List of volcanic eruptions 1500–2000 explained

This is a list of notable volcanic eruptions in the 16th to 20th centuries with a Volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 4 or higher, and smaller eruptions that resulted in significant damage or fatalities. Note that there may be uncertainties to dates with historical eruptions, and there are likely to be many large eruptions that have not been identified.

Large eruptions (VEI of 4 or higher)

20th century

VEIVolcanoCountryYeardata-sort-type="number"FatalitiesNotes
4Ulawun[1] Papua New Guinea2000
4Mount TavurvurPapua New Guinea19945Tavurvur, and nearby Vulcan, erupted and devastated Rabaul; however, due to planning for such a catastrophe, the townsfolk were prepared and only five people were killed. One of the deaths was caused by lightning, a feature of volcanic ash clouds.[2]
4Láscar[3] Chile1993
4Mount SpurrAlaska, United States1992
5Mount Hudson[4] Chile1991
6Mount Pinatubo[5] Philippines1991847Second largest eruption of the 20th century, and largest stratospheric disturbance since the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa. Many deaths were caused by complication of the arrival of Typhoon Yunya.
4KeludIndonesia199032A strong and explosive eruption in early February 1990 produced a 12 km high column of tephra, heavy tephra falls and several pyroclastic flows. 32 people were killed, over 500 homes and 50 schools were destroyed and many others were damaged.[6]
4Klyuchevskaya SopkaRussia1987
4Chikurachki[7] Russia1986
4AugustineAlaska, United States1986
4Mount Colo[8] Indonesia1983
4Galunggung[9] Indonesia198218Notable for bringing attention to the dangers of volcanic ash on aircraft after two Boeing 747 jets suffered engine failure from its ash cloud.[10]
5El Chichón[11] Mexico19821,9009 villages were destroyed, killing at least 1,900 people.[12] Ejected 7 million metric tons of sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere.
4North Pagan[13] Mariana Islands, United States1981-1985
4Vulkan Alaid[14] Russia1981
5Mount St. Helens[15] Washington, United States198057Most deadly and economically destructive volcanic eruption in the history of the United States. Ash from the eruption reached all the way to Montana. Casualties were limited, owing to the evacuation of the surrounding forest, with exception of loggers who did not depart in time; incinerated in large forest fire that was a result of one of seventeen pyroclastic flows.[16] Sound of eruption could be heard 700 miles (1127 km) away; entire flank of mountain collapsed. Noted for extremely large lahar that flooded the banks of the Toutle River and destroyed several bridges.[17]
4Augustine[18] Alaska, United States1976
4Tolbachik[19] Russia1975
4Volcán de FuegoGuatemala1974
4Tyatya[20] Russia1973
4Fernandina[21] Ecuador1968
4Mount Awu[22] Indonesia1966
4KeludIndonesia1966
4TaalPhilippines1965
4Shiveluch[23] Russia1964
5Mount Agung[24] Indonesia19631,584
5Bezymianny[25] Russia1955–1957
4Carran-Los Venados[26] Chile1955
4Mount Spurr[27] Alaska, United States1953
4Bagana[28] Papua New Guinea1952
4KeludIndonesia1951
4Mount Lamington[29] Papua New Guinea19512,942The only recorded eruption of Mount Lamington devastated Oro Province. Pyroclastic flows caused extreme destruction north of the volcano. Its effects were extensively studied by volcanologist Tony Taylor and his report was published in 1958.[30]
4Ambrym[31] Vanuatu1950
4Hekla[32] Iceland1947
4Sarychev Peak[33] Russia1946
4AvachinskyRussia1945
4Parícutin[34] Mexico1943–195231943-1952 eruption of Parícutin
4Rabaul[35] Papua New Guinea1937507[36]
4Kuchinoerabu-jima[37] Japan1933-193488 people were killed and 26 others were injured. Nanakama Village was burned by fire from glowing blocks.[38]
4Suoh[39] Indonesia1933Occurred two weeks after the 1933 Sumatra earthquake, which produced a surface rupture on the volcano.[40]
5Kharimkotan[41] Russia1933
5Cerro Azul[42] Chile1932It is the largest recorded eruption in the history of Chile, the eruption threw ash between the cities of Rancagua and Chillán, leaving them in the dark in broad daylight. The explosions were noticeable in Santiago, 245 km away. The ashes arrived in Buenos Aires (capital of Argentina), Montevideo (capital of Uruguay), the south of Brazil and South Africa.[43]
4Volcán de Fuego[44] Guatemala1932
4Mount Aniakchak[45] Alaska, United States1931
4Klyuchevskaya Sopka[46] Russia1931
4Hokkaidō Koma-ga-take[47] Japan1929
4Avachinsky[48] Russia1926
5Submarine Volcano NNE of Iriomote Island[49] Japan1924Submarine Volcano
4Raikoke[50] Russia1924
4Manam[51] Papua New Guinea1919
4Kelud[52] Indonesia19195,160Lahars killed over 5,000 people.[53]
4Katla[54] Iceland1918
4Tungurahua[55] Ecuador1916
4Sakurajima[56] Japan191458Most powerful eruption in Japan in the twentieth century. The volcano had been dormant for over a century until 1914.[57] Almost all residents had left the island in the previous days; several large earthquakes had warned them that an eruption was imminent. Initially, the eruption was very explosive, generating eruption columns and pyroclastic flows, but after a very large earthquake on January 13, 1914, which killed 58 people, it became effusive, generating a large lava flow.
4Volcán de Colima[58] Mexico1913
6Novarupta[59] Alaska, United States1912Largest eruption of the 20th century
4Papua New Guinea1911
5Ksudach[60] Russia1907
4Mount Vesuvius[61] Italy1875-1906216
4Lolobau[62] Papua New Guinea1904
4Þórðarhyrna[63] Iceland1903
6Santa María[64] Guatemala19026,0001902 eruption of Santa María
4Mount Pelée[65] Island of Martinique, French Overseas Territory, France190233,000Deadliest eruption of the 20th century and the deadliest natural disaster in the history of France. Destroyed Saint-Pierre, Martinique. Only 2 people survived this eruption with 1 being held as a prisoner and was locked underground avoiding the pyroclastic flows.
4La Soufrière[66] Saint Vincent and the Grenadines19021,7001,700 people were killed and a further 600 people were injured or burned. At least 4,000 people were left homeless.[67]

19th century

VEIVolcanoCountryYeardata-sort-type="number"FatalitiesNotes
4Doña Juana[68] Colombia1899
4Mount MayonPhilippines1897350-400[69]
4Calbuco[70] Chile1893-1894
4SuwanosejimaJapan1889
4Volcán de ColimaMexico1889
4Mount Bandai[71] Japan1888477+1888 eruption of Mount Bandai
4Niuafo'ou[72] Tonga1886
5Mount Tarawera[73] New Zealand1886108+Largest historical eruption in New Zealand
4Tungurahua[74] Ecuador18862
4Augustine[75] Alaska, United States1883-1884Augustine has had six significant eruptions: 1812, 1883–1884, 1935, 1963–1964, 1976, and 1986. Only the 1883 eruption produced a tsunami.[76]
6Krakatoa[77] Indonesia188336,417The 1883 eruption of Krakatoa was one of the loudest explosions ever recorded, and was heard at least 3,000 miles (4,800 km) away. Caused a 5-year volcanic winter. The island had three volcanoes. Perboewatan (410 ft) and Danan (1,480 ft) were destroyed during the eruption, and Rakata (2,667 ft) was half destroyed and the surviving half remains above sea level. In 1928, a new volcano called Anak Krakatoa (1,063 ft) grew above sea level, forming a new island by Rakata's island.
4Volcán de FuegoGuatemala1880
4Cotopaxi[78] Ecuador1877340[79]
4SuwanosejimaJapan1877
5Askja[80] Iceland1875
4GrímsvötnIceland1873
4Mount MerapiIndonesia1872200
4Sinarka[81] Russia1872
4Makian[82] Indonesia1861309–326
4KatlaIceland1860
4Volcán de FuegoGuatemala1857
4Hokkaidō Koma-ga-take[83] Japan185620
5Shiveluch[84] Russia1854
4Mount UsuJapan1853
4Fonualei[85] Tonga1846
4HeklaIceland1845
5Mount AgungIndonesia1843
5Cosigüina[86] Nicaragua1835
4Babuyan Claro[87] Philippines1831
4Klyuchevskaya Sopka[88] Russia1829
4Avachinsky[89] Russia1827
4KeludIndonesia1826
5GalunggungIndonesia18224,011Lahars killed more than 4,000 people.
4Mount Usu[90] Japan182250[91]
4Volcán de Colima[92] Mexico1818
4Mount Raung[93] Indonesia1817
7<-- 100-180 cubic km = VEI 7.0 -->Mount Tambora[94] Indonesia181571,000–250,100+Largest and deadliest volcanic eruption in recorded history. Caused the "Year Without a Summer" in 1816.
4Mount Mayon[95] Philippines18141,200The town of Cagsawa was buried and approximately 1,200 people were killed.[96]
4Suwanosejima[97] Japan1813
4Mount Awu[98] Indonesia1812
4La SoufrièreSaint Vincent and the Grenadines181256[99]
6Unknown sourceUnknown1808Greenland and Antarctic ice samples suggest an undocumented eruption roughly half the magnitude of Mount Tambora occurred, contributing to the 1810s being the coldest decade in at least 500 years.[100] Recent searches of documents suggest that it may have taken place in South Western Pacific Ocean around Dec 4, 1808 and observed in Colombia from December 11, 1808.[101] It is also known that the Chilean Putana volcano had a major eruption around this time with an approximate date of 1810 (with a 10-year margin of error), but is located 22 degrees south.[102]
4Tutupaca[103] Peru1802

18th century

VEIVolcanoCountryYeardata-sort-type="number"FatalitiesNotes
5Mount St. HelensWashington, United States1800
4Witori[104] Papua New Guinea1800
4Mount Westdahl[105] Alaska, United States1795
4San Martin Tuxtla[106] Mexico1793
4Kilauea[107] Hawaii, United States1790400+Keanakakoi eruption
4Mount EtnaItaly1787
4LakiIceland1783–178410,000+1783-1784 eruption of Laki
4Mount Asama[108] Japan17831,500–1,624Tenmei eruption
4Raikoke[109] Russia177815[110]
4Mount UsuJapan1769
4CotopaxiEcuador1768
4HeklaIceland1766–1768
4Miyake-jima[111] Japan1763
4Mount Pavlof[112] Alaska, United States1762
4MakianIndonesia1760–1761
4El JorulloMexico1759-1774
5KatlaIceland1755
5Taal[113] Philippines175450-60+Erupted continuously for 200 days and buried the Town of Taal on the shore of the lake
4TaalPhilippines1749
4CotopaxiEcuador1744
4Oshima–Ōshima[114] Japan1741–17421,467–2,0331741 eruption of Oshima–Ōshima and the Kampo tsunami
5Mount Tarumae[115] Japan1739
4Volcán de FuegoGuatemala1737
4Öræfajökull[116] Iceland1727-1728
5KatlaIceland1721
4Cerro Bravo[117] Colombia1720
4Raoul Island[118] Kermadec Islands, New Zealand1720
4Volcán de FuegoGuatemala1717
4TaalPhilippines1716
5Mount Fuji[119] Japan1707Hōei eruption of Mount Fuji

17th century

VEIVolcanoCountryYeardata-sort-type="number"FatalitiesNotes
4HeklaIceland1693
5Tangkoko[120] Indonesia1680
5Mount Gamkonora[121] Indonesia1673
5Mount TarumaeJapan1667
5Mount UsuJapan1663
4KatlaIceland1660–1661
4Guagua Pichincha[122] Ecuador1660
6Long Island[123] Papua New Guinea1660
5ShiveluchRussia1652
4Kolumbo[124] Santorini, Greece165070[125]
4MakianIndonesia1646
4KeludIndonesia1641
5Mount Melibengoy[126] Philippines1640–1641
5Hokkaido KomagatakeJapan1640700A partial summit collapse caused a tsunami that killed 700 people.[127]
4RaungIndonesia1638
5Mount VesuviusItaly16314,000+1631 eruption of Mount Vesuvius
5Furnas[128] Azores, Portugal1630
4Raoul IslandKermadec Islands, New Zealand1630
5KatlaIceland1625
4Volcán de ColimaMexico1622
4KatlaIceland1612
4Volcán de ColimaMexico1606

16th century

VEIVolcanoCountryYeardata-sort-type="number"FatalitiesNotes
4SuwanosejimaJapan1600
6Huaynaputina[129] Peru16001,5001600 eruption of Huaynaputina, Russian famine of 1601–1603
4HeklaIceland1597
4Nevado del Ruiz[130] Colombia1595636This eruption caused lahars, which traveled down the valleys of the nearby Gualí and Lagunillas rivers, clogging up the water, killing fish and destroying vegetation. More than 600 people died as a result of the lahar.[131]
5RaungIndonesia1593
5KeludIndonesia158610,000+
4Volcán de ColimaMexico1585
4Volcán de FuegoGuatemala1581
4KatlaIceland1580
6Billy Mitchell[132] Papua New Guinea1580
5Água de Pau[133] Azores, Portugal1563
4KatlaIceland1550
4CotopaxiEcuador1534
4CotopaxiEcuador1532
4HeklaIceland1510
4KatlaIceland1500

Smaller eruptions resulting in fatalities or significant damage

VEIVolcanoCountryYeardata-sort-type="number"FatalitiesNotes
3Guagua Pichincha[134] Ecuador20002A phreatic eruption on March 12 killed two volcanologists working on the lava dome.[135]
3Soufrière Hills[136] Montserrat199719A major eruption on 25 June 1997 caused pyroclastic flows to move at 60–100 mph, which killed 19 people and destroyed towns.[137]
2Kanlaon[138] Philippines1996324 mountain climbers hiked the volcano when it erupted without warning on August 10, 1996, resulting in 3 fatalities.[139]
1Yakedake[140] Japan19954Four people at a highway construction site were killed by a hydrothermal explosion on February 11, 1995.[141]
2Mount MerapiIndonesia199464A pyroclastic flow on November 22, 1994 killed 64 people.[142]
3Rinjani[143] Indonesia199430A cold lahar from the summit of Rinjani on November 3, 1994 travelled down the Kokok Jenggak River, killing 30 people.[144]
2Mayon[145] Philippines199379Pyroclastic flows killed 79 people.[146]
2Galeras[147] Colombia19939Galeras tragedy
2Karangetang[148] Indonesia19926Six people were killed by a pyroclastic flow from an eruption on May 18, 1992.[149]
1Mount Unzen[150] Japan199143A destructive and fatal eruption on June 3, 1991 at 4:08 pm caused the first large-scale pyroclastic flow, unprecedented at the time, which killed 43 people in the evacuation zone. Among these were French volcanologists Katia and Maurice Krafft, as well as American geologist Harry Glicken. The other 40 fatalities consisted largely of those involved in the mass media, as well as firefighters, police officers, farmers and taxi drivers.[151]
3Mount Redoubt[152] Alaska, United States1989-1990Second costliest volcanic eruption in United States history. Caused engine failure of all four engines on KLM Flight 867 after it flew through the ash cloud.
3Nevado del Ruiz[153] Colombia198523,000Armero tragedy
3Mount EtnaItaly19799A sudden phreatic explosion killed 9 tourists[154]
2Mount Marapi[155] Indonesia197980A landslide on April 30, 1979 killed 80 people, damaged five villages and destroyed farmland.[156]
1Dieng Volcanic Complex[157] Indonesia1979149149 people died of gas poisoning in Pekisaran Village on February 20, 1979.[158]
1Mount Nyiragongo[159] Democratic Republic of the Congo197770Lava flows killed 70 people and left 800 people homeless. About 1,200 hectares of agricultural land was destroyed.[160]
3Eldfell[161] Iceland19731[162] [163] [164]
2Villarrica[165] Chile197115-30[166]
3Mount HudsonChile19715Lahars killed 5 people and many more were evacuated.[167]
2Didicas[168] Philippines19693Triggered a Volcanic tsunami that killed 3 fishermen.[169]
3Volcán Arenal[170] Costa Rica196887On Monday, July 29, 1968, at 7:30 am, the Arenal Volcano suddenly and violently erupted. The eruptions continued unabated for several days, burying over 15abbr=NaNabbr= under rocks, lava and ash. The eruptions killed 87 people and buried 3 small villages – Tabacón, Pueblo Nuevo and San Luís – and affected more than 232abbr=NaNabbr= of land. Crops were spoiled, property was ruined, and large numbers of livestock were killed.[171]
1Dieng Volcanic ComplexIndonesia1964114[172]
2VillarricaChile196425[173]
3SurtseyIceland1963-1967
2Bayonnaise Rocks[174] Japan195231An eruption on 18 September 1952 killed 31 researchers and crewmen aboard the Maritime Safety Agency survey ship No.5 Kaiyo-Maru.[175]
3Hibok-Hibok[176] Philippines1951500-2,000+This eruption was a turning point for the Philippine government to establish a dedicated agency to focus on volcanoes and its activities. It led to the creation of COMVOL (Commission on Volcanology) which would later be PHILVOLCS.[177] [178]
3VillarricaChile194823Mudflows buried 1000 hectares of arable land and forest and destroyed numerous buildings. 23 people were killed and 31 others were missing.[179]
2Dieng Volcanic ComplexIndonesia1944117
3Mount VesuviusItaly194420Most recent eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Eruption took place during liberation of Italy by American and British soldiers.[180] Destroyed original village of San Sebastiano al Vesuvo. Extreme damage to the city of Naples in form of ash and building collapses.
1Dieng Volcanic ComplexIndonesia193910
3Mount Merapi[181] Indonesia1930-19311,369[182]
2StromboliItaly19304[183]
3Paluweh[184] Indonesia1928160+A volcanic landslide triggered a tsunami 5–10 m high, killing more than 160 people.[185]
2Dieng Volcanic ComplexIndonesia192840
1Mount Etna[186] Italy1928Effusive eruption resulting in the complete destruction of the municipality of Mascali.[187]
3Lassen Peak[188] California, United States1915First volcano in the Cascades Volcanic Arc heading northwards, possibly the first volcanic eruption recorded using motion picture camera. Pyroclastic flows caused massive fires and evidence of the eruption still present in form of unusual growth patterns of trees as of 2020, 105 years later and charred trees. Area now forbidden to settle in as it is now Lassen Volcanic National Park.
3Taal[189] Philippines19111,335Base surge and tsunami inside the Taal lake caldera killed thousands of people living near the Taal Volcano island. The ash reached as far as Manila.[190]
3Tori-shima[191] Japan1902150[192]
3Mount AwuIndonesia18921,532
2Ritter Island[193] Papua New Guinea1888500–30001888 Ritter Island eruption and tsunami
2Ruang[194] Indonesia18714161871 Ruang eruption and tsunami
3Dubbi[195] Eritrea1861106
3Mount AwuIndonesia18562,806[196]
3Nevado del RuizColombia18451,000
2Mount EtnaItaly184356
2Mount Unzen[197] Japan179215,0001792 Unzen earthquake and tsunami
2Dieng Volcanic ComplexIndonesia178638Ground fissuring destroyed the village of Jamping, killing 38 people.
3Gamalama[198] Indonesia17751,300[199]
3Mount Papandayan[200] Indonesia17723,000An eruption in 1772 caused the northeast flank to collapse producing a catastrophic debris avalanche that destroyed 40 villages and killed nearly 3,000 people.[201]
?Tseax ConeCanada17002,000[202]
3Mount EtnaItaly16691669 eruption of Mount Etna
3Monte Nuovo (Phlegraean Fields)[203] Italy153824[204]

See also

External links

Notes and References

  1. Web site: Ulawun . . Global Volcanism Program.
  2. Report on Rabaul (Papua New Guinea) . . 1994 . 19 . 9 . Smithsonian Institution. 10.5479/si.GVP.BGVN199409-252140 .
  3. Web site: Lascar . . Smithsonian Institution.
  4. Web site: Cerro Hudson . . Smithsonian Institution.
  5. Web site: Pinatubo . . Smithsonian Institution.
  6. Report on Kelud (Indonesia) — January 1990 . . Smithsonian Institution. 10.5479/si.GVP.BGVN199001-263280 .
  7. Web site: Chikurachki . . Smithsonian Institution.
  8. Web site: Colo . . Smithsonian Institution.
  9. Web site: Galunggung . . Smithsonian Institution.
  10. Web site: Galunggung Volcano . . John Seach.
  11. Web site: El Chichon . . Smithsonian Institution.
  12. Looking Back at the 1982 eruption of el Chichón in Mexico. Wired.
  13. Web site: Pagan . . Smithsonian Institution.
  14. Web site: Alaid . . Smithsonian Institution.
  15. Web site: St Helens . . Smithsonian Institution.
  16. Web site: Pyroclastic Flow Hazards at Mount St. Helens | U.S. Geological Survey .
  17. Web site: Lahar Hazards at Mount St. Helens | U.S. Geological Survey .
  18. Web site: Augustine . . Smithsonian Institution.
  19. Web site: Tolbachik . . Smithsonian Institution.
  20. Web site: Tyatya . . Smithsonian Institution.
  21. Web site: Fernandina . . Smithsonian Institution.
  22. Web site: Awu . . Smithsonian Institution.
  23. Web site: Shiveluch . . Smithsonian Institution.
  24. Web site: Agung . . Smithsonian Institution.
  25. Web site: Bezymianny . . Smithsonian Institution.
  26. Web site: Carran-Los Venados . . Smithsonian Institution.
  27. Web site: Spurr . . Smithsonian Institution.
  28. Web site: Bagana . . Smithsonian Institution.
  29. Web site: Lamington . . Smithsonian Institution.
  30. Lamington. 253010. 2022-01-23.
  31. Web site: Ambrym . . Smithsonian Institution.
  32. Web site: Hekla . . Smithsonian Institution.
  33. Web site: Sarychev Peak . . Smithsonian Institution.
  34. Web site: Michoacán-Guanajuato . . Smithsonian Institution.
  35. Web site: Rabaul . . Smithsonian Institution.
  36. Rabaul Caldera . February 1985 . 23 . 3 . 195–237 . 10.1016/0377-0273(85)90035-6 . McKee . C. O. . Johnson . R. W. . Lowenstein . P. L. . Riley . S. J. . Blong . R. J. . De Saint Ours . P. . Talai . B. .
  37. Web site: Kuchinoerabujima . . Smithsonian Institution.
  38. Web site: Kuchinoerabu-jima volcano eruptions . . Dr. Tom Pfeiffer.
  39. Web site: Suoh . . Smithsonian Institution.
  40. Sieh . Kerry . Natawidjaja . Danny . Danny Hilman Natawidjaja . Neotectonics of the Sumatran fault, Indonesia. . Journal of Geophysical Research . 2000 . 105 . B12 . 28295–28326 . 10.1029/2000JB900120 . American Geophysical Union. 2000JGR...10528295S . Kerry Sieh .
  41. Web site: Kharimkotan . . Smithsonian Institution.
  42. Web site: Cerro Azul . . Smithsonian Institution.
  43. https://www.latercera.com/tendencias/noticia/columna-sismologia-quizapu-la-erupcion-mas-grande-del-chile-republicano/136044/ Columna de sismología: El Quizapu, la erupción más grande del Chile republicano (in Spanish)
  44. Web site: Fuego . . Smithsonian Institution.
  45. Web site: Aniakchak . . Smithsonian Institution.
  46. Web site: Klyuchevskaya . . Smithsonian Institution.
  47. Web site: Hokkaido Komagatake . . Smithsonian Institution.
  48. Web site: Avachinsky . . Smithsonian Institution.
  49. Web site: Iriomote Island . . Smithsonian Institution.
  50. Web site: Raikoke . . Smithsonian Institution.
  51. Web site: Manam . . Smithsonian Institution.
  52. Web site: Kelud . . Smithsonian Institution.
  53. Web site: Kelud . Volcano Discovery.
  54. Web site: Katla . . Smithsonian Institution.
  55. Web site: Tungurahua . . Smithsonian Institution.
  56. Web site: Sakurajima . . Smithsonian Institution.
  57. Web site: The 1914 Sakurajima explosion at Volcanoworld . 2007-08-03 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080616093432/http://volcano.und.edu/vwdocs/vw_hyperexchange/sakura-jima.html . 2008-06-16 .
  58. Web site: Colima . . Smithsonian Institution.
  59. Web site: Novarupta . . Smithsonian Institution.
  60. Web site: Ksudach . . Smithsonian Institution.
  61. Web site: Vesuvius . . Smithsonian Institution.
  62. Web site: Lolobau . . Smithsonian Institution.
  63. Web site: Grímsvötn . An Armchair Volcanologist. 22 June 2020 .
  64. Web site: Santa Maria . . Smithsonian Institution.
  65. Web site: Mount Pelée . . Smithsonian Institution.
  66. Web site: La Soufriere . . Smithsonian Institution.
  67. News: 1902-05-26. St. Vincent volcano is now less active (1902). 1. The Fort Wayne Sentinel. 2021-04-15. 15 April 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210415011127/https://www.newspapers.com/clip/75773599/st-vincent-volcano-is-now-less-active/. live.
  68. Web site: Dona Juana . . Smithsonian Institution.
  69. Web site: Mayon Volcano, Philippines . . John Seach.
  70. Web site: Calbuco . . Smithsonian Institution.
  71. Web site: Bandaisan . . Smithsonian Institution.
  72. Web site: Niuafo'ou . . Smithsonian Institution.
  73. Web site: Tarawera . . Smithsonian Institution.
  74. Web site: Tungurahua . . Smithsonian Institution.
  75. Web site: Augustine . . Smithsonian Institution.
  76. Augustine Volcano, Alaska . . John Seach.
  77. Web site: Krakatau . . Smithsonian Institution.
  78. Web site: Cotopaxi . . Smithsonian Institution.
  79. Web site: Ecuador Volcanoes . World Data.
  80. Web site: Askja . . Smithsonian Institution.
  81. Web site: Sinarka . . Smithsonian Institution.
  82. Web site: Makian . . Smithsonian Institution.
  83. Web site: Hokkaido Komagatake . . Smithsonian Institution.
  84. Web site: Shiveluch . . Smithsonian Institution.
  85. Web site: Fonualei . . Smithsonian Institution.
  86. Web site: Cosiguina . . Smithsonian Institution.
  87. Web site: Babuyan Claro . . Smithsonian Institution.
  88. Web site: Klyuchevskaya . . Smithsonian Institution.
  89. Web site: Avachinsky . . Smithsonian Institution.
  90. Web site: Usu . . Smithsonian Institution.
  91. Web site: ASTER Images Mt. Usu Volcano . . Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
  92. Web site: Colima . . Smithsonian Institution.
  93. Web site: Raung . . Smithsonian Institution.
  94. Web site: Tambora . . Smithsonian Institution.
  95. Web site: Mayon . . Smithsonian Institution.
  96. Web site: Mayon Volcano | Eruption, History, & Facts | Britannica .
  97. Web site: Suwanosejima . . Smithsonian Institution.
  98. Web site: Awu . . Smithsonian Institution.
  99. Web site: The La Soufrière National Park . UNESCO.
  100. Web site: Undocumented volcano contributed to extremely cold decade from 1810–1819 – ScienceDaily.
  101. Web site: September: Unknown eruption | News and features | University of Bristol .
  102. Web site: 1809: The missing volcano . www.volcanocafe.org . 25 January 2016. 24 April 2018.
  103. Web site: Tutupaca . . Smithsonian Institution.
  104. Web site: Witori . . Smithsonian Institution.
  105. Web site: Westdahl . . Smithsonian Institution.
  106. Web site: San Martin . . Smithsonian Institution.
  107. Web site: Kilauea . . Smithsonian Institution.
  108. Web site: Asamayama . . Smithsonian Institution.
  109. Web site: Raikoke . . Smithsonian Institution.
  110. Report on Raikoke (Russia) — August 2019 . . Smithsonian Institution.
  111. Web site: Miyakejima . . Global Volcanism Program.
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