-capital system was established, with royal residences at Ctesiphon, Ecbatana, and Ray.
This list omits rival kings and claimants. Because of poor source material there are alternate chronologies, genealogies, and enumerations of Parthian rulers, with some differences. See the list of monarchs of Parthia.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Arsaces I | c. 250/247–217 BC (30–33 years) | Conquered Parthia from the Seleucid satrap Andragoras | ||
| Arsaces II | c. 217–191 BC (26 years) | Son of Arsaces I | ||
| Priapatius | c. 191–176 BC (15 years) | Grandson of a brother of Arsaces I | ||
| Phraates I | c. 176–171 BC (5 years) | Son of Priapatius | ||
| Mithridates I | c. 171–142 BC (29 years) | Son of Priapatius |
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mithridates I the Great | c. 142–132 BC (c. 10 years) | Established Parthia as an empire. Conquered the Iranian plateau in the 160s BC, followed by conquests of Babylonia (142 BC), Media (141 BC), and Persis (139 BC). | ||
| Phraates II | c. 132–127 BC (5 years) | Son of Mithridates I | ||
| Artabanus I | c. 127–124/123 BC (3–4 years) | Son of Priapatius (and brother of Mithridates I) | ||
| Mithridates II the Great | c. 123–91 BC (c. 32 years) | Son of Artabanus I | ||
| Gotarzes I | 91–87(?) BC (c. 4 years) | Son of Priapatius (and brother of Mithridates I and Artabanus I) | ||
| Orodes I | 87–79(?) BC (c. 8 years) | Son of Gotarzes I or Mithridates II (?) | ||
| Sinatruces | c. 78–70 BC (c. 8 years) | Son of Mithridates I, previously a rival claimant c. 91–88 BC | ||
| Phraates III | 70–57 BC (13 years) | Son of Sinatruces | ||
| Mithridates III | 57–54 BC (3 years) | Son of Phraates III. Co-ruler with his brother Orodes II until killed in 54 BC. | ||
| Orodes II | 57–37 BC (20 years) | Son of Phraates III | ||
| Phraates IV | 37–32(?) BC (1st reign) (5 years?) | Son of Orodes II | ||
| Tiridates | 32–31(?) BC (1st reign) (1 year?) | Part of the Arsacid dynasty but of unclear lineage | ||
| Phraates IV | 31–28(?) BC (2nd reign) (3 years?) | Retook the throne | ||
| Tiridates | 28–26(?) BC (2nd reign) (2 years?) | Retook the throne | ||
| Phraates IV | 26(?)–2 BC (3rd reign) (24 years?) | Retook the throne | ||
| Phraates V | 2 BC – AD 4(?) (6 years?) | Son of Phraates IV, co-ruler with Musa | ||
| Musa | 2 BC – AD 4(?) (6 years?) | Widow of Phraates IV, co-ruler with Phraates V. First of only four women to rule in Iranian history. | ||
| Orodes III | 4(?)–6/7 (2/3 years?) | Part of the Arsacid dynasty but of unclear lineage | ||
| Vonones I | 6/7–11/12 (4–6 years) | Son of Phraates IV, nominated as king by the Roman Empire | ||
| Artabanus II | 11/12–38 (26/27 years) | Cousin of Vonones | ||
| Gotarzes II | 38–51 (13 years) | Son of Artabanus (?) | ||
| Vardanes | 39–45/46 (6/7 years) | Son of Artabanus (?). Rival and later co-ruler of the empire with Gotarzes. | ||
| Vonones II | 51 (briefly) | Part of the Arsacid dynasty but of unclear lineage | ||
| Vologases I | 51–78 (27 years) | Son of Vardanes | ||
| Pacorus | 78–79 (1st reign) (1 year) | Son of Vologases I | ||
| Artabanus III | 79–81 (2 years) | Son or brother of Vologases I | ||
| Pacorus | 81–115 (2nd reign) (34 years) | Retook the throne | ||
| Vologases II | 115–116 (1 year) | Son of Pacorus | ||
| Parthamaspates | 116–117 (1 year) | Grandson of Pacorus, installed as king by the Roman Empire | ||
| Osroes | 117–128 (11 years) | Son of Pacorus and father of Parthamaspates | ||
| Mithridates IV | 128–148 (20 years) | Part of the Arsacid dynasty but of unclear lineage | ||
| Vologases III | 148–191 (43 years) | Son of Mithridates IV | ||
| Vologases IV | 191–207 (16 years) | Son of Vologases III | ||
| Vologases V | 207–213 (6 years) | Son of Vologases IV. Possibly still in control of some parts of the empire by 228. | ||
| Artabanus IV | 213–224 (11 years) | Son of Vologases IV. Fought with Vologases V over control of the empire. |
See also: Sasanian dynasty, Sasanian Empire and List of monarchs of the Sasanian Empire. The Sasanian dynasty originated as kings of Persis, a Parthian vassal kingdom, and claimed Achaemenid descent. In 224–226, the Sasanian dynast Ardashir I led a revolt against the Parthians, weakened in a recent civil war, and took control of the empire. Ardashir presented himself as a restorer of both regional unity and Achaemenid glory. The Sasanian Empire was a significantly more militarily powerful, centralized, and aggressive state than the Parthian Empire and was also marked by a state-backed and less heterodox form of the Zoroastrian religion.
Sasanian kings continued to use the title šāhān šāh ('King of Kings'). The title was extended by Ardashir to šāhān šāh ērān ('King of Kings of Iran') and extended again by his son Shapur I (240–270) to šāhān šāh ērān ud anērān ('King of Kings of Iran and non-Iran'). Sasanian queens ruled with the title bānbišnān bānbišn ērān ud anērān ('Queen of Queens of Iran and non-Iran'). Ctesiphon was the capital of the Sasanian Empire.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ardashir I the Unifier | 224 – May 240 (16 years) | Defeated Artabanus IV and took control of the empire | ||
| Shapur I | May 240 – May 270 (30 years) | Son of Ardashir I | ||
| Hormizd I | May 270 – June 271 (1 year and 1 month) | Son of Shapur I | ||
| Bahram I | June 271 – 274 (3 years) | Son of Shapur I | ||
| Bahram II | 274–293 (19 years) | Son of Bahram I | ||
| Bahram III | 293 (4 months) | Son or cousin of Bahram II | ||
| Narseh | 293–302 (9 years) | Son of Shapur I | ||
| Hormizd II | 303–309/310 (6/7 years) | Son of Narseh | ||
| Adur Narseh (Narseh II) | 309/310 (briefly) | Son of Hormizd II | ||
| Shapur II the Great | 310–379 (69 years) | Son of Hormizd II, acclaimed ruler at birth. The longest-reigning Iranian monarch. | ||
| Ardashir II the Beneficent | 379–383 (4 years) | Son of Hormizd II | ||
| Shapur III | 383–388 (5 years) | Son of Shapur II | ||
| Bahram IV | 388–399 (11 years) | Son of Shapur II | ||
| Yazdegerd I the Sinner | 399–420 (21 years) | Son of Shapur III | ||
| Shapur IV | 420 (briefly) | Son of Yazdegerd I | ||
| Khosrow (I) | 420 (briefly) | Son of Bahram IV | ||
| Bahram V the Onager | 420–438 (18 years) | Son of Yazdegerd I | ||
| Yazdegerd II | 438–457 (19 years) | Son of Bahram V | ||
| Hormizd III | 457 (briefly) | Son of Yazdegerd II | ||
| Peroz I | 457–484 (27 years) | Son of Yazdegerd II | ||
| Balash | 484–488 (4 years) | Son of Yazdegerd II | ||
| Kavad I | 488–497 (1st reign) (9 years) | Son of Peroz | ||
| Jamasp | 497–499 (2 years) | Son of Peroz | ||
| Kavad I | 499–531 (2nd reign) (32 years) | Restored to the throne with Hepthalite support | ||
| Khosrow I Anushirvan ("the Immortal Soul") | 531–579 (48 years) | Son of Kavad I | ||
| Hormizd IV | 579–590 (11 years) | Son of Khosrow I | ||
| Bahram VI Chobin | 590–591 (1 year) | General of Parthian descent (House of Mihran) | ||
| Khosrow II Parviz ("the Victorious") | June 590 – 28 February 628 | Son of Hormizd IV | ||
| Vistahm | 591–597 (6 years, usurper in the east) | General of Parthian descent (House of Ispahbudhan) and maternal uncle of Khosrow II. Rival king. | ||
| Kavad II | 28 February 628 – 628 (less than a year) | Son of Khosrow II, overthrew his father | ||
| Ardashir III | 628–630 (2 years) | Cousin or son of Kavad II | ||
| Shahrbaraz | 630 (less than a year) | General of Parthian descent (House of Mihran) | ||
| Khosrow III | 630 (less than a year) | Nephew of Khosrow II | ||
| Boran | 630 (less than a year) | Daughter of Khosrow II. Second of only four women to rule in Iranian history. | ||
| Shapur V | 630 (less than a year) | Son of Shahrbaraz | ||
| Azarmidokht | 630–631 (1 year) | Daughter of Khosrow II. Third of only four women to rule in Iranian history. | ||
| Farrukh Hormizd V | 631–632 (1 year) | General of Parthian descent (House of Ispahbudhan). Attempted to seize the throne after Azarmidokht declined his marriage proposal. | ||
| Hormizd VI | 630–632 (2 years, usurper in Nisibis) | Grandson of Khosow II. Proclaimed ruler by the Sasanian troops stationed at Nisibis. | ||
| Khosrow IV | 632 (less than a year) | Great-nephew of Hormizd IV | ||
| Peroz II | 632–632/633 (1 year?) | Brother of Khosrow IV | ||
| Farrukhzad Khosrow V | 632/633–c. 633 (1 year?) | Brother of Hormizd V | ||
| Yazdegerd III | c. 633–651 (c. 18 years) | Grandson of Khosrow II |
| Portrait | Name | Tenure | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Peroz III | 651–678/679 (27/28 years) | Son of Yazdegerd III, lived in exile in China (Tang dynasty) and led Iranian resistance against the Arabs. Recognized by the Tang dynasty as "king of Persia". Ruled a Tang-supported Iranian kingdom in Sistan or Tokharistan 661–674. | ||
| Narsieh (Narseh III) | 678/679–after 708/709 (over 20 years) | Son and successor of Peroz III. Crowned by the Chinese general Pei Xingjian and placed in charge of Tokharistan. Narsieh defended the region for twenty years until defeated by the Arabs in 708/709, whereafter he returned to China. | ||
| Bó Qiāng Huó | 723 | Son of Narsieh. Recorded in Chinese sources as "king of Persia" and as being active in Tokharistan against the Arabs in 723. | ||
| Mù Shānuò | 726–731 | Recorded in Chinese sources as "king of Persia" and as being active in Tokharistan against the Arabs in 726 and 731. Names of Sasanian claimants disappear from Chinese sources after 731. |
See also: Islamic dynasties of Iran. The fall of the Sasanian Empire in 651 was followed by nearly a millennium without Iranian political unity, until the rise of the Safavid Empire in 1501. In the intervening period, the territories formerly part of the ancient Iranian empires were variously subjected to larger foreign empires or divided into several smaller political units. Although no unified Iranian state existed, shared Iranian identity, culture, and language continued to survive and develop throughout the Middle Ages.
The medieval dynasties and kingdoms featured in this list follow a 2012 list of Iranian ruling dynasties by the Iranologist Touraj Daryaee.
See also: Iran during the Caliphate and List of caliphs.
See also: Rashidun Caliphate. The Muslim conquest of Persia began when the armies of the Rashidun Caliphate attacked parts of Sasanian Asoristan in 633. In 637/638, the Sasanians lost Mesopotamia and Persia itself was conquered in 640–650. By the time of Yazdegerd III's death in 651, the Sasanians only retained Bactria. Following the Muslim victory, the Sasanian Empire was dissolved and Iran came under the direct rule of the Islamic caliphs. Although the caliphs implemented forms of ethnic stratification that discriminated against Iranians and their culture, particularly during the later Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), they also adopted much of the old Sasanian administrative model to govern their empire.
The style of the caliphs was amīr al-mu'minīn ("commander of the faithful"). An additional title, khalīfat Allāh ("deputy of God"), was also introduced beginning with Uthman (644–656). The caliphate was initially ruled from Medina. Under Ali, the capital was transferred to Kufa in Iraq.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Umar | 637/638 – 3 November 644 (6/7 years) | Second Islamic caliph. Oversaw the initial Muslim conquest of Persia. | ||
| Uthman | 3 November 644 – 17 June 656 | Chosen by tribal acclamation. Challenged by Ali. | ||
| Ali | 18 June 656 – 28 January 661 | Caliph after Uthman's assassination. Challenged by Mu'awiya. | ||
| Hasan | 28 January – August 661 | Son of Ali and grandson of Muhammad. Challenged by Mu'awiya. |
See also: Umayyad Caliphate. The Umayyad Caliphate was established by Mu'awiya I, governor of Syria under the Rashidun caliphs. Mu'awiya opposed the acclamations of Ali and Hasan as caliphs, leading to the civil war known as the First Fitna (656–661). Mu'awiya was victorious and became undisputed caliph after Hasan relinquished his claims.
Umayyad caliphs continued to use the styles amīr al-mu'minīn and khalīfat Allāh. The Umayyad Caliphate was ruled from Damascus, though the capital was briefly transferred to Harran under the last caliph, Marwan II.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mu'awiya I | July/August 661 – April/May 680 (18 years and 9 months) | Seized power in the First Fitna | ||
| Yazid I | April/May 680 – 11 November 683 (3 years and 6 or 7 months) | Son of Mu'awiya I | ||
| Mu'awiya II | 11 November 683 – 22 June 684 | Son of Yazid I | ||
| Marwan I | 22 June 684 – 7 May 685 | Cousin of Mu'awiya I | ||
| Abd al-Malik | 7 May 685 – 8 October 705 | Son of Marwan I | ||
| al-Walid I | 8 October 705 – 25 February 715 | Son of Abd al-Malik | ||
| Sulayman | 25 February 715 – 22 September 717 | Son of Abd al-Malik | ||
| Umar II | 22 September 717 – 5 February 720 | Son of Marwan I | ||
| Yazid II | 5 February 720 – 28 January 724 | Son of Abd al-Malik | ||
| Hisham | 28 January 724 – 6 February 743 | Son of Abd al-Malik | ||
| al-Walid II | 6 February 743 – 16 April 744 | Son of Yazid II | ||
| Yazid III | 16 April – 20 September 744 | Son of al-Walid I | ||
| Ibrahim | 20 September – 25 November 744 | Son of al-Walid I | ||
| Marwan II | 25 November 744 – 750 (c. 6 years) | Grandson of Marwan I |
See also: Abbasid Caliphate. Because Mu'awiya took power in civil war, the rights of his and his descendants to the caliphate was long questioned. Anti-Umayyad insurrections were to a large degree supported by non-Arab converts to Islam (especially Iranians) who were resentful over being relegated to lower social standing. In 747–750, one of these insurrections grew into the Abbasid revolution, in which the Umayyads were replaced with the Abbasids, descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas.
Abbasid caliphs continued to use the styles amīr al-mu'minīn and khalīfat Allāh. The Abbasid Caliphate was ruled from Kufa, until the capital was transferred to the newly-founded Baghdad in 762.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| al-Saffah | 6 November 749 – 9 June 754 | Seized power in the Abbasid revolution | ||
| al-Mansur | 9 June 754 – 7 October 775 | Brother of al-Saffrah | ||
| al-Mahdi | 7 October 775 – 4 August 785 | Son of al-Mansur | ||
| al-Hadi | 4 August 785 – 15 September 786 | Son of al-Mahdi | ||
| Harun al-Rashid | 15 September 786 – 24 March 809 | Son of al-Mahdi | ||
| al-Amin | 24 March 809 – 27 September 813 | Son of Harun al-Rashid | ||
| al-Ma'mun | 27 September 813 – 7 August 833 | Son of Harun al-Rashid | ||
| al-Mu'tasim | 7 August 833 – 5 January 842 | Son of Harun al-Rashid | ||
| al-Wathiq | 5 January 842 – 10 August 847 | Son of al-Mu'tasim | ||
| al-Mutawakkil | 10 August 847 – 11 December 861 | Son of al-Mu'tasim. Regarded as the last Abbasid caliph wielding major political power. |
See also: Iranian Intermezzo. The political authority of the Abbasid caliphs diminished over the course of the ninth and tenth centuries. In Iran, this led to the establishment of several independent Iranian dynasties, the ousting of Arabs from their scattered bastions across the country, and an Iranian cultural renaissance. The period between the collapse of Abbasid authority and the conquest of Iran by the Seljuk Turks in the eleventh century is referred to as the "Iranian Intermezzo".
The Iranian Intermezzo saw the rise and fall of several major and minor dynasties. This list only includes major dynasties. Both Daryaee (2012) and Mahendrarajah (2019) list the major dynasties of the period as the Tahirids, Saffarids, Ziyarids, Buyids, and Samanids. Daryaee also includes the Ghaznavids, omitted by Mahendrarajah.
See also: Tahirid dynasty. The Tahirids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers who governed Khorasan and much of the rest of Iran under the Abbasid caliphs. The Tahirids enjoyed considerable autonomy in practice but were not de jure independent; Tahirid rulers fully acknowledged that they were subordinate viceroys, were always deferential to the caliphs, and regularly forwarded tribute to Baghdad. The Tahirids claimed descent from the Iranian mythological hero Rostam.
As vassals of the Caliphate, the Tahirid rulers used the title amir. The Tahirids initially ruled from Merv. The capital was transferred to Nishapur under Abdallah.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tahir I | 821–822 (1 year) | Granted governorship of Khorasan by Caliph al-Ma'mun for his service in the Fourth Fitna | ||
| Talha | 822–828 (6 years) | Son of Tahir I | ||
| Abdallah | 828–845 (17 years) | Son of Tahir I | ||
| Tahir II | 845–862 (17 years) | Son of Abdallah | ||
| Muhammad | 862–873 (11 years) | Son of Tahir II |
See also: Saffarid dynasty. The Saffarids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers who at their height ruled much of Iran, and at times even reached into modern-day Iraq, from their base of power in Sistan. Although the dynastic founder Ya'qub (867–879) claimed Sasanian descent, the Saffarid dynasty originated as local ruffians and their power was attained solely through military might. The Saffarid state expanded aggressively under the rule of Ya'qub and Amr I (879–901), under which the Tahirids were defeated and the Abbasid Caliphate was forced to confirm Saffarid control over various Iranian territories.
Since they were nominally Abbasid subordinates, Saffarid rulers used the title amir. Zaranj served as the Saffarid capital.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ya'qub | 867–879 (1 year) | Local ruffian who established control over Sistan, Khorasan, and beyond | ||
| Amr I | 879–901 (6 years) | Brother of Ya'qub | ||
| Tahir | 901–909 (17 years) | Grandson of Amr I | ||
| al-Layth | 909–910 (1 year) | Nephew of Ya'qub and Amr I | ||
| Muhammad | 910–911 (1 year) | Brother of al-Layth | ||
| al-Mu'addal | 911 (less than a year) | Brother of al-Layth | ||
| Amr II | 912–913 (1 year) | Great-grandson of Amr I | ||
| Interregnum 913–923: occupation by the Samanids. | ||||
| Ahmad | 923–963 (40 years) | Married to a granddaughter of Amr I | ||
| Khalaf | 963–1002 (39 years) | Son of Ahmad | ||
See also: Ziyarid dynasty. The Ziyarids were a dynasty of Iranian rulers established in northern Iran by Mardavij, a local mountain chief and mercenary who created an extensive kingdom in the late 920s and early 930s. Mardavij claimed descent from local pre-Islamic nobility and aspired to capture Baghdad, overthrow the Abbasids, and restore both the pre-651 empire as well as the Zoroastrian religion. These aspirations came to an end with Mardavij's murder by his Turkic military slaves in 934/935. Most of the Ziyarid realm was lost, except for territories surrounding the Caspian Sea, inherited by Mardavij's Islamic relatives.
Mardavij may have revived the Sasanian ruling title šāhānšāh ('King of Kings') since later Buyid writers attribute the title to him. Later Ziyarid rulers used the title amir. The Ziyarids went through a succession of capitals in northern Iran, including Ray, Amol, and Gorgan.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mardavij | 927/928–934/935 (7 years) | Mountain chief and mercenary who took control of much of northern Iran | ||
| Vushmgir | 934/935–966/967 (32 years) | Brother of Mardavij | ||
| Bisutun | 966/967–977/978 (11 years) | Son of Vushmgir | ||
| Qabus | 977/978–1012/1013 (in exile 981–998) (35 years) | Son of Vushmgir | ||
| Manuchihr | 1012/1013–1029/1030 (17 years) | Son of Qabus | ||
| Anushirvan | 1029/1030–1049/1050 (20 years) | Son of Manuchihr | ||
| Keikavus | 1049/1050–? | Cousin of Anushirvan | ||
| Gilanshah | ?–1090/1091 | Son of Keikavus |
See also: Buyid dynasty. The Buyids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers established by three brothers who had served under Mardavij (the first Ziyarid ruler). After Mardavij's murder, the three carved out their own realm out of the southern Ziyarid territories. The Buyid state was composed of three principalities ruled by three branches of the family, sometimes with divergent goals, rather than a unified realm. The Buyids came to dominate much of Iran, a development that culminated in 945 with the capture of Baghdad and domination of the caliph himself. The Buyid dynasty claimed descent from the Sasanian king Bahram V (420–438), almost certainly a forgery.
Individual Buyid rulers were styled as amir. The senior of the three was also invested by the caliph with the grander title amīr al-omarāʾ ("great emir"). The Buyid emirates were transformed into something akin to a restored Iranian monarchy under Rukn al-Dawla and his son 'Adud al-Dawla, who also reintroduced the Sasanian royal title šāhānšāh ('King of Kings'). This title continued to be sporadically claimed by Buyid dynasts.
This list records only the 'main branch' of Buyid rulers, per Daryaee (2012). For a full list of major and minor Buyid rulers, see Buyid dynasty § Buyid rulers.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Imad al-Dawla (Ali) | 933/934–949/950 (16 years, Fars) | Son of a Daylamite chief. Seized power in the southern territories of the Ziyarid state. | ||
| Mu'izz al-Dawla (Ahmad) | 935/936–949/950 (14 years, Kerman then Iraq) | Brother (and coregent) of Imad al-Dawla | ||
| Rukn al-Dawla (Hasan) | 946/947 – 16 September 976 (29–30 years, Ray) | Brother (and coregent) of Imad al-Dawla | ||
| 'Adud al-Dawla (Panāh Khusraw) | 949/950 – 26 March 983 (33–34 years) | Son of Rukn al-Dawla | ||
| Sharaf al-Dawla (Shirdil) | March/April 983 – September/October 989 | Son of 'Adud al-Dawla | ||
| Samsam al-Dawla (Abu Kalijar Marzuban) | 989–998 (9 years) | Son of 'Adud al-Dawla | ||
| Baha al-Dawla (Abu Nasr Firuz) | 998–1012 (14 years) | Son of 'Adud al-Dawla | ||
| Sultan al-Dawla (Abu Shuja) | 1012–1024 (12 years) | Son of Baha al-Dawla | ||
| Abu Kalijar Marzuban | 1024–1048 (24 years) | Son of Sultan al-Dawla | ||
| Abu Mansur Fulad Sutun | 1048–1062 (14 years) | Son of Abu Kalijar Marzuban |
See also: Samanid Empire. The Samanids were a dynasty of Islamic Iranian rulers established by four brothers in 819, when they were granted four improtant cities and regions by the Abbasid Caliphate due to helping against the revolt of Rafi ibn al-Layth. In 875, the Samanids increased dramatically in power through investment as governors of Transoxiana and in 892, all Samanid-held territories were united under a single ruler (Ismail). Under Ismail, the Samanids became autonomous of the Abbasids. The Samanids claimed descent from Bahram VI Chobin (589–590).
Like other dynasties of their time, Samanid rulers used the title amir. Mansur I (961/962–976/977) assumed the style šāhānšāh ('King of Kings') as a response to the use of that title by the Buyids. Mansur I's son, Nuh II (976/977–997), also used šāhānšāh. The Samanid capital was at Samarkand (875–892) and then at Bukhara.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasr I | 875 – August/September 892 (17 years) | Appointed governor of Transoxiana by the Abbasid Caliphate in 875 | ||
| Ismail | August/September 892 – 24 November 907 (15 years and 2–3 months) | Brother of Nasr I | ||
| Ahmad the Martyred Amir | November/December 907 – 24 January 914 (6 years and 2–3 months) | Son of Ismail | ||
| Nasr II the Fortunate | January 914 – March/April 943 (29 years and 2–3 months) | Son of Ahmad | ||
| Nuh I | April/May 943 – 954/955 (11–12 years) | Son of Nasr II | ||
| Abd al-Malik I | 954/955–961/962 (8 years) | Son of Nuh I | ||
| Mansur I the Righteous Amir | 961/962–976/977 (15 years) | Son of Nuh I | ||
| Nuh II | 976/977 – 22 July 997 (10–11 years) | Son of Mansur I | ||
| Mansur II | July/August 997 – 1 February 999 (1 year and 6–7 months) | Son of Nuh II | ||
| Abd al-Malik II | February 999 – 999 (less than a year) | Son of Nuh II |
See also: Ghaznavids. The Ghaznavids were of Turkish slave origin. In the tenth century, Turkish slave commanders became increasingly prominent, and eventually effectively autonomous, in the southern parts of the Samanid realm. In 977, the commander Sabuktigin seized power in Ghazni, nominally as a Samanid vassal. Once the Samanids went into terminal decline and collapsed in the late tenth century, Sabuktigin's state became a fully independent realm. Although not Iranian, the Ghaznavid rulers nevertheless claimed descent from the Sasanian ruler Yazdegerd III (c. 633–651).
Sabuktigin ruled with the title al-ḥājeb al-ajall ("most noble commander"). From 999 onwards, the Ghaznavids ruled with the title sulṭān. Sabuktigin's capital, Ghazni, remained the Ghaznavid capital for the duration of their rule in Iran.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sabuktigin | 977/978–997/998 (20 years) | Seized power in Ghazni | ||
| Ismail | 997/998–998 (less than a year) | Son of Sabuktigin | ||
| Mahmud | 998 – 30 April 1030 (32 years) | Son of Sabuktigin | ||
| Muhammad | 1030 (briefly) | Son of Mahmud | ||
| Masʽud | 1030 – 23 May 1040 (10 years) | Son of Mahmud |
See also: Seljuk Empire, Seljuk dynasty and List of sultans of the Seljuk Empire. The Seljuk Empire was established by the Turkoman chieftain Tughril I, who invaded the Ghaznavids in the late 1030s. In 1040, the Seljuks conquered the Ghaznavid-held parts of Iran and over the following decades they established control over most of the Middle East, ending the Iranian Intermezzo. Though they were not of Iranian origin, the Seljuk rulers bolstered their legitimacy by claiming descent from Afrasiab, a legendary figure from the Shahnameh.
From the empire's inception, the Seljuk rulers minted coins with the title šāhānšāh ('King of Kings') in its Persian form, perhaps adopting it from the Buyids. Later on, the rulers more prominently used the Arabic title sulṭān and royal styles such as the Arabic malik and Persian šāh were bestowed on vassals. Šāhānšāh continued to be used on the majority of Seljuk coinage, sometimes in the new variant "šāhānšāh king of Islam". Nishapur served as the first capital of the Seljuk Empire. In 1143, the capital was moved to Ray and a few years later it was moved again to Isfahan. From 1118 onwards, the Seljuk regime became increasingle unstable and rival claimants used various bases of power, including Baghdad, Hamadan, and Merv.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tughril I | June/July 1138 – 4 September 1063 (25 years and 2–3 months) | Initiated the Seljuk conquest of Iran | ||
| Alp Arslan | 4 September 1063 – 15 December 1072 | Nephew of Tughril I | ||
| Malik-Shah I | 15 December 1072 – 14 October 1092 | Son of Alp Arslan | ||
| Mahmud I | 14 October 1092 – 1093 (c. 1 year) | Son of Malik-Shah I | ||
| Berkyaruq | October/November 1092 – 22 December 1104 (12 years and 1–2 months) | Son of Malik-Shah I | ||
| Malik-Shah II | 22 December 1104 – February/March 1105 (2–3 months) | Son of Berkyaruq | ||
| Muhammad I Tapar | February/March 1105 – 5 August 1118 (13 years and 5–6 months) | Son of Malik-Shah I | ||
| Mahmud II | 5 August 1118 – 11 September 1131 | Son of Muhammad I Tapar. Defeated by his uncle Ahmad Sanjar after eight months of rule, thereafter sultan only in Iraq. | ||
| Ahmad Sanjar | 1118 – 8 May 1157 (39 years) | Son of Malik-Shah I. Previously Seljuk ruler in Khorasan. | ||
| Dawud | December 1132/January 1133 (briefly) | Son of Mahmud II; sultan in Iraq | ||
| Tughril II | December 1132/January 1133 – October/November 1134 (1 year and 10 months) | Son of Muhammad I Tapar; sultan in Iraq | ||
| Mas'ud | October/November 1134 – 10 October 1152 (18 years) | Son of Muhammad I Tapar; sultan in Iraq | ||
| Malik-Shah III | October 1152 – December 1152/January 1153 (2–3 months) | Son of Mahmud II; sultan in Iraq | ||
| Muhammad II | December 1152/January 1153 – December 1159/January 1160 (7 years) | Son of Mahmud II; sultan in Iraq | ||
| Suleiman-Shah | 22 March – September/October 1160 (6–7 months) | Son of Muhammad I Tapar; sultan in Iraq | ||
| Arslan-Shah | September/October 1160 – January/February 1176 (15 years and 4 months) | Son of Tughril II; sultan in Iraq | ||
| Tughril III | January/February 1176 – 1194 (18 years) | Son of Arslan-Shah; sultan in Iraq |
See also: Khwarazmian Empire, Anushtegin dynasty and Khwarazmshah. The Seljuk Empire fractured after the death of Ahmad Sanjar in 1157 and its vassals became effectively independent. One of these vassals was the Anushtegin dynasty, which ruled the Khwarazm region. The ruling dynasty were descendants of Anushtegin Gharchai, a former Turkic slave of the Seljuq sultans. In 1194, the Khwarazmian ruler Tekish conquered western Iran and Iraq from the remnants of the Seljuk Empire.
The Khwarazmian rulers used the ancient title xwârazmšāh, traditionally held by Iranian rulers of Khwarazm. Urganj was the Khwarazmian capital.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Muhammad I | 1096/1097 – 1127/1128 (31 years) | Seljuk vassal in Khwarazm | ||
| Atsiz | 1127/1128 – 30 July 1156 (28–29 years) | Son of Muhammad I. Seljuk vassal. | ||
| Il-Arslan | 22 August 1156 – March 1172 (15 years and 7 months) | Son of Atsiz | ||
| Sultan Shah | 1172 – 11 December 1172 (less than a year) | Son of Il-Arslan. Deposed by Tekish, who he continued to oppose as a rival claimant until 1193. | ||
| Tekish | 11 December 1172 – 3 July 1200 | Son of Il-Arslan. Conquered western Iran and Iraq from the remnants of the Seljuk Empire in 1194. | ||
| Muhammad II | 3 August 1200 – 1220/1221 (20–21 years) | Son of Tekish |
See also: Mongol Empire, Borjigin and List of Mongol rulers. The Mongol Empire was established by Genghis Khan in 1206 through uniting the Mongol clans. The unification of the clans was followed by aggressive imperial expansion throughout Asia and parts of Europe. In the early thirteenth century, the Mongols under reached Iran. The region around Bukhara was conquered in 1220 and the Khwarazmian Empire was destroyed. Over the following decades, further conquests followed in the Middle East, culminating in the fall of Baghdad and end of the Abbasid Caliphate's rule there in 1258.
The rulers of the Mongol Empire used the ruling title khagan ('Great Khan' or 'emperor'). In the 1230s, the Mongol Empire established its capital at Karakorum in Mongolia.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Genghis Khan | 1220 – 25 August 1227 (7 years) | Founder of the Mongol Empire. Conquered the region around Bukhara in 1220, initiating Mongol rule in Iran. | ||
| Ögedei Khan | 13 September 1229 – 11 December 1241 | Son of Genghis | ||
| Güyük Khan | 24 August 1246 – April 1248 (1 year and 8 months) | Son of Ögedei | ||
| Möngke Khan | 2 May 1252 – 11 August 1259 | Grandson of Genghis |
See also: Ilkhanate, Borjigin and Division of the Mongol Empire. After the death of Möngke Khan, the Mongol Empire was fractured by civil war, both over the succession of the next Great Khan and between nomadic traditionalists and the new settled princes of China and the Middle East. Kublai Khan (1260–1294) was eventually universally recognized but the empire was irreversibly fragmented. In much of the south-west of the empire (including Iran), power fell to Hulegu Khan, who had been made a deputy there under Möngke Khan. Hulegu was swiftly accepted as a legitimate ruler in Iran and was further legitimized through a fatwa issued by the Shiite scholar Ali ibn Tawus al-Hilli. Iran experienced a cultural renaissance under Ilkhanid rule. Ghazan Khan (1295–1304) converted to Islam in the late thirteenth century, turning the state further away from the other Mongol realms.
The rulers of the Ilkhanate adopted the style ilkhan ("subordinate khan") to show deference to the Great Khan in China and Mongolia. From the time of Ghazan Khan onwards, they also used the title pādishāh-i Īrān ("emperor of Iran"), sometimes extended to pādishāh-i Īrān wa Islām ("emperor of Iran and Islam"). The version pādishāh-i Islām ("emperor of Islam") is also recorded. The Ilkhanate went through a succession of capitals, beginning with Maragheh (1256–1265), Tabriz (1265–1306), and Soltaniyeh (1306–1335). After the empire disintegrated in the 1330s, various claimants established different centers of power. The last ilkhan, Luqman, ruled from Astarabad under Timurid suzerainty.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hulegu Khan | 1256 – 8 February 1265 (9 years) | Grandson of Genghis Khan. Granted power in Iran under Möngke Khan. | ||
| Abaqa Khan | 8 February 1265 – 1 April 1282 | Son of Hulegu | ||
| Ahmad Tekuder | 1 April 1282 – 10 August 1284 | Son of Hulegu | ||
| Arghun Khan | 11 August 1284 – 10 March 1291 | Son of Abaqa | ||
| Gaykhatu | 10 March 1291 – 26 March 1295 | Son of Abaqa | ||
| Baydu | 26 March – summer? 1295 (a few months) | Grandson of Hulegu | ||
| Ghazan Khan | Summer? 1295 – 11 May 1304 (9 years) | Son of Arghun | ||
| Öljaitü | 11 May 1304 – 16 December 1316 | Son of Arghun | ||
| Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan | 16 December 1316 – 30 November 1335 | Son of Öljaitü | ||
| Musa Khan | 1335/1336–1336 (less than a year) | Grandson of Baydu | ||
| Arpa Khan | 1335–1336 (1 year) | Descendant of Tolui, the father of Hulegu | ||
| Muhammad Khan | 1336–1338 (2 years) | Great-great-great-grandson of Hulegu | ||
| Togha Temür | 1337–1353 (6 years) | Descendant of Qasar, a brother of Genghis Khan | ||
| Jahan Temür | 1338/1339–1340/1341 (2 years) | Grandson of Gaykhatu | ||
| Sati Beg | 1338/1339–1339/1340 (1 year) | Daughter of Öljaitü. Fourth and last of only four women to rule in Iranian history. | ||
| Suleiman Khan | 1339/1340 – 1343/1344 (4 years) | Great-great-grandson of Hulegu | ||
| Anushirwan Khan | 1344–1356 (12 years) | Unknown lineage | ||
| Ghazan II | 1356–1357 (1 year) | Son of Togha Temür | ||
| Luqman | 1356–1388 (32 years) | Son of Togha Temür. Puppet ruler under various warlords, including Amir Vali and later Timur. |
See also: Timurid Empire and Timurid dynasty. The Timurid Empire was established by Timur, a conqueror who claimed both Turkic and Mongol descent. Timur began as a minor brigand chief under the Chagatai Khanate. In the middle 1360s, Timur rose to become the effective ruler of Transoxiana. He went on to establish his seat of power in Khorasan and conquered most of Iran through campaigns in the 1380s and 1390s.
During his conquests, Timur made some effort to portray himself as the heir of the Ilkhanate, adopting the Ilkhanid title pādishāh-i Islām ("emperor of Islam"). Timur also used the style guregen ("son-in-law") to stress his marriage to Saray Mulk Khanum, a descendant of Genghis Khan. Pādishāh continued to be used by Timur's successors, who at times also adopted the style of sulṭān. Samarkand was the capital of the Timurid Empire.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Timur | 9 April 1370 – 18 February 1405 | Conquered Iran in the 1370s–1390s. | ||
| Pir Muhammad | February 1405 – 1407 (2 years) | Grandson of Timur and his designated heir. Ruler in Fars. | ||
| Khalil Sultan | February 1405 – 1409/1410 (4–5 years) | Grandson of Timur. Senior Timurid ruler and ruler of Persia. | ||
| Shah Rukh | February 1405 – 1446/1447 (41–42 years) | Son of Timur. Initially only ruler in Khorasan; ruler of the entire empire from 1415/1416 onwards. | ||
| Ulugh Beg | 1446/1447 – October/November 1449 (2–3 years) | Son of Shah Rukh | ||
| Abdal-Latif Mirza | October/November 1449 – May 1450 (6–7 months) | Son of Ulugh Beg | ||
| Abdullah Mirza | May 1450 – 1451/1452 (1–2 years) | Grandson of Shah Rukh | ||
| Abu Sa'id Mirza | 1451/1452–1458 (6–7 years) | Great-grandson of Timur |
See also: Qara Qoyunlu and List of rulers of Qara Qoyunlu. The Qara Qoyunlu were a semi-nomadic Turkmen confederation that grew in power west of Iran following the collapse of the Ilkhanate. The origins of the Qara Qoyunlu are obscure and they are first recorded as an identifiable group in the 1330s. Under the leader Jahan Shah, the Qara Qoyunlu seized most of Iran from the Timurids. This began with the conquest of Jibal in 1452, and continued with further conquests of Isfahan, Fars, and Kerman in 1458.
The Qara Qoyunlu rulers presented themselves as rulers of Iran and political successors of the Ilkhanate, using titles such as pādishāh-i Īrān ("emperor of Iran") and kesra-yi Īrān ("Caesar of Iran"). Tabriz served as the Qara Qoyunlu capital 1436–1467.
This list only includes the Qara Qoyunlu rulers who ruled Iran. For a full list, see the list of rulers of Qara Qoyunlu.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jahan Shah | 1452–1467 (15 years) | Conquered much of Iran from the Timurid Empire in 1452–1458 | ||
| Hasan Ali | 1467–1469 (2 years) | Son of Jahan Shah |
See also: Aq Qoyunlu and List of rulers of Aq Qoyunlu. Like the Qara Qoyunlu, the Aq Qoyunlu were a semi-nomadic Turkmen confederation that rose to power after the Ilkhanate's collapse. The Aq Qoyunlu was a more long-lived and better recorded group. In the 1450s and 1460s, the Aq Qoyunlu under Uzun Hasan defeated both the Qara Qoyunlu and Timurid forces and by 1469, Uzun Hasan ruled all of Iraq and Iran.
Like the preceding Qara Qoyunlu, the Aq Qoyunlu rulers titled themselves as pādishāh-i Īrān ("emperor of Iran") and kesra-yi Īrān ("Caesar of Iran"), among other titles. Amida was the original Aq Qoyunlu capital. The capital was transferred to Tabriz under Uzun Hasan.
This list only includes the Aq Qoyunlu rulers who ruled Iran. For a full list, see the list of rulers of Aq Qoyunlu.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Uzun Hasan | 1465/1469–1478 (9–13 years) | Conquered Iran in the 1460s | ||
| Sultan-Khalil | 1478 (less than a year) | Son of Uzun Hasan | ||
| Yaqub | 1478–1490 (12 years) | Son of Uzun Hasan | ||
| Baysunghur | 1490–1492 (2 years) | Son of Yaqub | ||
| Rustam Beg | 1492–1496 (4 years) | Grandson of Uzun Hasan | ||
| Ahmad Beg | 1496–1497 (1 year) | Grandson of Uzun Hasan | ||
| Alvand Beg | 1497–1502 (5 years, in Diyar Bakr and then Azerbaijan) | Grandson of Uzun Hasan | ||
| Muhammad Beg | 1499–1500 (1 year, in Iraq and southern Persia) | Grandson of Uzun Hasan | ||
| Sultan Murad | 1500–1508 (8 years, in Fars and Kerman) | Son of Yaqub | ||
| Zayn al-Abidin | 1504–1508 (4 years, in Diyar Bakr) | Great-grandson of Uzun Hasan |
See also: Safavid Iran and Safavid dynasty. The Safavid dynasty originated as the leaders of the medieval mystic Safavid order. In 1499, the Safavid sheikh Ismail defeated the Shirvanshahs of Azerbaijan and began to wrest control of Iran from the Aq Qoyunlu. The power of the Aq Qoyunlu was decisively broken in 1501 with the defeat of Alvand Beg. In 1502, Ismail crowned himself šâhanšâh at Tabriz. The rise of the Safavids is often considered the beginning of modern Iranian history, with their state being the earliest stage of the modern Iranian nation state. Through further conquests, the Safavids restored Iran as a single Iranian political unit and retransformed the tribal nomadic order of the land, established during its period under Turko-Mongol rule, into a sedentary society. Shia Islam was for the first time established as the state religion.
The Safavids ruled as šâhanšâh-e Irân ('King of Kings of Iran'). The initial capital of the Safavid Empire was at Tabriz. Due to conflict with the Ottoman Empire in the west, the capital was moved eastwards to Qazvin in 1548, and then to Isfahan in the 1590s.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ismail I | 11 May 1502 – 22/23 May 1524 | Conquered and reunified Iran | ||
| Tahmasp I | 22/23 May 1524 – 22 August 1576 | Son of Ismail I | ||
| Ismail II | 22 August 1576 – 11 February 1578 | Son of Tahmasp I | ||
| Mohammad Khodabanda | 11 February 1578 – 2 December 1587 | Son of Tahmasp I | ||
| Abbas I the Great | 2 December 1587 – 21 January 1629 | Son of Mohammad Khodabanda | ||
| Safi I | 21 January 1629 – 12 May 1642 | Grandson of Abbas I | ||
| Abbas II | 12 May 1642 – 27 September 1667 | Son of Safi I | ||
| Safi II (1667–1668) Suleiman I (1668–1694) | 3 October 1667 – 30 January 1694 | Son of Abbas II | ||
| Soltan Hoseyn I | 28 April 1694 – 22 October 1722 | Son of Suleiman I |
Complex rivalries in the region of Khorasan led to the Afghan Hotak dynasty invading Iran. In 1722, this conflict led to the collapse of the Safavid Empire after the siege of Isfahan. The brief interlude between 1722 and the rise of the Qajar dynasty in 1789–1796 was marked by widespread political turmoil in Iran and several rival attempts to establish power over the country. The Safavids failed to regain power and the Hotaks failed to establish control. The rival Afsharid and Zand dynasties were established by Nader Shah (1736–1747) and Karim Khan (1751–1779), respectively. Although both of these founding figures established their rule over large parts of the former Safavid domain, the political influence of their dynasties swiftly collapsed under their successors.
See also: Hotak dynasty. In 1701, unrest among the Ghilji Pashtun tribe of Afghanistan led to a rebellion against the Safavids. This uprising was suppressed by the local commander, George XI of Kartli, but the Afghan anti-Safavid movement continued under Mirwais Hotak and his son, Mahmud Hotak. Mahmud initially feigned loyalty and was officially appointed as governor of Kandahar. In 1720, he began raiding the Kerman area and in March 1722, a hastily assembled Safavid army was defeated at the Battle of Gulnabad. Following a six-month siege of Isfahan, Soltan Hoseyn I formally submitted to Mahmud and recognized him as the new shah of Iran. The Hotak rulers of Iran ruled from the former Safavid capital of Isfahan.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mahmud Hotak | 22 October 1722 – April/May 1725 | Invaded and seized power from Soltan Hoseyn I | ||
| Ashraf Hotak | April/May 1725 – 1729 (4 years) | Cousin of Mahmud Hotak; murdered and overthrew Mahmud |
When news of the fall of Isfahan reached Soltan Hoseyn I's son Tahmasp II at Qazvin, Tahmasp proclaimed himself shah. Pro-Safavid forces successfully defeated Ashraf Hotak in 1729 and forced to Afghan forces out of Iran. Tahmasp failed to assert his authority in the aftermath of the Hotak invasion and the effective ruler of Iran was instead the general Nader Khan. In 1732, Nader deposed Tahmasp and replaced him with the eight-month old Abbas III. Abbas was in turn deposed in 1736 and Nader Khan was proclaimed the new shah of Iran under the name Nader Shah, terminating the Safavid dynasty. Safavid descendants continued to emerge for some time after 1736 as pretenders or as figurehead rulers put forward by warlords vying for power in Iran.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tahmasp II | 31 October 1722 – August 1732 | Son of Soltan Hoseyn I | ||
| Abbas III | 7 September 1732 – 8 March 1736 | Son of Tahmasp II | ||
| No recognized Safavid ruler 1736–1750 | ||||
| Suleiman II | 13 January – March 1750 (2 months) | Grandson of Suleiman I. Proclaimed shah at Mashhad after the deposition of Shahrokh Shah (Afsharid) and ruled until Shahrokh was restored. | ||
| Ismail III | Summer 1750 – 1773 (23 years) | Grandson of Soltan Hoseyn I. Proclaimed shah at Isfahan by Karim Khan Zand in 1750, as a puppet ruler. | ||
| Soltan Hoseyn II | 1752/1753 | Son of an Azeri man and an Armenian woman, but claimed to be a son of Tahmasp II. Proclaimed shah at Baghdad by Ali Mardan Khan Bakhtiari, as a puppet ruler. | ||
See also: Afsharid Iran and Afsharid dynasty. The Afsharid dynasty was established by Nader Shah, a general under the Safavids who seized control of the empire in 1736 after the deposition of Abbas III. Nader was a powerful conqueror but the Afsharid Empire quickly collapsed after his assassination in 1747. Large territories fell to the rival Zand dynasty as well as the Afghan Durrani Empire. The domain of Nader's heirs became largely confined to the Iranian parts of Khorasan. For most of its later history, the Afsharid state was dominated by military leaders or other court factions. The Afsharids ruled with the style of šâhanšâh and their capital was at Mashhad.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nader Shah | 8 March 1736 – 20 June 1747 | General; deposed Abbas III | ||
| Adel Shah | 6 July 1747 – 24 September 1748 | Nephew of Nader Shah; proclaimed ruler after Nader's assassination | ||
| Shahrokh Shah | 1 October 1748 – 13 January 1750 (1st reign) | Grandson of Nader Shah and matrilineal grandson of Soltan Hoseyn I (Safavid). Proclaimed ruler by tribal leaders at Mashhad in opposition to Adel. | ||
| Ebrahim Shah | 8 December 1748 – December 1749 (~1 year) | Brother of Adel Shah; proclaimed ruler (in opposition to Shahrokh Shah) after deposing and blinding Adel | ||
| Shahrokh Shah was removed from the throne in January–March 1750 in favor of the Safavid ruler Suleiman II | ||||
| Shahrokh Shah | March 1750 – 1796 (2nd reign) (46 years) | Restored to the throne | ||
See also: Zand dynasty. In the aftermath of Nader Shah's assassination, the Zand family grew to become the most powerful rivals of the Afsharids and seized control of much of Iran in the 1750s. Established by the tribal leader Karim Khan Zand, the Zand rulers never proclaimed themselves to be shahs. Instead, they presented themselves as regents of Iran, at first on behalf of the Safavid puppet Ismail III (1750–1773) and then on behalf of the Iranian people. Karim Khan Zand ruled with the title of khân, as well as the style of wakil (regent) or wakil-al-raʿāyāʾ ("regent of the people"). His successors ruled simply as khân, though were often considered to be "kings" by European observers. The Zand dynasty ruled from Shiraz.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Karim Khan | 1751 – 1 March 1779 (28 years) | Seized power over much of Iran | ||
| Mohammad-Ali Khan | 2 March – 19 June 1779 | Son of Karim Khan. Joint co-ruler with his brother Abol-Fath Khan. | ||
| Abol-Fath Khan | 2 March – 22 August 1779 | Son of Karim Khan. Initially joint co-ruler with his brother Mohammad-Ali Khan. | ||
| Sadeq Khan | 22 August 1779 – 14 March 1781 | Brother of Karim Khan | ||
| Ali-Morad Khan | 14 March 1781 – 10 January 1785 | Member of the 'Hazāra' branch of the Zand family | ||
| Jafar Khan | 17 January 1785 – 23 January 1789 | Son of Sadeq Khan | ||
| Sayed Morad Khan | 23 January – 7 May 1789 | Cousin of Ali-Morad Khan. Mutinied against Jafar Khan (leading to Jafar's death) and opposed the accession of Jafar's son, Lotf Ali Khan. | ||
| Lotf Ali Khan | 7 May 1789 – November 1794 | Son of Jafar Khan. |
See also: Qajar Iran and Qajar dynasty. The Qajar dynasty originated as a local Turkoman noble family in northern Iran, under the Safavids. The Qajars gradually increased in power as other families fought each other in Iran, culminating in Agha Mohammad Shah proclaiming himself ruler in 1789, in opposition to the Afsharids and Zands. Agha Mohammad defeated the Zand dynasty in 1794 and was officially crowned in 1796. Shortly thereafter, he captured and deposed the Afsharid Shahrokh Shah, reunifying Iran under a single ruler.
Agha Mohammad Shah ruled with the title khân and later šâh, never assuming the more grandiose šâhanšâh. Agha Mohammad's successor, Fath-Ali Shah, assumed both šâhanšâh and the Mongol khagan, titles frequently used by later Qajar rulers. Many other honorifics of imperial and religious significance were also used by the Qajar rulers. The Qajar dynasty ruled from Tehran, inaugurated as Iran's capital in the 1780s under Agha Mohammad Shah.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Agha Mohammad Shah | 1789 – 17 June 1797 (8 years) | Seized power and reunified Iran 1789–1796 | ||
| Fath-Ali Shah | 17 June 1797 – 23 October 1834 | Nephew of Agha Mohammad Shah | ||
| Mohammad Shah | 23 October 1834 – 5 September 1848 | Grandson of Fath-Ali Shah | ||
| Naser al-Din Shah | 5 September 1848 – 1 May 1896 | Son of Mohammad Shah | ||
| Mozaffar ad-Din Shah | 1 May 1896 – 3 January 1907 | Son of Naser al-Din Shah | ||
| Mohammad Ali Shah | 3 January 1907 – 16 July 1909 | Son of Mozaffar ad-Din Shah | ||
| Ahmad Shah | 16 July 1909 – 15 December 1925 | Son of Mohammad Ali Shah |
| Portrait | Name | Tenure | Succession | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ahmad Shah | 15 December 1925 – 27 February 1930 | Ruler of Iran 1909–1925. Died in exile in France. | |||
| Mohammad Hassan Mirza | 27 February 1930 – 7 January 1943 | Son of Mohammad Ali Shah and designated successor of Ahmad Shah (his brother). | |||
| Hamid Mirza | No formal claim put forth | Son of Mohammad Hassan Mirza. Viewed himself as the rightful heir after his father's death but did not officially claim the throne. Was monitored by the US Department of State in 1943 over whether he would declare himself Shah of Iran. | |||
| Fereydoun Mirza | No formal claim put forth | Son of Ahmad Shah. While he lived in Switzerland in 1943, the US Department of State intercepted and suppressed messages from relatives urging Fereydoun to declare himself the rightful Shah of Iran. | |||
| < | -- Later heads of the family shouldn't be added here since they did not claim the Iranian throne -->There continues to be recognized heads of the Qajar family in exile to the present day, though the family has renounced all claims to rule through lineage and does not endorse political activity under its coat of arms.[1] | ||||
See also: Pahlavi Iran and Pahlavi dynasty. During the late Qajar dynasty, Iran became increasingly embroiled in internal political turmoil over the extent of the monarch's power, among other events leading to the Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911). In 1923, The brigade commander Reza Khan quickly rose through the ranks to become prime minister. In 1925, Reza succeeded in deposing Ahmad Shah and having himself proclaimed by Iran's National Assembly first as regent and then as the new monarch. As his family name, Reza took Pahlavi, after the ancient Iranian script.
The Pahlavi rulers styled themselves as šâhanšâh-e Irân ('King of Kings of Iran'). Tehran remained the capital of Iran under Pahlavi rule.
| Portrait | Name | Reign | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Reza Shah | 15 December 1925 – 16 September 1941 | Former prime minister | ||
| Mohammad Reza Shah | 16 September 1941 – 11 February 1979 | Son of Reza Shah |
| Portrait | Name | Tenure | Succession | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mohammad Reza Shah | 11 February 1979 – 27 July 1980 | Ruler of Iran 1941–1979. Died in exile in Egypt. | ||
| Farah Pahlavi | 27 July 1980 – 31 October 1980 | As regent | ||
| Reza Pahlavi ("Reza Shah II") | 31 October 1980 – present | Son of Mohammad Reza Shah. Proclaimed himself "Reza Shah II", rightful ruler of Iran, in October 1980. Has voiced support for democracy but has not renounced his claim to the throne. |