List of large Holocene volcanic eruptions explained

This is a list of volcanoes that have had large explosive eruptions during the Holocene (since about 11,650 years Before Present), with a volcanic explosivity index (VEI) of 5 or higher, or a plume height of at least 30 km. To date, there have been no eruptions with a confirmed VEI of 8 in the Holocene; and only a few VEI-7 eruptions are thought to have occurred during this time: the most recent was the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora. This is not a complete list.

Common Era (CE)

VEI	width=170px rowspan=2	Volcano/complex	width=150px rowspan=2	Volcanic arc/belt, subregion, or hotspot	Material volume (km^3)		data-sort-type="number" width=105px rowspan=2	Date	width=250px rowspan=2	Tephra or eruption name
	width=70px	Bulk	width=70px	DRE
5-6		Tonga-Kermadec Islands volcanic arc	10 6–10^[1]	7.1 7.1^[2]		2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai eruption and tsunami
5			0.76 0.76–1.26^[3]			2011–2012 Puyehue-Cordón Caulle eruption
5			4.3 4.3–7.6^[4]	1.6 1.6–2.7^[5]
6	Mount Pinatubo^[6]	Luzon Volcanic Arc	10 10^[7]	4.8 4.8–6.0^[8]		1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo
5		Chiapanecan Volcanic Arc	2.2 2.2	1.1 1.1^[9]		Tephra unit A
5		Cascade Volcanic Arc	1.1 1.1^[10]	0.5 0.5^[11]		1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens
5		Sunda Arc, Bali	1.0 1
5	Bezymianny	Kamchatka	1.9 1.9
5	Kharimkotan	Kuril Islands	1 1		1933
5	Quizapú	Andean Volcanic Belt	9.5 9.5	7 7–10^[12]	1932 April 10–21, 1932
5	Submarine volcano NNE of Iriomote Island	Japan	1 1		1924-10-31
6		SW Alaska, Aleutian Arc	26 26–30	13 13–14^[13]
5	Ksudach	Kamchatka	1.75		1907-03-28
6		Central America Volcanic Arc, Guatemala	10.7 10.7–11.4	6.4 6.4		1902 eruption of Santa María
5		Taupō Volcanic Zone	2.0 2		1886 June 10–15, 1886	1886 eruption of Mount Tarawera
6		Sunda Arc	18 18–25	9.0 9.0^[14]		1883 eruption of Krakatoa
5		Iceland	1.8 1.83
5		Kamchatka	2.0 2
5	Mount Agung	Sunda Arc, Bali	1		1843
5		Central America Volcanic Arc, Nicaragua	4.3 4.25
5	Mount Galunggung	Sunda Arc, Java	2.0 2
7		Sunda Arc, Sumbawa	144 144–213	37 37–50^[15]		1815 eruption of Mount Tambora
6?	Between Indonesia and Tonga				1808 c.1808	Undocumented 1808 eruption^[16]
5		Cascade Volcanic Arc	1.5 1.5		1800 c.1800	T (Goat Rocks)
5	Katla	Iceland	1		1755-10-17
5	Mount Tarumae	Hokkaidō	4		1739-08-18	Ta-a
5	Katla	Iceland	1		1721-05-11
5		Honshū	1.7 1.7		1707 December 16, 1707	Hōei eruption of Mount Fuji
5	Tangkoko	Sangihe Volcanic Arc	1		1680
5	Mount Gamkonora	Halmahera Volcanic Arc	1		1673-05-20
5	Mount Tarumae	Hokkaidō	2.8		1667-09-24	Ta-b
5	Mount Usu	Hokkaidō	2.78		1663-08-16
6	Long Island, PNG	Bismarck Volcanic Arc	21 21	12 12^[17]	1660 c.1660	Tibito tephra
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	≥ 2		1652 CE ±11	SH1
5	Mount Melibengoy^[18]	Mindanao, Philippines	1.0 1		1640 December 26, 1640
5	Komagatake	Hokkaidō	2.9		1640-07-31	Ko-d
5	Mount Vesuvius	Campanian volcanic arc	1.1		1631-12-16
5	Furnas	São Miguel Island, Azores	2.1		1630-09-03
5	Katla	Iceland	1		1625-09-02
6		Andes, Central Volcanic Zone	34 34–35	12 12.2^[19] ^[20]	1600 February 19, 1600
5	Raung	Sunda Arc, Java	1		1593 CE
5		Sunda Arc, Java	1.0 1		1586 c.1586
6		Bougainville & Solomon Is.	13.5 13.5		1580 c.1580	BM2
5	Água de Pau	São Miguel Island, Azores	1.3		1563-06-28 / 1563-07-26
5		Cascade Volcanic Arc	1.5 1.5		1482 c.1482	We (Kalama)
5		Cascade Volcanic Arc	7.7 7.7		1480 c.1480	Wn (Kalama)
6		Iceland	10 10		1477 c.1477	Veidivatnahraun
7?					1458 c.1458	Undocumented 1458 eruption^[21] ^[22]
?					1452/1453	Undocumented 1452/1453 eruption
6	Öræfajökull	Iceland	10 10		1362 June 5, 1362
6		Andes, Northern Volcanic Zone	21 21		1280 c.1280
5	Katla	Iceland	1		1262 CE
7		Lombok Island	81 81–92	33 33–40^[23]	1257 c.1257	1257 Samalas eruption
5	Mount Asama	Honshū	1.3 1.3		1108 August 29, 1108	Tennin eruption (1108)
5	Hekla	Iceland	1.2 1.2		1104 c.1104	H1 tephra
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	≥ 2		1034 CE ±11	SH2
5	Billy Mitchell	Bougainville & Solomon Is.	7		1030 CE	BM1
6		Balhae (China – North Korea border)	40 40–98	10 10–64^[24]	0946 c.946	Millennium eruption Baegdusan-Tomakomai Tephra
5	Towada^[25]	Honshū	6.5 6.54		0915 c.915	Eruption episode A
6	Mount Churchill	eastern Alaska	50		847 CE ±1	WRAe
6		Bismarck Volcanic Arc	24 24		0683 c.683	Rabaul Pyroclastics
6	Dakataua	Bismarck Volcanic Arc	10		653 CE ±18	Dk
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	≥ 2		650 CE ±40	SH3
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	≥ 2		600 CE
5	Mount Haruna	Honshū	1.6		550 CE ±10	Futatsudake-Ikaho eruption
6-7	Unknown source	Unknown			0536 c.536	Volcanic winter of 536
5		Campanian volcanic arc	1.2 1.2		0472 c.472	Pollena
6		Central America Volcanic Arc, El Salvador	37 37–82	44 44–95^[26] ^[27]	0430 c.430	Tierra Blanca Joven eruption
5		Aleutian Arc	1		340	Akutan tephra
7		Taupō Volcanic Zone	110 110		0232 c.232	Hatepe eruption
5	Masaya	Central America Volcanic Arc, Nicaragua	6.6		150	Masaya Tuff
5	Mount Vesuvius	Campanian volcanic arc	3.2 3.25		0079 c.79	Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79
6		Vanuatu	70 70		0050 c.50	Ambrym Pyroclastic Series

Before Common Era (BCE)

VEI	width=170px rowspan=2	Volcano/complex	width=150px rowspan=2	Volcanic arc/belt, subregion, or hotspot	Material volume (km^3)		data-sort-type="number" width=105px rowspan=2	Date	data-sort-type="number" rowspan=2	Age (ka)^[28]	width=250px rowspan=2	Tephra or eruption name
	width=70px	Bulk	width=70px	DRE
6		Umnak, Aleutian Arc	25 25+^[29]	15 15+	-0043 43 BCE	2	Okmok II
5		Campanian volcanic arc	1.0 1		-0122 122 BCE	2.1	S flank, summit (Cratere del Piano caldera)
6		Kermadec Islands	28.8 28.8		-0250 250 BCE	2.2	Fleetwood
5	Mount St. Helens	Cascade Volcanic Arc	1.2 1.2		-0530 530 BCE	2.5	Ps/Pu (Pine Creek)
5	Mount Tarumae	Hokkaidō	3.3		550 BCE		Ta-c
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	1		780 BCE		SH5
5	Mount Fuji	Honshū	1		930 BCE		Upper SE flank, Tephra layer Zu
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	> 1		950 BCE
6	Mount Pinatubo	Luzon Volcanic Arc	12.5 12.5		-1050 1050 BCE	3	Maraunot eruptive period
5	Hekla	Iceland	7.5		1100 BCE ±50		H3 tephra
5	Mount Tarawera	Taupō Volcanic Zone	8		1310 BCE ±12		Kaharoa eruption
5	Mount Fuji	Honshū	1		1350 BCE		Tephra layer Os
5		Kamchatka	1.75 1.75		-1350 1350 BCE	3.3	Tephra layer IIAV3
6		Taupō Volcanic Zone	17 17		-1460 1460 BCE	3.4	Waimihia eruption
5	Avachinsky	Kamchatka	3.6 ≥ 3.6		-1500 1500 BCE	3.5	Tephra layer AV1
5	Hayes Volcano	SW Alaska, Aleutian Arc	8.1		1550 BCE		Hayes Tephra set H
6		South Aegean Volcanic Arc	34.5 34.5^[30]		-1610 1610 BCE	3.6	Minoan eruption
6	Mount St. Helens	Cascade Volcanic Arc	15.3 15.3		-1860 1860 BCE	3.8	Yn (Smith Creek)
6		Andes, Southern Volcanic Zone	12 12		-1890 1890 BCE	3.8
5	Mount Dana	SW Alaska, Aleutian Arc	1		1890 BCE		1890 BCE eruption
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	> 1		2000 BCE		SHsp
6-7	Deception Island^[31]	South Shetland Islands		30 30-60	-1960 1960 BCE	4	Outer Coast Tuff
6	Long Island, PNG	Bismarck Volcanic Arc	10 > 10		-2040 2040 BCE	4	biliau beds
5	Rungwe	Great Rift Valley, Tanzania	2.2		2050 BCE		Rungwe pumice
5	Nishiyama, Hachijō-jima	Izu–Bonin–Mariana Arc	1.2		2050 BCE		Mitsune-7 scoria
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	> 1		2100 BCE		SHsp
7	Paektu Mountain	Balhae (China – North Korea border)			-2264 2264 BCE?	4.2–5.1^[32]	Tianwenfeng eruption
7		Andes, Central Volcanic Zone	172 172	8 8–83^[33]	-2300 2300 BCE	4.3
5	Hekla	Iceland	5.6		2310 BCE ±20		H4 tephra
5	Mount St. Helens	Cascade Volcanic Arc	1.2 1.2		-2340 2340 BCE	4.3	Yb (Smith Creek)
5	Piton de la Fournaise	Réunion	1.8		2700 BCE		Bellecombe Ash Member
5	Ilyinsky	Kamchatka	1.3		2850 BCE		ZLT-tephra; IL-tephra
5	Água de Pau	São Miguel Island, Azores	5.4		2990 BCE		Fogo A
5	Lake Numazawa	Honshū	4.71		3400 BCE
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	≥ 2		3500 BCE
6		Luzon Volcanic Arc	12 12?		-3550 3550 BCE	5.5	Crow Valley eruptive period
7		Luzon Volcanic Arc	150 150>	90 90^[34]	-3580 3580 BCE	5.5	Taal scoria pyroclastic flow
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	≥ 2		3650 BCE
5	Kaguyak	SW Alaska, Aleutian Arc	3.9		3850 BCE		Caldera formation
6		Central America Volcanic Arc, Nicaragua	14.8 14.8		-4050 4050 BCE	6
5	Towada	Honshū	9.18		4150 BCE		eruption episode C
5	Apoyeque	Central America Volcanic Arc, Nicaragua	1.9		4160 BCE ±30		Laguna Xiloá
5	Avachinsky	Kamchatka	4.0 ≥ 4		-4340 4340 BCE	6.3	Tephra layer IAv12; AV4
6-7		Kermadec Islands	100 ⩽ 100		-4360 4360 BCE	6.3
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	≥ 2		4400 BCE
5	Komagatake	Hokkaidō	3		4600 BCE ±50		Ko-g
5	Nishiyama, Hachijō-jima	Izu–Bonin–Mariana Arc	1.2		4650 BCE		Mitsune-5 scoria
6		Andes, Southern Volcanic Zone	18 18		-4750 4750 BCE	6.7
5	Ksudach	Kamchatka	7.5		4900 BCE		KS2
5	Tavui	Bismarck Volcanic Arc	5.75		4946 BCE ±40		Raluan Pyroclastics
5	Hekla	Iceland	1.7		5150 BCE		H5 tephra
5	Ksudach	Kamchatka	3		5200 BCE		KS3
5	Ichinsky	Kamchatka	2.5		5400 BCE
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	1.2		5500 BCE
6		Hokkaidō	18.6 18.6		-5550 5550 BCE	7.5	Ma-f/g/h/i/j
6		Kamchatka	15 15		-5700 5700 BCE	7.7	KHG tephra
5	Avachinsky	Kamchatka	9 9		-5980 5980 BCE	7.9	Tephra layer IAv2
6		East African Rift	70 70		-6050 6050 BCE	8
5	Mount Tarawera	Taupō Volcanic Zone	1.2		6060 BCE ±50		Haroharo (Te Horoa & other domes)
5	Makushin Volcano	Unalaska, Aleutian Arc	7.5		6100 BCE ±50
6		Bismarck Volcanic Arc	20 20		-6318 6318 BCE	8.3	Wadau deposit
5	Kizimen	Kamchatka	4.9		6400 BCE ±50		KZII
6		Kamchatka	14.5 14.5		-6600 6600 BCE	8.6	Tephra layer KRM
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	1		6800 BCE
5	Mount Tarumae	Hokkaidō	1.9		6950 BCE		Ta-d
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	≥ 2		7150 BCE
5	Towada	Honshū	2.5		7250 BCE		eruption episode E
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	≥ 1		7300 BCE
6		Luzon Volcanic Arc	10 ⩾10		-7460 7460 BCE	9.4	Tayawan caldera, Pasbul eruptive period
5	Mount Tarawera	Taupō Volcanic Zone			7560 BCE ±18		Lake Rotoma
6		São Miguel Island, Azores	11.5 11.5		-8000 8000 BCE	10	Inner Caldera Formation
7		Aleutian Arc	120 120		-8000 8000 BCE	10
5	Kizimen	Kamchatka	4		8050 BCE		KZI
6		Iceland	15 15		-8230 8230 BCE	10.2	Saksunarvatn tephra
5	Lake Ngozi	Great Rift Valley, Tanzania	7		8250 BCE		Kitulo pumice
5	Towada	Honshū	1.3		8250 BCE		eruption episode F
6		Great Rift Valley, Kenya	50 50		-8910 8910 BCE	10.9
5	Mount Tongariro	Taupō Volcanic Zone	1		9350 BCE
5	Mount Tongariro	Taupō Volcanic Zone	1		9450 BCE		Poutu Lapilli (Mangamate)
5	Mount Tongariro	Taupō Volcanic Zone	1		9650 BCE

Exact year unknown

VEI	width=150px	Volcano/complex	width=150px	Volcanic arc/belt, subregion, or hotspot	width=70px	Material volume bulk (km^3)	data-sort-type="number" width=95px	Date (earliest est.)	data-sort-type="number" width=95px	Date (latest est.)	width=180px	Tephra or eruption name
5	Sakurajima	Kyūshū	1	1471 c.1471	1476 c.1476
5	Mount Pinatubo	Luzon Volcanic Arc	1	1400 c.1400	1500 c.1500	Buag eruptive period
5	El Chichón	Chiapanecan Volcanic Arc	2.8	1260 c.1260	1460 c.1460
5	Ubinas	Andes, Central Volcanic Zone	2.8	1000 c.1000	1164 c.1164
5	Lake Mashū	Hokkaidō	4.6	980 c.980	1180 c.1180	Ma-b
5	Puyehue	Andean Volcanic Belt	4.32	0785 c.785	0935 c.935	MH tephra
6		Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt	10.9 10.95	0730 c.730	1130 c.1130	Jala Pumice
5	El Chichón	Chiapanecan Volcanic Arc	> 1	0680 c.680	0880 c.880	tephra unit D
6		Bismarck Volcanic Arc	20.0 20	0635 c.635	0785 c.785	Witori-Galilo tephra
5	Pago	Bismarck Volcanic Arc	6	0600 c.600	0780 c.780	Witori-Kimbe 4 tephra
5	Opala	Kamchatka	3.7	0560 c.560	0660 c.660	Baranii Amphitheatre crater
5	Pago	Bismarck Volcanic Arc	6	0210 c.210	0410 c.410	Witori-Kimbe 3 tephra
6		eastern Alaska	10.0 10	0145 c.145	0345 c.345	WRAn
6		Kamchatka	18.5 18.5	0140 c.140	0340 c.340	KS1
5	Furnas	São Miguel Island, Azores	1.54	-0020 20 BCE	0180 c.180	Tephra layer C
6		Central America Volcanic Arc, Nicaragua	18.0 18	-0150 150 BCE	0150 c.50
5	Masaya	Central America Volcanic Arc, Nicaragua	3.4	-0270 270 BCE	-0070 70 BCE	Masaya Tuff
5	Popocatépetl	Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt	3.2	-0500 500 BCE	0150 c.100	I.A1 Yellow Pumice
5		Garibaldi Volcanic Belt	0.1 ⩾ 1	-0610 610 BCE	-0210 210 BCE	Bridge River eruption
5	Mount Tongariro	Taupō Volcanic Zone	1.2	-0750 750 BCE	-0350 350 BCE
5	Khodutka	Kamchatka	1.25	-1030 1030 BCE	-830 830 BCE	KHD tephra
5	Yantarni Volcano	SW Alaska, Aleutian Arc	1	-1300 1300 BCE	-300 300 BCE
6		Bismarck Volcanic Arc	30.0 30	-1530 1530 BCE	-1210 1210 BCE	Witori-Kimbe 2 tephra
5		Campanian volcanic arc	0.2 1	-1550 1550 BCE	-1450 1450 BCE
6		SW Alaska, Aleutian Arc	50.0 50	-1636 1636 BCE	-1446 1446 BCE	Aniakch
5	Mount St. Helens	Cascade Volcanic Arc	3.5 3.5	-1870 1870 BCE	-1670 1670 BCE	Ye (Smith Creek) ak II
5	Villarrica	Andean Volcanic Belt	3.3	-2010 2010 BCE	-1610 1610 BCE	Pucón Ignimbrite
6		SW Alaska, Aleutian Arc	30.0 30	-2050 2050 BCE	-1750 1750 BCE
5	El Chichón	Chiapanecan Volcanic Arc	2	-2130 2130 BCE	-1930 1930 BCE	Unit K (SI; Espindola 2000) Unit E (Macias 1997)
5	Mount Galunggung	Sunda Arc, Java	1	-2400 2400 BCE	-2100 2100 BCE
6		SW Alaska, Aleutian Arc	50.1 > 50	-2455 2455 BCE	-2153 2153 BCE	V2
6		Campanian volcanic arc	2.0 2.0	-2460 2460 BCE	-2380 2380 BCE	Avellino eruption
5	Phlegraean Fields	Campanian volcanic arc	1.8	-2650 2650 BCE	-1650 1650 BCE	Agnano Monte Spina
5	Lake Ikeda	Kyūshū	2.3	-2765 2765 BCE	-2615 2615 BCE	Ikeda-ko caldera, Tephra layer Ikp
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	> 1	-2920 2920 BCE	-2320 2320 BCE	SHdv
5-6	Fisher Caldera	Unimak, Aleutian Arc	5.5 (DRE)	-3245 3245 BCE	-3095 3095 BCE	Turquoise Cone
5	Chaitén	Andean Volcanic Belt	4.7	-3320 3320 BCE	-2880 2880 BCE	Cha2/Mic2 tephra
5	Avachinsky	Kamchatka	1.5 1.5	-3350 3350 BCE	-3050 3050 BCE	Tephra layer IAv20; AV3
5	Mount Tarawera	Taupō Volcanic Zone	6	-3621 3621 BCE	-3431 3431 BCE	Whakatane tephra
5	Popocatépetl	Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt	⩾ 5	-4000 4000 BCE	-3400 3400 BCE	I.A1 Yellow Pumice
5	Apoyeque	Central America Volcanic Arc, Nicaragua	1	-4050 4050 BCE	-1050 1050 BCE	W Chiltepe Peninsula, Mateare Tephra
6		Bismarck Volcanic Arc	10.0 10	-4210 4210 BCE	-3790 3790 BCE	Witori-Kimbe 1 tephra
5	Hekla	Iceland	1	-4210 4210 BCE	-4010 4010 BCE	Hekla Ö tephra
5	Mayor Island / Tūhua	Taupō Volcanic Zone	1.6	-5260 5260 BCE	-4860 4860 BCE	Taratimi Bay
5	Puyehue	Andean Volcanic Belt	1.66	-5230 5230 BCE	-4930 4930 BCE	PU-2 tephra
7		Ryukyu Islands	170 170–185	-5353 5353 BCE	-5215 5215 BCE	Akahoya eruption
7	Crater Lake (as Mount Mazama)	Cascade Volcanic Arc	120 120	-5832 5832 BCE	-5734 5734 BCE	Mazama Tephra
5-6	Crater Lake	Cascade Volcanic Arc	8.9 > 9	-5950 5950 BCE	-5850 5850 BCE	Lower Pumice, Llao Rock
6		Aleutian Arc	30.0 30	-7550 7550 BCE	-5050 5050 BCE	Aniakchak I
6		Onekotan, Kuril Islands	55.0 55	-6438 6438 BCE	-6258 6258 BCE
7		Kamchatka	155 155	-6462 6462 BCE	-6416 6416 BCE	Ilinsky eruption
5	Pico de Orizaba	Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt	1	-6860 6860 BCE	-6560 6560 BCE	Upper Citlaltépetl ignimbrite
5-6	Mount Vesuvius	Campanian volcanic arc	5.1 5.1	-7040 7040 BCE	-6840 6840 BCE	Mercato eruption
6	Okmok Caldera	Umnak, Aleutian Arc	75 75	-8456 8456 BCE	-6096 6096 BCE	Okmok I
6		Dominica, Lesser Antilles island arc	58 58	-7535 7535 BCE	-7347 7347 BCE	PPR3 - Link fall
5	Shiveluch	Kamchatka	≥ 2	-7550 7550 BCE	-7250 7250 BCE
5	Calbuco	Southern Chile & Argentina	1	-7585 7585 BCE	-5935 5935 BCE	Ca8 tephra layer
5	Chaitén	Andean Volcanic Belt	3.54	-7950 7950 BCE	-7550 7550 BCE	Cha1 tephra
5	Roundtop Volcano	Unimak, Aleutian Arc	7	-8100 8100 BCE	-7100 7100 BCE
6		South Korea	28.5 28.5	-8305 8305 BCE^[35]	-8227 8227 BCE	Ulleungdo-Oki tephra
5	Taupō Volcano	Taupō Volcanic Zone	4.8	-8330 8330 BCE	-7930 7930 BCE	Unit E (Opepe Tephra)
5	Calbuco	Southern Chile & Argentina	1	-8615 8615 BCE	-8305 8305 BCE	Ca1 tephra layer
6		Kuril Islands	75 75	-8756 8756 BCE	-8614 8614 BCE
6	Aira	Kyūshū	12	-9050 9050 BCE	-7050 7050 BCE	Wakamiko Caldera
5	Askja	Iceland	3.45	-9110 9110 BCE	-8710 8710 BCE	Dyngjufjöll Tephra
7	Fisher Caldera	Unimak, Aleutian Arc	142 142	-9114 9114 BCE	-8330 8330 BCE	Fisher Tuff
5	Taupō Volcano	Taupō Volcanic Zone	1	-9315 9315 BCE	-9165 9165 BCE	4 km W of Te Kohaiakahu Point, Unit C (Poronui)
5	Taupō Volcano	Taupō Volcanic Zone	1.4	-9660 9660 BCE	-9260 9260 BCE
5	Hijiori	Honshū	2.3	-10050 10050 BCE	-9050 9050 BCE	Obanazawa Pumice

See also

• Year Without a Summer
• Volcanic winter of 536
• List of largest volcanic eruptions
• List of Quaternary volcanic eruptions
• Timeline of volcanism on Earth

References

1. News: 2023-09-08 . Tonga volcano triggered seafloor debris stampede . en-GB . BBC News . 2023-09-09.
2. Web site: Cronin . Shane . A year on, we know why the Tongan eruption was so violent. It's a wake-up call to watch other submarine volcanoes . 2023-09-09 . The Conversation . 12 January 2023 . en.
3. Pistolesi . Marco . Cioni . Raffaello . Bonadonna . Costanza . Elissondo . Manuela . Baumann . Valerie . Bertagnini . Antonella . Chiari . Laura . Gonzales . Rafael . Rosi . Mauro . Francalanci . Lorella . 2015-01-22 . Complex dynamics of small-moderate volcanic events: the example of the 2011 rhyolitic Cordón Caulle eruption, Chile . Bulletin of Volcanology . en . 77 . 1 . 3 . 10.1007/s00445-014-0898-3 . 2015BVol...77....3P . 11568/800962 . 128420641 . 1432-0819. free .
4. Kratzmann, David, et al. (2009) "Compositional variations and magma mixing in the 1991 eruptions of Hudson volcano, Chile" Bulletin of Volcanology 71(4): pp. 419–439, p.419,
5. Scasso . Roberto A. . Corbella . Hugo . Tiberi . Pedro . 1994-05-01 . Sedimentological analysis of the tephra from the 12–15 August 1991 eruption of Hudson volcano . Bulletin of Volcanology . en . 56 . 2 . 121–132 . 10.1007/BF00304107 . 1994BVol...56..121S . 129044198 . 1432-0819.
6. Oppenheimer. Clive. 2003. Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815 . subscription . Progress in Physical Geography. 27 . 2 . 230–259 . 10.1191/0309133303pp379ra. 131663534.
7. Web site: Mt. Pinatubo, Luzon, Philippines. National Geophysical Data Center (U.S. NOAA). December 2, 2007.
8. Wiesner . Martin G. . Wetzel . Andreas . Catane . Sandra G. . Listanco . Eddie L. . Mirabueno . Hannah T. . 2004-03-01 . Grain size, areal thickness distribution and controls on sedimentation of the 1991 Mount Pinatubo tephra layer in the South China Sea . Bulletin of Volcanology . en . 66 . 3 . 226–242 . 10.1007/s00445-003-0306-x . 2004BVol...66..226W . 128818475 . 1432-0819.
9. Carey . Steven . Sigurdsson . Haraldur . 1986-06-01 . The 1982 eruptions of El Chichon volcano, Mexico (2): Observations and numerical modelling of tephra-fall distribution . Bulletin of Volcanology . en . 48 . 2 . 127–141 . 10.1007/BF01046547 . 1986BVol...48..127C . 128515240 . 1432-0819.
10. Web site: Mount St. Helens – From the 1980 eruption to 2000 . Fact Sheet 036-00 . United States Geological Survey . 2006-11-12. 2000.
11. Carey . S. . Gardner . J. . Sigurdsson . H. . 1995-07-01 . The intensity and magnitude of Holocene plinian eruptions from Mount St. Helens volcano . Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research . Models of Magnetic Processes and Volcanic Eruptions . en . 66 . 1 . 185–202 . 10.1016/0377-0273(94)00059-P . 1995JVGR...66..185C . 0377-0273.
12. Rebolledo . Alejandro . Castruccio . Angelo . Aravena . Álvaro . 2022 . Effusive–explosive transition on eruptions at Quizapu volcano: Re-analysis of the 1846-1847 and 1932 eruptions and conduit flow modeling . IAVCEI Scientific Assembly 2023 . 883.
13. Book: Hildreth . Wes . The Novarupta-Katmai Eruption of 1912—Largest Eruption of the Twentieth Century: Centennial Perspectives . Fierstein . Judy . U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 1791, 259 p. . 2012.
14. Self . Stephen . 1992-10-01 . Krakatau revisited: The course of events and interpretation of the 1883 eruption . GeoJournal . en . 28 . 2 . 109–121 . 10.1007/BF00177223 . 189890473 . 1572-9893.
15. Kandlbauer . J. . Sparks . R.S.J. . 2014 . New estimates of the 1815 Tambora eruption volume . Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research . en . 286 . 93–100 . 10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2014.08.020. 2014JVGR..286...93K .
16. Web site: South Dakota State University . Undocumented volcano contributed to extremely cold decade from 1810-1819 . . December 7, 2009.
17. Blong . Russell J. . Kurbatov . Andrei V. . 2020 . Steps and missteps on the path to a 1665–1668 CE date for the VEI 6 eruption of Long Island, Papua New Guinea . Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research . en . 395 . 106828 . 10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2020.106828. 2020JVGR..39506828B . 216171098 . free .
18. Briffa. K. R.. Jones. P. D.. Schweingruber. F. H.. Osborn. T. J.. 1998-06-04 . Influence of volcanic eruptions on Northern Hemisphere summer temperature over the past 600 years. Nature. 393 . 6684 . 450–455 . 10.1038/30943 . 0028-0836 . 1998Natur.393..450B. 4392636.
19. Prival . J.-M. . Thouret . J.-C. . Japura . S. . Gurioli . L. . Bonadonna . C. . Mariño . J. . Cueva . K. . 2019-12-18 . New insights into eruption source parameters of the 1600 CE Huaynaputina Plinian eruption, Peru . Bulletin of Volcanology . en . 82 . 1 . 7 . 10.1007/s00445-019-1340-7 . 2019BVol...82....7P . 209392997 . 1432-0819. 20.500.12544/2478 . free .
20. Adams . Nancy K. . de Silva . Shanaka L. . Self . Stephen . Salas . Guido . Schubring . Steven . Permenter . Jason L. . Arbesman . Kendra . 2001-04-01 . The physical volcanology of the 1600 eruption of Huaynaputina, southern Peru . Bulletin of Volcanology . en . 62 . 8 . 493–518 . 10.1007/s004450000105 . 2001BVol...62..493A . 129649755 . 1432-0819.
21. Christopher T. . Plummer. M. A. J. . Curran . Tas D.. van Ommen . S.O. . Rasmussen . A. D.. Moy . Tessa R.. Vance. Clausen. H. B. . Vinther. Bo M. . Mayewski . P. A.. Climate of the Past Discussions . 8 . 1567–1590. 2012-05-01 . 10.5194/cpd-8-1567-2012 . An independently dated 2000-yr volcanic record from Law Dome, East Antarctica, including a new perspective on the dating of the c. 1450s eruption of Kuwae, Vanuatu . free .
22. Jihong . Cole-Dai. David G. . Ferris . Alyson L.. Lanciki . Joël . Savarino . Mark H.. Thiemens . Joseph R.. McConnell. Two likely stratospheric volcanic eruptions in the 1450s C.E. found in a bipolar, subannually dated 800 year ice core record . Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres . 118 . 7459–7466. 2013-07-17 . 14 . 10.1002/jgrd.50587 . 2013JGRD..118.7459C . 129790360 . free .
23. Vidal . Céline M. . Komorowski . Jean-Christophe . Métrich . Nicole . Pratomo . Indyo . Kartadinata . Nugraha . Prambada . Oktory . Michel . Agnès . Carazzo . Guillaume . Lavigne . Franck . Rodysill . Jessica . Fontijn . Karen . Surono . 2015 . Dynamics of the major plinian eruption of Samalas in 1257 A.D. (Lombok, Indonesia) . Bulletin of Volcanology . en . 77 . 9 . 73 . 10.1007/s00445-015-0960-9 . 2015BVol...77...73V . 127929333 . 1432-0819.
24. Yang . Qingyuan . Jenkins . Susanna F. . Lerner . Geoffrey A. . Li . Weiran . Suzuki . Takehiko . McLean . Danielle . Derkachev . A. N. . Utkin . I. V. . Wei . Haiquan . Xu . Jiandong . Pan . Bo . 2021-10-23 . The Millennium Eruption of Changbaishan Tianchi Volcano is VEI 6, not 7 . Bulletin of Volcanology . en . 83 . 11 . 74 . 10.1007/s00445-021-01487-8 . 2021BVol...83...74Y . 239461051 . 1432-0819. 10356/160061 . free .
25. Web site: Cumulative volume step-diagrams for eruptive magmas from major Quaternary volcanoes in Japan . Yamamoto . Takahiro . 2014 . gsj.jp . . 2021-01-04 . ja.
26. Smith . Victoria C. . Costa . Antonio . Aguirre-Díaz . Gerardo . Pedrazzi . Dario . Scifo . Andrea . Plunkett . Gill . Poret . Mattieu . Tournigand . Pierre-Yves . Miles . Dan . Dee . Michael W. . McConnell . Joseph R. . Sunyé-Puchol . Ivan . Harris . Pablo Dávila . Sigl . Michael . Pilcher . Jonathan R. . 2020-10-20 . The magnitude and impact of the 431 CE Tierra Blanca Joven eruption of Ilopango, El Salvador . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . en . 117 . 42 . 26061–26068 . 10.1073/pnas.2003008117 . 0027-8424 . 7584997 . 32989145. 2020PNAS..11726061S . free .
27. Dull . Robert A. . Southon . John R. . Kutterolf . Steffen . Anchukaitis . Kevin J. . Freundt . Armin . Wahl . David B. . Sheets . Payson . Amaroli . Paul . Hernandez . Walter . Wiemann . Michael C. . Oppenheimer . Clive . 2019 . Radiocarbon and geologic evidence reveal Ilopango volcano as source of the colossal 'mystery' eruption of 539/40 CE . Quaternary Science Reviews . en . 222 . 105855 . 10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.07.037. 2019QSRv..22205855D . 202190161 . free .
28. [Radiocarbon dating|start from 1950 CE]
29. Burgisser . Alain . 2005-07-01 . Physical volcanology of the 2,050 bp caldera-forming eruption of Okmok volcano, Alaska . Bulletin of Volcanology . en . 67 . 6 . 497–525 . 10.1007/s00445-004-0391-5 . 53577642 . 1432-0819.
30. Karstens . Jens . Preine . Jonas . Crutchley . Gareth J. . Kutterolf . Steffen . van der Bilt . Willem G. M. . Hooft . Emilie E. E. . Druitt . Timothy H. . Schmid . Florian . Cederstrøm . Jan Magne . Hübscher . Christian . Nomikou . Paraskevi . Carey . Steven . Kühn . Michel . Elger . Judith . Berndt . Christian . 2023-04-29 . Revised Minoan eruption volume as benchmark for large volcanic eruptions . Nature Communications . en . 14 . 1 . 2497 . 10.1038/s41467-023-38176-3 . 37120623 . 10148807 . 2023NatCo..14.2497K . 2041-1723.
31. Antoniades . Dermot . Giralt . Santiago . Geyer . Adelina . Álvarez-Valero . Antonio M. . Pla-Rabes . Sergi . Granados . Ignacio . Liu . Emma J. . Toro . Manuel . Smellie . John L. . Oliva . Marc . The timing and widespread effects of the largest Holocene volcanic eruption in Antarctica . . 22 November 2018 . 8 . 1 . 17279 . 10.1038/s41598-018-35460-x . 30467408 . 6250685 . 2018NatSR...817279A . 2045-2322.
32. Bo Pan. Shanaka L. de Silva. Jiandong Xu. Songjun Liu. Dan Xu. 2020 . Late Pleistocene to present day eruptive history of the Changbaishan-Tianchi Volcano, China/DPRK: New field, geochronological and chemical constraints . Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 399 . 106870. 10.1016/j.jvolgeores.2020.106870. 2020JVGR..39906870P. 218936429.
33. Báez . W. . Bustos . E. . Chiodi . A. . Reckziegel . F. . Arnosio . M. . de Silva . S. . Giordano . G. . Viramonte . J.G. . Sampietro-Vattuone . M.M. . Peña-Monné . J.L. . 2020 . Eruptive style and flow dynamics of the pyroclastic density currents related to the Holocene Cerro Blanco eruption (Southern Puna plateau, Argentina) . Journal of South American Earth Sciences . en . 98 . 102482 . 10.1016/j.jsames.2019.102482. 2020JSAES..9802482B . 212955749 .
34. Withoos, Yannick (2022): A study of the stratigraphy, lithofacies and geochemistry of Taal Caldera Volcano, Philippines, and its implications for the understanding of flooded caldera volcanoes. University of Leicester. Thesis.
35. 2013-05-01 . Identification and correlation of visible tephras in the Lake Suigetsu SG06 sedimentary archive, Japan: chronostratigraphic markers for synchronising of east Asian/west Pacific palaeoclimatic records across the last 150 ka . Victoria C. Smith . etal . Quaternary Science Reviews . 67 . 121–137 . 10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.01.026. 2013QSRv...67..121S .