List of kingdoms in Africa throughout history explained

There were many kingdoms and empires on the continent of Africa throughout history, as well as some non–contemporary republics.

The vast majority of kingdoms included in this list existed prior to the Scramble for Africa (c. 1880–1914) when almost all of the continent came under the control of European powers.

Some kingdoms, such as the Kingdom of Ardra in Benin, Kingdom of Buganda in Uganda, or the Kingdom of Bailundo in Angola, still exist today as non–sovereign monarchies. The roles, powers, and influence of non–sovereign monarchs throughout Africa vary greatly depending on the state. In some states, such as Angola, the local monarch may play an integral role in the local governing council of a region.^{[1] [2]} They are often regarded as custodians of tradition and culture, and in some cases, play an important role in local religious activities.^{[3] [4]} On the flipside their powers may be curtailed, as happened in 2022 with Wadai in Chad,^[5] or had their positions abolished, as happened in Tanzania in 1962,^[6] and in 1966 in Uganda with Buganda, which was later restored in 1993. In this list they are labelled (NSM).

There are only three current sovereign monarchies in Africa;^{[7] [8]} two of which (Lesotho and Morocco) are constitutional monarchies where the rulers are bound by laws and customs in the exercise of their powers, whilst one (Eswatini) is an absolute monarchy where the monarch rules without bounds. Sovereign monarchies are labelled (SM).

There have been a number of autocrats in Africa who invoked hereditary succession in order to preserve their regimes,^[9] such as the Bongos of Gabon,^[10] Gnassingbés of Togo,^[11] or Aptidon–Guelleh of Djibouti,^[12] generating the term monarchical republic.^[13] These have been tentatively included due to their similarities to, and possibly even taking inspiration from, the institution of monarchy and are labelled (MR).

Criteria

Only kingdoms and tribal kingdoms as per Elman Service's classifications that were once independent are included, excluding bands, tribes, and most chiefdoms. Dates have [one date for loss of independence] / [one date for loss of nominal rule]. Additional information such as notable articles may accompany entries.

The intercontinental Islamic empires that covered parts of North and Northeast Africa are not included, and should be discussed as part of the Muslim world, however the residual fragments that had their capital on the continent of Africa are.

History periods and sources

See main article: article and African historiography.

Ancient history (3600 BC – 500 AD)

See main article: article and Ancient history. Ancient history refers to the time period beginning with the first records in writing, approximately 3600 BC. It ends with the fall of several significant empires, such as the Western Roman Empire in the Mediterranean, the Han Dynasty in China, and the Gupta Empire in India, collectively around 500 AD.

Outside of North Africa, most of African political history relating to this time period has been pieced together through archaeological discoveries. There is very little written information about Sub–Saharan Africa at this time, besides that from outsiders such as "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea", dated to the 1st century AD, and the accounts of Claudius Ptolemy, dated to the 2nd century AD, both illuminating the East African coast. The delicate threads of oral tradition generally do not go back this far.

Post–classical history (500–1500 AD)

See main article: article and Post-classical history. The Postclassical Era, also referred to as the Medieval period or the Middle Ages, begins around 500 AD after the fall of major civilizations, covering the advent of Islam. The period ends around 1450–1500, with events like the rise of moveable–type printing in Europe, the voyages of Christopher Columbus, and the Ottoman Empire's conquest of Constantinople.

Sub–Saharan African societies have broadly been labelled "oral civilisations", contrasted with "literate civilisations", due to the emphasis placed on oral tradition and the important place it has in their cultures. As such, most of African history predating the colonial period has been preserved orally, passed down from generation to generation, and served a different function to the academic discipline of history. Perhaps the most famous examples of this is the Griots of West Africa, such as Balla Fasséké in the Mali Empire, who held largely hereditary positions. One of their roles was to study and memorise their people's history and serve in the king's court as an advisor, to represent the past, and to identify lessons. Whilst many oral traditions refer to this particular time period, over time they have taken on a more narrative–based, parabolic, or mythological form, limiting but not eradicating their usefulness to modern historians, as displayed in the oral traditions about the Empire of Kitara, an empire in the Great Lakes region that existed from around the 10th century to 15th century AD.

Following the spread of Islam to Africa in the 7th century AD, there were many more written histories, most notably from Ibn Khaldun, but also from al–Masudi, al–Bakri, al–Idrisi, Yaqut, Abulfeda, al–Umari, and Ibn Battuta. Ge'ez literature also began covering history from the 14th to 16th century.

Modern history (1500 AD – present)

See main article: article and Modern history. The Modern Period covers human history from the creation of a more global network (i.e. contact between the Americas and Europeans) to present day.

There is a wealth of oral traditions referring to the modern period that offer important and often crucial information for modern historians. There were high levels of scepticism regarding oral histories among historians of the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries leading to their obscurity, and whilst valid criticisms remain about their limitations, modern attitudes towards oral traditions as historical sources continue to improve.^[14]

Increased trade with Europe and an influx of Catholic missions from the 16th century onwards produced more written information which supplemented the Arabic literature, however African historiography as we view it today didn't take off until the 19th century under increased European interest in the region. These histories have been invaluable to modern historians, however they were often written from the colonial perspective under the pretence of Western superiority, occasionally for the purpose of disseminating colonial narratives. This has provided the fuel for anti–African bias, particularly regarding their history, which still persists in many countries today.^{[15] [16]}

Comparison between kingdoms

Historian Jan Vansina (1962) discusses the classification of Sub–Saharan African Kingdoms, mostly of Central, South and East Africa, with some additional data on West African (Sahelian) Kingdoms distinguishing five types, by decreasing centralization of power:

1. Despotic Kingdoms (D): Kingdoms where the king controlled the internal and external affairs directly and personally appointed overseers. The king kept a monopoly on the use of force. Examples include Rwanda, Nkore/Ankole, and Kongo of the 16th century.
2. Regal Kingdoms (R): Kingdoms where the king controlled the external affairs directly, and the internal affairs via a system of overseers where most local chiefs kept their positions but not their autonomy after conquest. The king and most of his administration belonged to the same religion, group and/or family.
3. Incorporative Kingdoms (I): Kingdoms where the king only controlled the external affairs and the nucleus with no permanent administrative links between him and the chiefs of the provinces. The local chiefs of the provinces were left largely undisturbed after conquest. Examples are the Bamileke, Luba and the Lozi.
4. Aristocratic Kingdoms (A): The only link between central authority and the provinces was payment of tribute which symbolised subordination. These kingdoms were kept together by the superior military strength of the nucleus. This type is rather common in Africa, examples include Kongo of the 17th century, Kazembe, Kuba, the Ha, and Chagga states of the 18th century.
5. Federations (F): Kingdoms where the external affairs were regulated by a council of elders headed by the king, who is simply primus inter pares, such as in the Ashanti Union. (Confederations are not included; see "List of confederations").

Almost all sultanates embody (R) due to the nature of the Islamic version of kingship.^[17] For this reason, and in the interest of highlighting differences, classifications for sultanates will only reference the relationship between the sultan and their administration.

Classifications not given as examples by Vansina are open to scrutiny (here). Ones where two classifications are given and joined by an "and" mean that the kingdom had elements from both present; ^[a] refers to the king's place and power, particularly in the nucleus, whilst ^[b] refers to the relationship between king and administration.

List of African kingdoms

A list of known kingdoms and empires on the African continent that we have record of.

North Africa

Ancient

• Protodynastic period in Egypt: (preceded by various cultures in which it is unclear if the institution of kingship existed) (preceded by nomes and nomarchs)
  • Lower Egypt Kingdom (3500–3100 BC)
  • Upper Egypt Kingdom (3400–3150 BC)
• Early Dynastic Egypt ((D)^[a] and (A)^[b])^[18] (3150–2686 BC)
• Old Kingdom of Egypt (((D) to (R))^[a] (4th dynasty) and ((R) to (A))^[b] (6th dynasty)) ^[19] (2686–2181 BC)

• Kingdom of Kerma (2500–1500 BC)
• First Intermediate Period in Egypt: (2181–2055 BC)
  • Heracleopolis
  • Thebes
• Middle Kingdom of Egypt ((D) in 12th dynasty)^[20] (2055–1650 BC)
• Second Intermediate Period in Egypt (1700–1550 BC)
  • 14th dynasty at Xois (1700–1650 BC)
  • 15th dynasty and the Hyksos (1650–1550 BC)
  • Abydos dynasty (1640–1620 BC)
  • 16th dynasty (1650–1580 BC)
  • 17th dynasty (1571–1540 BC)
• New Kingdom of Egypt (1550–1077 BC)
• Third Intermediate Period in Egypt: (1077–664 BC)
  • 21st dynasty (1077–943 BC)
  • 22nd dynasty (943–716 BC)
  • 23rd dynasty (837–728 BC)
  • 24th dynasty (732–720 BC)
• Kingdom of Kush (1070 BC – 350 AD) and the 25th dynasty of Egypt/Kushite Empire (754–656 BC)
• Ancient Carthage (814–146 BC)
• Late Dynastic Egypt (664–525 BC, 404–343 BC)
• Battiadae Kingdom (631–440 BC) (List of kings of Cyrene)
• Garamantes Kingdom (pre 5th century BC – 7th century AD)
• Nasamones Chiefdom (pre 5th century BC–?)
• Kingdom of Blemmyes (600 BC – 3rd century AD)
• Ptolemaic Kingdom (305–30 BC)
• Kingdom of Numidia (202–46 BC) (preceded by Massylii Confederation)
• Kingdom of Mauretania (202 BC – 25 BC/44 AD)
• Kingdom of Nobatia (350–650 AD) (absorbed into Makuria)
• Kingdom of Ouarsenis (430–735 AD) (Roman–Berber kingdoms)
• Kingdom of the Vandals and Alans (435–534 AD)
• Kingdom of the Moors and Romans (477–599 AD)
• Kingdom of the Aurès (484–703 AD) (Kahina) (Roman–Berber kingdoms)
• Kingdom of Makuria (5th century–1518 AD) (Dongola as an interchangeable name prior to 1365? "^[21] " and Qalidurut, in which there are contrasting titles for the same king) (its rump state after the 1365 civil war is often conflated as Dotawo and it is unknown whether the other polity in the civil war continued to hold Dongola prior to Funj conquest)
• Kingdom of Hodna^[22] (5th century–7th century AD) (Hodna) (Roman–Berber kingdoms)
• Kingdom of Capsus (5th century–6th/7th century AD) (Gafsa) (Roman–Berber kingdoms)
• Nemencha Kingdom (5th century–7th century AD) (Roman–Berber kingdoms)
• Lagautan/Tripolis/Cabaon Kingdom (5th century–7th century AD) (Cabaon) (Roman–Berber kingdoms)

Post–classical

• Kingdom of Dorsale^[23] (510–7th century AD) (Roman–Berber kingdoms) (mentioned in Vandal Kingdom#Later years)
• Kingdom of Altava (578–708 AD) (Kusaila of Awraba) (Roman–Berber kingdoms)
• Principality of Tingitana^[24] (6th century–7th century AD) (Mauretania Tingitana)
• Kingdom of Alodia/Alwa (6th century–1504 AD)
• Dar Sila 'Wandering Sultanate'^[25] (619–? AD)
• Emirate of Nekor (710–1019 AD)
• Barghawata/Tamasna Kingdom^[26] (744–1058 AD) (Salih ibn Tarif)
• al–Rahman's Ifriqiya (745–755 AD)

• Ifranid Emirate of Tlemcen (757–790 AD)
• Emirate of Sijilmassa (759–976 AD)
• Rustamid Imamate of Tahert (767–909 AD) (Algeria) (Tahert)
• Idrisid dynasty (789–974 AD) (Morocco)
• Imamate of Nafusa (8th century–911 AD)
• Aghlabid dynasty (800–909 AD) (Tunisia)
• Sulaymanid dynasty (814–922 AD) (Algeria)
• Tulunid dynasty (868–905 AD) (Egypt)
• Fatimid Caliphate (910–1171 AD) (born from Danhāǧa Confederation)
• Banu Khattab dynasty (918–1172/1177 AD) (Zawila) (Libya)
• Ikhshidid dynasty (935–969 AD) (Egypt) (Abu al–Misk Kafur)
• Banu Kanz dynasty (948–1365 AD) (Egypt/Sudan)
• Maghrawa dynasty (988–1069 AD) (Morocco)
• Banu Khazrun dynasty (1001–1146 AD) (Libya)
• M'zab (1012–16th century/1882 AD)
• Hammadid dynasty (1014–1152 AD) (Algeria) (born from Danhāǧa Confederation)
• Almoravid dynasty (1040–1147 AD) (Morocco) (born from Aznag Confederation)
• Zirid dynasty (1048–1148 AD) (Algeria) (born from Danhāǧa Confederation)
• Khurasanid dynasty (1059–1128 AD, 1148–1158 AD) (Tunisia)
• Banu Ghaniya dynasty^[27] (1180–1212 AD) (Tunisia)
• Banu Hilal Chiefdom (11th century–? AD) (Hilalian invasion of Ifriqiya) (Abu Zayd al–Hilali)
• Almohad dynasty (1121–1269 AD) (Morocco) (born from Masmuda Confederation) (Tinmel)
• Ayyubid dynasty (1171–1254 AD) (Egypt)

• Guanches Guanartematos: (pre–15th century AD) (Gran Canaria)
  • Telde
  • Gáldar
• Daju kingdom (12th century–15th century AD) preceded by Tora (overthrown by Tunjur)
• Emirate of Banu Talis (1228–1551 AD)
• Hafsid dynasty (1229–1574 AD) (Tunisia) (born from Masmuda Confederation)
• Zayyanid Kingdom of Tlemcen (1235–1556 AD) (born from Zenata Confederation)
• Marinid dynasty (1248–1465 AD) (Morocco) (born from Zenata Confederation)
• Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517 AD)
  • Bahri dynasty (1250–1382 AD)
  • Burji dynasty (1382–1517 AD)
• Banu Makki dynasty (1282–1394 AD) (Tunisia)
• Hafsid Emirate of Béjaïa/Bougie (1285–1510 AD)
• Kingdom of al–Abwab (13th century–15th/16th century AD)
• Hafsid Emirate of Qusantina/Constantine^[28] (AD 13th/14th century–1528) (Constantine)
• Banu Thabit dynasty (1324–1401 AD) (Libya)
• Zab Emirate (mid 14th century–1402 AD)
• Sultanate of Tuggurt (1414–1854/1871 AD) (vassal of Algiers (AD 1552–1812/1827)) (List of rulers of Tuggurt)
• Wattasid dynasty (1470–1554 AD) (Morocco) (born from Zenata Confederation)
• Tunjur kingdom (15th century–mid 17th century AD) (overthrown by Darfur)
• Abdallabi Kingdom (15th century–1504/1821 AD)

Modern

• Kingdom of Fazughli (1500–1685 AD)
• Sultanate of Sennar/Funj (1504–1821 AD)
• Saadi Principality of Sus and Tagmadert (1509–1554 AD) (Sous) (at times ruled separately from Saadi Sultanate)
• Kingdom of Beni Abbas (1510–1872 AD)
• Kingdom of Kuku (1515–1638 AD)
• Regency of Algiers (1516/1659–1830 AD) (Odjak of Algiers Revolution)
• Fezzan Sultanate (1550–1812 AD)
• Saadi dynasty (1554–1659 AD) (Morocco)
• Regency of Tunis (1574/1591/1613–1705 AD) (Muradid dynasty) succeeded by Beylik of Tunis (1705–1881 AD) (Husainid dynasty)
• Naqsid Principality of Tetouan (1597–1673 AD)
• Sultanate of Darfur (1603–1874 AD, 1898–1916 AD) (Keira dynasty)
• Republic of Bou Regreg (1627–1668 AD) (Elective monarchy?)
• Dila'iya Sultanate (1637–1668 AD)
• Alaouite dynasty (1666 AD–current) (SM of Morocco) (Makhzen)
• Dar Tama Sultanate^{[29] [30]} (17th century AD–?) (Tama people)
• Regency of Tripoli (1551/1711–1835/1912 AD) (Karamanli dynasty)
• Taqali Kingdom (1750–1884 AD, 1889–1969 AD) (Tagale people)
• Emirate of Abdelkader/Mascara (1832–1847 AD)
• Dar Qimr Sultanate^{[31] [32]} (1850–?/1945 AD) (mentioned in Sultan#West Asia and North Africa)
• Mahdist State (1885–1889 AD)
• Dar Masalit Sultanate^[33] (19th century–early 20th century AD)
• Muhammad Ali dynasty (1914–1951 AD) (Egypt)
• Emirate of Cyrenaica (1949–1951 AD)
• Senussi dynasty (1951–1969 AD) (Libya) preceded by Senusiyya (1837 AD–present)
• Kingdom of Tunisia (1956–1957 AD)

East Africa

See also: List of African Great Lakes kingdoms.

Ancient

• Kingdom of Punt (2400–1069 BC)
• Ancient Somali city–states (1000 BC – 5th century AD)
  • • Opone, Mundus, Mosylon, Malao, Nikon, Sarapion, Mudun, Damo, Miandi, Qandala, Botiala, Essina, Bosaso, Gondershe, Hannassa, Salweyn, Bulhar and Merca Macrobian Kingdom (1000–500 BC)
• Kingdom of Dʿmt (980–650 BC)
• Azania (?–1st century AD) (Rhapta) (Southern Cushitic people and the Bantu expansion)
• Aksumite/Axumite Empire (R)^[34] (50–937 AD) (List of kings of Axum)
• Empire of Zanj and the Swahili city states (50–10th century AD) (Bantu expansion and Zanj) (List of historic Swahili coast settlements)
  • Kilwa, Kunduchi, Mbuamaji, Tongoni, Kimbiji, Kaole, Malindi, Gedi, Pemba sultanates^[35] (Hadimu), Tumbatu, and Mombasa
• Kingdom of Semien/Falasha (350–351, 960–1329 AD) (Beta Israel) (only according to legend)

Post–classical

• Harla Kingdom (501–1500 AD)
• Sultanate of Dahlak (7th century–16th century AD)
• Sultanate of Shewa/Shoa (896–1286 AD) (List of rulers of Shewa)
• Hubat (9th century–14th century AD)
• Gidaya (9th century–14th century AD)
• Hargaya (9th century–14th century AD)
• Mora (9th century–14th century AD)
• Beja Kingdoms:
  • Bazin (9th century–15th century AD)
  • Belgin (9th century–15th century AD)
  • Jarin (9th century–15th century AD)
  • Qita'a (9th century–15th century AD)
  • Nagash (9th century–15th century AD)
  • Tankish (9th century–15th century AD)
  • Mezega/Belew/Bellou/Kelew^[36] (15th century AD–?) (Balaw)
• Tunni Sultanate (9th century – 13th century AD)
• Malindi Kingdom (9th century–15th century AD)
• Empire of Kitara ((D) in oral tradition, disputed by modern scholars whose accounts align with (A))^{[37] [38] [39] [40]} (10th century–15th century AD) (Tembuzi dynasty/Batembuzi followed by Chwezi dynasty/Bachwezi)

• Kilwa Sultanate (957–1513 AD)
  • Shirazi dynasty (957–1277 AD)
  • Mahdali dynasty (1277–1495 AD) succeeded by 3 Portuguese coups until 1513 AD
• Kingdom of Damot (960–1317 AD) neighbouring Bizamo
• Fatagar Sultanate (11th century–14th century AD)
• Gojjam (?-1316 CE)
• (11th century–1854 AD) (Gesera clan), splintered into Busozo and Bushiru^[41]
• Sultanate of Šawah^[42] (11th century–1285 AD)
• Zagwe dynasty (1137–1270 AD)
• Sultanate of Arababni (12th century–16th century AD)
• Wanga Kingdom (12th century–1895/present AD) (NSM of Kenya) (List of rulers of Wanga)
• Pate Sultanate (1203–1895 AD) (List of rulers of Pate) subordinate sultanates?:
  • Lamu
  • Siyu
  • Manda
• Kingdom of Wolaita/Welayta (1251–1896 AD)
• Ethiopian Empire (1270–1974 AD)
• Sultanate of Ifat (1285–1415 AD) preceded by Sultanate of Damut^[43] (pre–1285 AD) (Walashma dynasty)
• Dawaro Emirate (pre–13th century/18th century AD)
• Dankali Sultanate (13th century–18th century AD)
• Ugweno/Upare Kingdom (D)^[44] (13th century–15th century/1881/1962 AD) (Shana dynasty followed by Suya dynasty) (Pare people)
• Hadiya Sultanate (13th century–15th century AD, 17th century–19th century AD)
• Sultanate of Mogadishu (13th century–16th century AD)
• Sultanate of Bale/Bali^[45] (13th century–16th century AD)
  • Ajuran Sultanate (14th century–17th century AD) preceded by the Garen Kingdom Sharkha Sultanate^[46] (pre–14th century AD)
• Kingdom of Kaffa (1390–1897 AD)
• Kitagwenda Kingdom (1390–1901 AD) (incorporated into Tooro)
• Early Luo Kingdoms:^[47] (9 states by 1750 AD)
  • Tekedi Kingdom^[48] (early 15th century–mid 16th century AD)
  • Palwo/Paluo/Biito/Babito kingdoms (subset of Luo)^[49]
    • Pawir Kingdom^{[50] [51]} (pre 15th century AD–?) (later a province of Bunyoro)
    • (Lira Paluo, Paimol; not primarily Palwo/Paluo states: Padibe, Patongo, Alur/Alero and Koc)^[52]
  • Wipac Kingdom^[53] (pre 15th century AD–?)
• Kingdom of Bunyoro (D)^[54] (14th century–1899/present AD) (NSM in Uganda) (Omukama of Bunyoro) (not to be confused with Empire of Kitara)
• Ennarea/Inariya Kingdom (14th century–1710 AD) succeeded by Kingdom of Limmu–Ennarea (1801–1891 AD) (List of rulers of Ennarea)
• Busongora Kingdom^[55] (14th century/1725–1906/present AD) (NSM in Uganda) (Songora people) (incorporated into Ankole)
• Adal Sultanate (1415–1555 AD)
• Kingdom of Karagwe^[56] (1450–1890s/1963 AD)
• Shilluk Kingdom (A)^[57] (1490–1861/present AD) (NSM in South Sudan)
• Nkore/Ankole Kingdom (D)^[58] (1478–1901/1967/present AD) (NSM in Uganda) (called Nkore before 1914 when, under British administration, it was combined with several states to form Ankole)
• Angoche Sultanate (1485/1513–1910 AD)
• Alur Kingdom (R)^[59] (1490/1630–?/present AD) (NSM in Uganda)

• Yamma/Janjero Kingdom (15th century–1894 AD)
• (15th century–1884 AD)
• Mubari Kingdom (15th century–16th century/18th century AD) (Zigaba clan)
• Busigi Kingdom^[60] (15th century–?/early 20th century AD)
• Kingdom of Buzinza^[61] (15th century–? AD)
• Kingdom of Buganda ((D) in 19th century)^{[62] [63]} (late 13th century/1500–1884/present AD) (NSM in Uganda) (Kabaka of Buganda) (Lukiiko)
• Kingdom of Rwanda (D)^[64] (1500–1897/1962/present AD) (NSM in Rwanda) (Gihanga) (preceded by Singa, Zigaba and Gesera as the oldest, Banda, Cyaba, Ongera and Enengwe)^[65]

Modern

• Maore Sultanate^[66] (1500–1832/1835 AD) (List of sultans of Maore)
• Ndzuwani Sultanate^[67] (1500–1866/1886/1912 AD) (Anjouan) (List of sultans of Ndzuwani)
• Agĩkũyũ (1512–1888/1895 AD) (Kikuyu people)
• Vazimba Kingdoms (pre–1547 AD) (uncertain regarding total) (Andriandravindravina) (Twelve sacred hills of Imerina):
  • Alasora
  • Ambohidratrimo
    • Menabe Kingdom (1540–1834 AD)
• Kingdom of Imerina/Madagascar (1540–1897/present AD) (NSM in Madagascar) (List of Imerina monarchs) (4 states emerged in the civil war, to later be reunited): (1710–1787 AD)
  • Imerina Avaradrano (Antananarivo–Avaradrano)
  • Ambohimanga (won the civil war with King Andrianampoinimerina)
  • Ambohidrabiby
  • Ambohidratrimo
• Mombasa Sultanate (1547–1826 AD) (List of rulers of Mombasa)
• Kingdom of Garo/Bosha (1567–1883 AD) (List of rulers of Garo)
• Gadabuursi Ughazate (1575/1607–1884)
• Imamate of Aussa (1577–1734 AD) succeeded by Sultanate of Aussa (1734–1865/1975 AD, 1991 AD–present) (NSM in Ethiopia)
• Mäzäga (pre-16th century AD) (Ga'ewa) (conquered by Ethiopia)
• Boorana (pre 16th century–early 20th century AD) (Gadaa system of governance; republic and gerontocracy (included due to its uniqueness despite not being a kingdom))
• Busoga kingdoms ((D) for the constituents and in 16th century when it was one entity)^[68] (AD 16th century–late 19th century/present) (NSM in Uganda) (only formed a federation in 1906 under British administration, some of its federates (32) are also NSMs in Uganda) (Kyabazinga of Busoga) (Lukiiko):
  • Group of 6 kingdoms:
    • Busiki (1683–?/present AD)
    • Bugweri (1728–late 19th century/present AD)
    • Bunya (pre 1737 AD–?/present)
    • Bukooli (pre 1737 AD–?/present)
      • • • Bunyole Butembe
  • Group of 5 principalities:
    • Bulamogi (1550 AD–?/present)
    • Bukono (pre 1656–1896/present AD)
    • Luuka/Luzinga (pre 1737 AD–?/present)
    • Kigulu (1737–1896 AD)
      • Kigulu–Buzimba (1806–1899 AD) (split from Kigulu, later reunited under British administration)
    • Bugabula
• Kingdom of Anfillo^[69] (late 16th century-late 19th century)
• Kingdom of Bugesera (16th century–1799 AD) (partitioned between Rwanda and Burundi)
• Teso Kingdom^[70] (A)^[71] (16th century AD–?)
• Kayonza Kingdom^[72] (16th century AD–?)
• Kingizi Kingdom^[73] (16th century AD–?)
• Grande Comore Sultanates^[74] (16th century–19th century AD): (united into Ndzuwani /Anjouan in 1886)
  • Bambao, Itsandra, Mitsamihuli, Washili, Badgini/Bajini, Hambuu, Hamahame, Mbwankuu, Mbude and Domba
• Antemoro Kingdom (A) ((R) in 1800s)^[75] (16th century–late 19th century AD)
• (1600–1891/1902 AD) (Rahayta)
• Antankarana Kingdom (1614–1835/present AD)
• Bara/Zafamanely Kingdom (1640–1800 AD) (fractured into 3 major kingdoms and 24 minor kingdoms)
• Emirate of Harar (1647–1875/1884 AD)
• Majeerteen Sultanate (1648–1889/1927/present AD) (NSM in Somalia)
• Mahafaly Kingdoms^[76] (pre 1650 AD–?): (seems they were previously united)^[77]
  • Sakatovo (1650 AD–?)
  • Menarandra (1650 AD–?)
  • Linta (1670 AD–?) (split from Menarandra)
  • Onilahy (1750 AD–?) (split from Menarandra)
• Kingdom of Mpororo/Ndorwa^[78] (1650–1753 AD) (Hororo people) (Muhumusa) (created as buffer state between Rwanda and Busongora) succeeded by: (all were incorporated into Nkore/Ankole)
  • Igara (1753–1901 AD)
  • Nshenyi (1753–1901 AD)
  • Rujumbura (1753–1901 AD)
  • Kajara (1753–1901 AD)
  • Obwera (1753–1901 AD)
  • Rukiga/Bushengyera (1753–1901 AD)
• Kingdom of Burundi/Urundi (R)^[79] (1680–1890/1966 AD) (List of kings of Burundi)
• Kadima Chiefdom of Yimbo^[80] (1680 AD–?) (Owiny people (subset of Luo))
• Boina/Iboina Kingdom (1690–1820/1840 AD)
• Bashi Kingdom (pre 17th century AD–?)
• Bukunzi Kingdom (pre 17th century AD–?)
• Kinkoko/Cyinkoko Kingdom^[81] (pre 17th century AD–?)
• Buhoma Kingdom^[82] (pre 17th century AD–?)
• Bahavu Kingdom^{[83] [84]} (pre 17th century AD–?) (NSM in Democratic Republic of the Congo)
• Rusubi/Ussuwi Kingdom^{[85] [86]} (pre 17th century AD–?, ?–early 19th century AD) (seceded from Buzinza)^[87] (appears to have split in two?)
• Kimwani Kingdom^[88] (pre 17th century AD–?) (seceded from Buzinza) (near Biharamulo, so not the Mwani people?)^[89]
• Bukerebe/Ukerebe^{[90] [91]} (pre 17th century AD–?)
• Betsileo Kingdoms:
  • Lalangina
  • Isandra
  • Fandriana
  • Fisakana
  • Manandriana (1750–1800 AD)
• Bemba/Buddu kingdom (R)^[92] (17th century AD–?/present) (NSM in Zambia)
• Antaisaka/Tesaka Kingdom (17th century–1853 AD)
• Cokossi/Anoufu Kingdom (17th century AD–?) (NSM in Togo)
• Anosy/Zafimanara Kingdom (17th century–19th century AD) (Zafiraminia)
• Sultanate of the Geledi (late 17th century–1902/1908 AD)
• Haya Kingdoms (R):^{[93] [94]} (17th century–late 19th century AD) (Kagera Region)
  • Kyamtwara (pre–late 18th century AD) succeeded by Maruku, Bugabo and Lesser Kyamtwara (late 18th century–1890/1961 AD)
  • Kiziba (pre–1890/1961 AD)
  • Ihangiro (pre–1890/1961 AD)
  • Kianja/Kiyanja/Kyanja/Kihanja (pre–1890/1961 AD)
• Acholiland (17th century AD–?) (NSM in Uganda) (60 chiefdoms in 19th century)
• Chagga states (A)^[95] (AD 17th century–1886/1961) (37 in total):
  • Siha/Kibongoto
  • Machame
  • Marangu
  • Kibosho (Battle of Kibosho)
  • others: Uru, Mbokomu, Moshi, Kirua, Kilema, Mwika, Arusha Chini, Kahe and Rombo
• Betsimisaraka Kingdom (I)^[96] (1710–1817 AD) (preceded by Antavaratra and Antatsimo/Betanimena)

• Kingdom of Kooki (1720–1896/2004/present AD) (NSM in Uganda)
• Isaaq Sultanate (1749–1884/present AD) (NSM in Somaliland)
• Habr Yunis Sultanate (1769–1907/1917/present AD) (NSM in Somaliland)
• Shambaa/Shambala Kingdom (D)^[97] (1730s–1885/present AD) (NSM in Tanzania) (Kilindi dynasty)
• Kingdom of Gumma (1770–1885/1902 AD) (List of rulers of Gumma)
• Kingdom of Jimma (1790–1884/1889/1932 AD) (List of rulers of Jimma)
• Buha Kingdoms (A)^{[98] [99]} (18th century–late 19th century AD):
  • Heru (called Oha initially by outside traders)
  • Nkalinzi/Manyovu
  • Bushingo/Ushingo
  • Muhambwe
  • Buyungu
  • Luguru/Ruguru
  • Bujiji/Ujiji (Jiji people)
  • Bushubi^{[100] [101]}
• Buzimba Kingdom (pre 18th century–1870/1901 AD) (incorporated into Ankole)
• Buhweju Kingdom (pre 18th century–1901 AD) (incorporated into Ankole)
• Bunyaruguru Kingdom (pre 18th century–1901 AD) (incorporated into Ankole)
• Tandroy/Zafimaniry Kingdom (early 18th century–1790/? AD) (same as/separate from the Anosy Kingdom?)
• Habr Awal Sultanate (18th century–1884/present AD) (NSM in Somaliland)
• Antaifasy Kingdom (18th century–1827/1896 AD)
• (18th century–1885/? AD)
• Ufipa Kingdom (18th century AD–?) (Milanzi dynasty followed by Twa dynasty)
• Sakalava Empire (18th century–1896/present AD) (fractured into NSMs in Madagascar)
• Zafirambo/Tanala Kingdom (18th century AD) split into Manambondro and Sandrananta
• Kotokolia Kingdom (18th century AD–?/present) (NSM in Togo)
• Benzanozano Kingdom (late 18th century AD) (only had one king)
• Bassar Kingdom^[102] (1800 AD–?/present)
• Tumbuka Kingdom (1805–1891/present AD) (NSM of Malawi) (Tumbuka people)
• Wituland (1810–1885/1923 AD) (List of rulers of Witu)
• Ibanda Kingdom (1814–1902 AD) (incorporated into Ankole)
• Kingdom of Gomma (early 19th century–1886 AD) (List of rulers of Gomma)
• Tooro Kingdom (R)^[103] (1830–1876/present AD) (NSM in Uganda)
• Mwali Sultanate^[104] (1830–1886/1909 AD) (Mohéli) (List of sultans of Mwali)
• Kingdom of Gera (1835–1887 AD) (List of rulers of Gera)
• Nkhotakota Sultanate (1840–1894 AD) (Nkhotakota)
• Sultanate of Zanzibar (1856–1890/1964 AD)
• Sultanate of Hobyo (1880s–1888/1927 AD)
• Tigre Kingdom^[105] (pre 19th century AD–?)
• Uhehe Kingdom (19th century–1898 AD)
• Kitutu Chiefdom^[106] (19th century AD)
• Usangi Kingdom (19th century–?/1962/present AD)
• Uvinza/Buvinza (19th century AD) (Vinza people)
• Nyamwezi Kingdoms: (19th century AD)
  • Unyanyembe
  • Ulyankulu
  • Usukuma (R)^[107] (NSM in Tanzania) (Sukuma people)
  • Mirambo
• Sultanate of Biru/Girrifo^{[108] [109]} (?–early 20th century AD) (Bidu (woreda)) (Afar people#Aussa states)
• Aptidon–Guelleh dynasty^[110] (1977 AD–present) (Djibouti) (MR)

West Africa

Ancient

• Kintampo Complex (2500–1400 BC)
• Dhar Tichitt Civilization (1600–300 BC)
• Nok Civilization (1000 BC – 300 AD)
• Djenné–Djenno Civilization (250 BC – 900 AD)
• Igodomigodo (40 BC–1180 AD) succeeded by Benin Empire (1180–1897/present AD) (NSM in Nigeria) (List of the Ogiso)
• Ghana/Wagadu Empire (200–1240 AD) (Kaya Magan Cissé) (institution of kingship was very likely to exist in Mali at this time, and in West Africa well before, due to large tumuli)^[111]
• Bura Civilization (300–1300 AD)

Post–classical

• Aoudaghost Kingdom (?–12th century/17th century AD)
• Takrur Kingdom (6th century–1456/1526 AD)
• Bainuk kingdom (7th century–13th century AD)
• Gao/Kaw Kaw Empire (D)^[112] (7th century–1430 AD) (Za dynasty)
• Igbo kingdoms:
  • Kingdom of Nri (948 – 1911/present AD) (NSM in Nigeria) (List of rulers of Nri) (Emergence of the Ugbo) (Igbo–Ukwu)
  • Nnewi Kingdom (1498–1904/present AD) (NSM in Nigeria) (List of Nnewi monarchs)
  • Aguleri Kingdom
  • Kingdom of Bonny (15th century–1886/present AD) (NSM in Nigeria)
  • Nembe Kingdom (1639–1884/present AD) (NSM in Nigeria)
  • Arochukwu and the Aro Confederacy ((F) or (I))^[113] (1690–1902 AD): Arondizuogu, Ajalli, Ndikelionwu, Agbowa–Ikosi, Bonny, Opobo, Nembe and the Efik of Akwa Akpa
  • Onitsha (NSM in Nigeria)
  • Agbor (NSM in Nigeria) (Ika people)
  • Ugbo Kingdom (NSM in Nigeria) (Olugbo of Ugbo Kingdom)
  • Aboh
  • Oguta
  • Eri Kingdom (Eri (king))
• Hausa Kingdoms
  • Kingdom of Kano (999–1349 AD) succeeded by Sultanate of Kano (1350–1805 AD) (NSM in Nigeria)
    • Gadawur Kingdom (?–15th century/present) (conquered by Kano)
  • Rano (1001–1819/present AD) (NSM in Nigeria)
  • Zazzau/Zaria (11th century–1808/1902/present AD) (NSM in Nigeria)
  • Gobir (11th century–1803/? AD) (centre of Jihad of Usman dan Fodio)
  • Katsina (A)^[114] (1348–1807/present AD) (NSM in Nigeria)
  • Maradi, Niger (19th century AD)
  • Daura (?–1805/present AD) (NSM in Nigeria) ("mother city")^[115]
  • Hadejia (?–1810/1991/? AD)
  • Bastard states:
    • Zamfara (11th century–1804 AD)
    • Kwararafa (1500–1840 AD) (kingdom or tribal confederation) (Jukun people)
    • Nupe/Kede (R)^[116] (1531–1835 AD) (NSM in Nigeria)
    • Kebbi (A)^[117] (?–1808 AD)
    • Yauri/Yawri
    • Gwari
• Maranda Kingdom^[118] (10th century AD) (Ibn al–Faqih's account)
• Takedda Kingdom (10th century–14th century AD)
• Tadmekka Kingdom^[119] (10th century–14th century AD) (Tadmekka)
• Gajaaga/Galam Kingdom (1000–1858 AD)
• Yoruba Kingdoms:^[120] (Oduduwa) (Yoruba Civil Wars and Kiriji War)
  • Owo (1019–1893/present AD) (NSM in Nigeria)
  • Ilesa/Ijesha (1150 AD–?/present) (NSM in Nigeria)
  • Ife Empire (1200–1420 AD, ?–present) (NSM in Nigeria) (List of rulers of Ife) ("mother city")^[121]
  • Ìsèdó (13th/14th century AD–?)
  • Oyo Empire (1300–1898/present AD) (NSM in Nigeria) (List of rulers of Oyo)
  • Ijebu (1400–1892/present AD) (NSM in Nigeria)
  • Iwo (1415 AD–?/present)
  • Ondo (1510–1899/present AD) (NSM in Nigeria)
  • Dassa–Zoumé (1600–1889/present AD) (NSM in Benin) (List of rulers of Dassa)
  • Lagos (1600–1862/present AD) (NSM in Nigeria) (Oba of Lagos)
  • Bussa (pre 1730–19th century AD) (Rulers of Bussa)
  • Savè/Sabe (1738–1894/present AD) (NSM in Benin) (List of rulers of Sabe)
  • Ketu/Ketou (1795–1880s/present AD) (NSM in Benin) (List of rulers of Ketu) (Amedzofe (history))
  • Ijaiye (1836–1861 AD)
  • Yewa (pre–1840s AD, 1890–1914 AD)
  • Egbaland (mid 19th century AD–?/present) (NSM in Nigeria)
    • Alake/Ake (NSM in Nigeria) (List of Alakes of Egbaland)
    • Owu
    • Oke Ona
    • Gbagura
  • Ibadan (?–1893/present AD) (NSM in Nigeria)
  • Akure (?–?, 1818–1854/present AD) (NSM in Nigeria)
  • Badagry (1821–1863 AD)
  • Others: Igbomina (Ila Orangun), Offa, Idoani Confederacy, Ipokia, Isinkan, Osogbo and Ede
• Kingdom of Diarra/Jara/Zara/Diafunu (1076–1860 AD) (at times vassal of Ghana, Mali and Kaarta)
• Sosso Empire (1076–1235 AD) (at the same time as other Ghana successors such as Diarra, Yaresna, Ghiryu, and Sama)
• Bonoman Kingdom (11th–19th century AD) (List of rulers of Bonoman)
• Namandirou (11th century–1460 AD)
• Mossi Kingdoms: (R)^[122] (used agnatic succession and hereditary elective monarchy)
  • Wagadugu Empire (1182–1896/present AD) (NSM in Burkina Faso) (List of rulers of Wogodogo) preceded by Wubritenga^[123]
  • Tenkodogo (1120 AD–?/present) (NSM in Burkina Faso) (List of rulers of Tenkodogo)
  • Fada N'Gourma/Nungu (1204–1895/present AD) (NSM in Burkina Faso) (Gurma people) (List of rulers of Nungu)
  • Zondoma/Rawatenga/Yatenga (pre 1333–late 19th century/present AD) (NSM in Burkina Faso) (List of rulers of Yatenga)
  • Boussouma (NSM in Burkina Faso)
  • Bilayanga
  • Koala (1718 AD–?)
  • Minor kingdoms (some of which constituted the Buricimba/Gulmanceba Empire):^[124] Gurunsi, Bongandini, Con, Macakoali, Piela, (Ratenga, Zitenga),^[125] Giti,^[126] (Konkistenga, Yako,, Mané, Kugupela, Kayao, Tatenga),^[127] (Builsa, Busuma)^[128]
• Edem Kingdom (12th century AD–?/present) (NSM in Nigeria)
• Akpakip Oro (1200–1909 AD)
• Kingdom of Wuli (1235–1889 AD)
• Mali Empire (A)^[129] (1235–1670 AD) (Kouroukan Fouga) preceded by Manden/Kangaba Kingdom, Pre Imperial Mali, and the kingdoms of the Twelve Doors of Mali^[130] (1050–1237 AD) (NSM in Mali)
  • Méma Kingdom (very autonomous vassal of Mali, once independent?) (Epic of Sundiata)
• Kingdom of Ardra/Allada (12th/13th century–1724/present AD) (NSM in Benin) (List of rulers of Allada)
• Mankessim Kingdom (1252–1844/present AD) (NSM in Ghana) (capital of First Fante Confederacy)
• Kombo Kingdom (1271–1875 AD) (Kombo Civil War (1850–1856))
• Waalo Kingdom (1287–1855 AD)
• Kingdom of Ugu (13th century-?/present) (split from Igodomigodo)
• Ahanta Kingdom (13th century–1656/19th century AD)
• Jolof Empire (13th century–1549 AD) succeeded by Kingdom of Jolof (1549–1890 AD)
• Kingdom/Imamate of Wala (1317 AD–?)
• Akyem Kingdoms:
  • Adansi Kingdom (14th century–18th century AD) (List of rulers of Adansi) constituent states seceded after Ashanti conquest, (all conquered by Denkyira in 1680s?):^[131]
    • Akyem Abuakwa (14th century AD–?) (NSM in Ghana) (List of rulers of Akyem Abuakwa)
    • Akyem Kotoku (14th century AD–?) (List of rulers of Akyem Kotoku)
    • Akyem Bosome (1831 AD–?) (List of rulers of Akyem Bosomoe)
• Kingdom of Sine (14th–19th century AD)
• Kingdom of Niani (14th century-late 19th century AD)
• Songhai Empire (14th century–1591 AD)
  • Sonni dynasty (14th century–1493 AD)
  • Askiya dynasty (1493–1591 AD) succeeded by Dendi Kingdom (1591–1901 AD)
• Sultanate of Agadez (1404–1500 AD, 1591–1906/present AD) (NSM in Niger)

• Kingdom of Dagbon (1409–1896/present AD) (NSM in Ghana) (List of kings of Dagbon)
• Mamprugu Kingdom (A)^[132] (1450 AD–?/present) (Mamprusi) (NSM in Burkina Faso)
• Kingdom of Warri/Iwere (1480 AD–?/present) (NSM of Nigeria)
• Empire of Great Fulo (1490–1776 AD) succeeded by Imamate of Futa Toro (1776–1859 AD) (List of rulers of Futa Toro), all preceded by Futa Kingui (1464–1490 AD)
• Kingdom of Saloum (1494–1871/1969 AD)
• Kingdom of Baddibu^{[133] [134]} (pre–1861 AD) (Central Baddibu and Lower Baddibu in Gambia)
• Bron/Begho Kingdom^[135] (pre 15th century–19th century AD)
• Walata Kingdom (pre 15th century AD–?)
• Kingdom of Niumi/Barra (15th century–1897/1911 AD) (Barra War)
• Urhobo Kingdoms: (15th century AD–?)
  • Agbon
  • Ughelli (Ughelli South)
  • Okpe
• Kasa/Kasanga Kingdom (15th century–1830 AD)
• Ado Kingdom (15th century–1891 AD)
• Notsé Kingdom (15th century AD–?/present) (NSM in Togo) (Togbe Agorkoli)
• Nanumba Kingdom (15th century AD–?) (Bimbilla)
• Asebu Kingdom (15th century AD–?) (Asebu Amanfi)
• Simpa/Fetu/Winneba Kingdom^[136] (15th century–1720/? AD) (Winneba) (King Ghartey IV)
• Eguafo/Aguafo Kingdom^{[137] [138]} (15th century AD–?) (Fante people)

Modern

• Okrika/Wakirike Kingdom (?–1913 AD)
• Agona/Denkyira Kingdom (1500–1701 AD) (List of rulers of Denkyira)
• Kingdom of Koya/Temne/Quoja (1505–1896 AD)
• Igala Kingdom (1507–1900/present AD) (NSM in Nigeria)
• Kingdom of Gã (1510 AD–?/present) (Gã Mantse) (King Okaikoi and Dode Akaabi)
• Yamta/Biu Kingdom (1535–1740 AD)
• Kaabu Empire (1537–1867 AD)
• Kingdom of Cayor (1549–1879 AD) (Lat Soukabé Ngoné Fall united Cayor with Baol from 1697 to 1720)
• Kingdom of Baol (1555–1874 AD) (Lat Soukabé Ngoné Fall united Cayor with Baol from 1697 to 1720)
• Kingdom of Savalou (1557–1769/1894/present AD) (NSM in Benin)
• Akwamu Kingdom (1560–1733/present AD) (NSM in Ghana) (List of rulers of Akwamu and Twifo) preceded by Twifo Kingdom (1480–1560 AD)
• Kingdom of Whydah/Ouidah (1580–1727/present AD) (NSM in Benin) (List of rulers of Whydah)
• Pashalik of Timbuktu (A) (to (I) in the late 17th century)^[139] (1591–1833 AD) (Arma people)
  • Djenné, Gao and either Bamba, Mopti or Bamba, Gao Region were very autonomous with only nominal Timbuktu rule
• Tougana Kingdom (1591 AD–?) and Gorouol Kingdom
• Kingdom of Bissau (pre 16th century–1915/present AD) (NSM in Guinea–Bissau)
• Kingdom of the Sapes^{[140] [141]} (AD pre–16th century) (mentioned in Mane people) (exonym, not sure of alternative/native name as they were multiethnic) succeeded by: (History of Sierra Leone)
  • Bullom
  • Loko (Loko people)
  • Bureh/Bure
  • Sherbro (Sherbro people)
• Baté Empire (16th century–19th century AD)
• Idoma Kingdom^[142]
• Gonja Kingdom (R) (to (I) in the 19th century)^[143] (16th century AD–?/present) (NSM in Ghana) (Yagbongwura) (Yagbum) (1892 Sack of Salaga)
• Huba/Kilba Kingdom^[144] (16th century–1904 AD)
• Biafada Kingdoms:
  • Guinala/Quinala (pre 15th century AD–?) (vassal of Kaabu)
  • Biguba
  • Bissege (Bissagos Islands?)
• Kingdom of Dwaben/Dwabeng (1600/1874 AD–?) (List of rulers of Dwaben)
• Kingdom of Dahomey (1600–1900/present AD) (NSM in Benin)
  • Agaja dynasty^[145] (1600–1818 AD)
  • Ghezo dynasty (1818–1900 AD)
• Emirate of Trarza (1640–1902/present AD) (NSM in Mauritania)
• Emirate of Tagant (17th century–19th century AD) (NSM in Mauritania) (mentioned in Trarza)
• Emirate of Brakna^[146] (17th century–19th century AD) (mentioned in Trarza)
• Kénédougou Kingdom (1650–1898 AD)
• Gyaman/Jamang/Abron Kingdom (1650–1888/1897 AD) (List of rulers of Gyaman)
• Kingdom of Kaarta (1650–1890/1904 AD)
• Lafia Kingdom (1650 AD–?/present)
• Asante/Ashanti Empire (F)^[147] (1670/1701–1902 AD, 1935–1957/present AD) (NSM in Ghana) (Golden Stool) (List of rulers of Asante)
• Imamate of Nasr ad–Din (1673–1674 AD) (Char Bouba/Mauritanian Thirty Years' War)
• Khasso/Xaaso Kingdom (1681–1880 AD)

• Bundu Kingdom (1690–1858 AD)
• Sefwi Kingdoms:^[148] (pre 17th century AD–?)
  • Assini
  • Abripiquem
    • • Ankobra Nzima Kingdom^[149] (18th century AD–?) (formed by combining Abripiquem, Ankobra and Jomoro)
• Peda/Popo kingdom/s:
  • • • Grand Popo/Pla/Hulagan Kingdom (pre 17th century AD–?) and Djanglanmey Little Popo/Gen/Glidji/Aného Kingdom (17th century–1885 AD) (NSM in Togo)
  • Aghwey/Agoué (19th century AD)
• Lafia Chiefdom/Emirate (17th century AD–?/present)
• Kingdom of Sukur/Margi (17th century AD–?) (Margi people)
• Aowin Kingdom (?–?/present) (NSM in Ghana)
• Wémè Kingdom^[150] (17th century–18th century AD) (Ouémé Department of Benin)
• Hogbonu Kingdom^[151] (17th century–1863/1908/present AD) (NSM in Benin) (List of rulers of Hogbonu (Porto–Novo))
• Kalabari Kingdom (pre 1699–1900/present AD) (NSM in Nigeria)
• Ewe Kingdoms:^[152] (pre–1710/? AD) (conquered by Akwamu)
  • Anlo/Ho (List of rulers of Anlo) (Ho, Ghana)
  • Peki (List of rulers of Peki)
  • Kpando
• Kong Empire (1710–1894 AD)
• Bamana Empire of Segu/Segou (1712–1861 AD)
• Gwiriko Kingdom (1714–1897/1915 AD)
• Bethio Principality (1724 AD–?/present) (NSM in Senegal)
• Imamate of Futa Jallon (1725–1896/1912 AD) (Fugumba)
• Akropong–Akuapem Kingdom (1730 AD–?/present) (NSM in Ghana) (List of rulers of Akuapem)
• Kingdom of Baule (1730–1893/present AD) (NSM in Côte d'Ivoire)
• Anyi kingdoms:^[153] (18th century–19th century AD)
  • Kingdom of Sanwi (NSM in Côte d'Ivoire)
    • • Kingdom of Indénié Kingdom of Bettié
      • Kingdom of Moronou Kingdom of Diabe (Dabou?)
• Dosso Kingdom (1750–1849 AD, 1856–1898/present AD) (NSM in Niger)
• Gumel Chiefdom (1750–1754/present AD)
• Akwa Akpa (1786–1896/present AD)(NSM in Nigeria)
• Lebou Republic^[154] (1790–1857/present AD) (Lebu people)
• Solima Kingdom^{[155] [156]} (18th century–1884 AD) (Yalunka people)

• Sankaran Kingdom^[157] (18th century AD–?) (referred to in Fugumba)
• Bariba kingdoms: (18th century–19th century AD) (Borgu) (further clarification needed)
  • Nikki (NSM in Benin)
  • Kandi
  • Kaiama
  • Kwande (List of rulers of Kwande)
  • Parakou
  • Djougou
  • Illo
• Sokoto Caliphate (1804–1904/present AD) (NSM in Nigeria) (List of sultans of Sokoto) (had many emirates as vassals, which continue to exist to the present day as NSMs) (Fula jihads)
• Massina Empire (1818–1862 AD)
• Jere/Qeko Kingdom (1840 AD–?/present) (NSM in Malawi and Zambia) (List of rulers of Jere)
• Kabadougou Kingdom (1848–1898/1980 AD)
• Toucouleur Empire (1852–1893 AD)
• Zabarma Emirate (1860–1897 AD)
• Fuladu Kingdom^[158] (1867–1903/present AD) (NSM in the Gambia)
• Wassoulou Empire (1878–1898 AD) predeceded by Wasulu (mid 17th century AD–?)
• Dubreka Kingdom^[159] (pre–1885/1906 AD)
• Kissi Kingdom (19th century AD) (Kissi Kaba Keita)
• Kiang Kingdom (19th century AD)
• Jimara Kingdom^{[160] [161]} (19th century AD)
• Tomani Kingdom^{[162] [163]} (19th century AD)
• Kantora Kingdom^{[164] [165]} (19th century AD)
• Niamina Kingdom^{[166] [167]} (19th century AD)
• Foni Kingdom^{[168] [169]} (19th century AD)
• Eropina Kingdom^[170] (19th century AD)
• Opobo (19th century AD) (Jaja of Opobo)
• Gnassingbé dynasty^[171] (1967 AD–present) (Togo) (MR)

Central Africa

Ancient

• Sao Civilization (6th century BC – 16th century AD)
• Ekoi Civilisation^[172] (pre 2nd century–7th/13th century AD) (Ikom monoliths)

Post–classical

• Kanem Empire (R)^[173] (692–1380 AD) succeeded by Bornu Empire (R)^[174] (1380–1893 AD) (NSM in Nigeria)
  • Duguwa/Zaghawa dynasty (700–1085 AD)
  • Sayfawa dynasty (1085–1846 AD) succeeded by Rabih az–Zubayr
• Tikar Fondoms/Kingdoms: (preceded by Nganha and the Mbum people (Mbum language))
  • Tinkala (1201 AD–?)
  • Bamkin
  • Ngambè–Tikar
  • First wave:
    • Bamum (1394–1884/1916/present AD) (NSM in Cameroon) (List of rulers of the Bamum)
    • Nditam/Bandam
    • Ngoumé
    • Gâ (not to be confused with Ga–Adangbe)
    • Nso (pre 1387–1884/present AD) (NSM in Cameroon)
  • Second wave:
    • Kong (not Kong Empire)
  • Kom^[175] (NSM in Cameroon)
  • Ndu (Second degree NSM in Cameroon)
  • Bankim
• Kingdom of Kongo ((D) in the 16th century)^[176] ((A) in the 17th century)^[177] (1390–1678 AD, 1691–1857/1914 AD, 1915–1975/present AD) (NSM in Angola) (preceded by Vungu, Soyo, Nsundi, Mpemba Kasi, and Mbata Kingdom)^[178]
  • Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza: (pre–16th century AD) missing 5
    • Mbata
    • Nsundi
  • Kongo Civil War

(1665–1709 AD) led to Kongo fracturing into smaller kingdoms, to be later reunited by Pedro IV of Kongo:

• • • Kibangu (Manuel I of Kibangu)
    • Lemba (João II of Lemba)
    • Nsonso/Nkondo (Afonso II of Kongo and Nkondo) (assuming Nsonso/Sonso and Nkondo are the same)
    • Mbamba Lovata (Manuel II of Kongo)
• Bamileke Fondoms/Kingdoms (I):^[179] (pre 14th century AD–?) (over 100 in total)
  • Bafoussam (pre 14th century AD–?/present) (Second degree NSM in Cameroon)
  • Bandjoun (16th century AD–?/present) (NSM in Cameroon)
  • Bafang
  • Bafam (NSM in Cameroon)
  • Bangangté (NSM in Cameroon)
  • Batoufam (second degree NSM in Cameroon)
  • Bawaju
  • Dschang
  • Mbouda
• Sultanate of Yao/Bulala (15th century–1890 AD) (Yao) (held Kanem and Njimi for a century)
• Kingdom of Kakongo (15th century–1885 AD)
• Kingdom of Ngoyo (15th century–1885 AD)
• Mandara Kingdom (15th century–1893/present AD) (NSM in Cameroon)
• Ibom/Mbot Abasi Kingdom (Second degree NSM in Cameroon) (Aro–Ibibio Wars) preceded by Akwa Akpa (Ibibio) (not Akwa Akpa (Efik))

Modern

• Mbunda Kingdom (1500–1917/present AD) (NSM in Angola) (Rulers of Mbundaland)
• Wadai Empire (1501–1912/present AD) (NSM in Chad) (List of rulers of Wadai)
  • Dar Runga as a vassal
• Sultanate of Bagirmi (1522–1897/present AD) (NSM in Chad) (List of rulers of Bagirmi)
• Kingdom of Bandjoun/Baleng (1545 AD–?/present) (NSM in Cameroon)
• Kingdom of Loango (1550–1883/present AD) (NSM in Republic of the Congo)
• Luba Empire (I)^{[180] [181]} (1585–1885/present AD) (NSM in Democratic Republic of the Congo) (List of rulers of Luba) vassals (once independent):
  • Kalundwe^[182]
  • Kanyok (?–?, 1780–1810/? AD) (possibly part of Kalundwe)
  • Kalonja^[183]
• Duala Kingdom (16th century–1879 AD) (Douala) (Monneba) (List of rulers of the Duala)
• Kingdom of Ndongo/Ngola (16th century–1671/1909/present AD) (NSM in Angola) (List of Ngolas of Ndongo)
• Humbe Kingdom^[184] (16th century AD–?) (Nyanyeka)

• Ovimbundo Kingdoms:^[185] (missing one)
  • Kulembe^[186] (16th century AD–?) (near Libolo) (ill remembered, likely to be Ovimbundo)^[187]
  • Bailundo (1700–1770/present AD) (NSM in Angola)
  • Viye/Bie (1700 AD–?/present) (NSM in Angola)
  • Wambu/Huambo/Hambo/Huamba (NSM in Angola)
  • Ciyaka/Quiyaca/Quiaca
  • Ngalangi/Galangue
  • Civula/Quibula
  • Ndulu/Andulo/Ondulo/Ondura
  • Cingolo/Quingolo (?–1770 AD/?)
  • Kalukembe/Caluqembe/Caluguembe/Caluqueme (pre 1740 AD–?)
  • Sambu
  • Ekekete/Quiquete
  • Kakonda/Cilombo–conoma/Caconda/Quilombo
  • Citata/Quitata
• Kotoko kingdom (16th century–19th century AD) vassals:
  • Kousséri
  • Logone–Birni
  • Makari
  • Mara
• Anziku/Tio/Teke Kingdom (A)^[188] (16th century–1880 AD)
• Benguela Kingdom^[189] (16th century–1615/present AD)
• Kasanje Kingdom (1620–1910/present AD) (NSM in Angola) preceded by Imbangala
• Kuba Kingdom (A)^[190] (1625–1884/present AD) (NSM in Democratic Republic of the Congo)
• Kingdom of Matamba (1631–1744 AD)
• Kingdom of Bavira (1645 AD–?/present) (NSM in Democratic Republic of the Congo)
• Soyo Kingdom (1650 AD–?)
• Empire of Lunda (I)^{[191] [192]} (1665–1887/present AD) (NSM in Democratic Republic of the Congo) preceded by Rund Kingdom^[193]
• Kingdom of Mbwila (pre 17th century AD–?) (generally maintained independence by playing Portuguese Angola and Kongo off of one another)
• Kingdom of Bouna (17th century AD–?)
• Yaka Kingdom^[194] (17th century–19th century AD) (Yaka people)
• Suku Kingdom^[195] (17th century AD–?) (Suku people)
• Kingdom of Orungu (1700–1873/1927/present AD) (NSM in Gabon) (List of rulers of Orungu)
• Sultanate of Damagaram (1731–1899 AD) (NSM of Niger)
• Kazembe Kingdom (A)^[196] (1740–1894/present AD) (NSM in Zambia) (Eastern Lunda)
• Fondom of Bafut (?–1907/present AD) (NSM in Cameroon)
• Mankon Fondom (1799–1901/present AD) (NSM in Cameroon)
• Bangassou Sultanate (pre 18th century AD–?/present) (NSM in Central African Republic)
• Yao chiefdoms/kingdoms:^[197] (pre 18th century AD–?) (NSM in Malawi) (Shire Highlands)
  • Mponda, Makanjila, Jalasi, Liwonde, Malemia, Mlumbe, Kawinga, Mpama, Kapeni and Somba
• Azande Kingdom (R)^[198] (18th century AD–1905/present) (NSM in South Sudan)
• Kingdom of Agwe (1812–1895/present AD)
• Zande sultanates:^[199] (19th century AD)
  • Sultanate of Zemio (1823–?/1923 AD)
    • • Sultanate of Rafaï Other sultans?: Tikima, Sara, Ndoruma, Wando, Jabir, Mopoi, Engwetra, Yapati, Ngange and Bazingbi (unclear which were chiefs in the Azande Kingdom and which were independent sultans at one point)^[200]
• Dar al Kuti Sultanate (1830–1911 AD) (NSM in Central African Republic)
• Yeke Kingdom (1856–1891 AD)
• Sultanate of Utetera (1860–1887 AD) (Tippu Tip)
• Kingdom of Rabih az–Zubayr (1880s–1900 AD) (conquered the Bornu Empire)
• South Kasai (1960–1962 AD) (monarchy proclaimed in 1961)
• Bongo dynasty^[201] (1967–2023 AD) (Gabon) (MR)
• Central African Empire (1976–1979 AD)

Southern Africa

Post–classical

• Kingdom of Mapungubwe (1075–1220 AD) preceded by Leopard's Kopje (650–1075 AD) (unclear if this was organised into a kingdom)
• Kingdom of Zimbabwe ((R)^[a] and (A)^[b])^[202] (1220–1450 AD)
• Mpondo kingdom (1226 AD–?/present) (NSM in South Africa)
• Tswana kingdoms:
  • Barolong (1240–1885/present AD) (NSM in Botswana)
  • Ngwaketse (1750–1885/present AD) (NSM in Botswana)
  • Ngwato (1780–1885/present AD) (NSM in Botswana)
  • Batlôkwa (1780–1885/present AD) (NSM in Botswana and South Africa) (List of rulers of Tlôkwa)
  • Batawana (1795–1885/present AD) (NSM in Botswana)
  • Batlhaping (18th century AD–?)
  • Balete (pre 1805–1885/present AD) (NSM in Botswana) (List of rulers of Lete (Malete))
• Xhosa Kingdom (13th century–1879/present AD) (NSM in South Africa) (List of Xhosa kings)
• Hlubi Kingdom (1300 AD–?/present) (NSM in South Africa)
• Empire of Mutapa/Mwenemutapa (I)^[203] (1430–1760 AD) (succeeded by Chidama/Chidima (1760–1917 AD)) (preceded by Vakaranga) vassals:
  • Barue/Barwe (later independent)
• Kingdom of Butua (1450–1683 AD) (Torwa dynasty)
• Empire of Maravi (I)^[204] (1480–1891/present AD) (NSM in Zambia)
• Ndau Kingdoms: (pre–15th century AD) (conquered by Mutapa)
  • Kiteve^{[205] [206]}
  • Madanda^[207]

Modern

• Ngulube Kingdoms:^[208] (16th century AD–?)
  • Ulambya Kingdom^[209] (Lambya people)
  • Ngonde Kingdom^{[210] [211]} (A)^[212] (1600 AD–?) (NSM in Malawi) (southern Nyakyusa people)
  • Chifungwe Kingdom (Fungwe people in Mafinga District)^{[213] [214]}
  • Sukwa Kingdom^[215] (Sukwa people)
  • others: (Kameme, Misuku, Mwaphoka Mwambele, Kanyenda, Kabunduli, Kaluluma, and Chulu)^[216]
• Maungwe Chiefdom (1635–1896 AD)
• Ovambo kingdoms (R):^{[217] [218]} (16th century–late 19th/early 20th century AD)
  • Ondonga (1650 AD–?/present) (NSM in Namibia) (split into Oshitambi and Onamayongo during civil war (1885–1908 AD))^[219] (List of Ondonga kings)
  • Uukwanyama^[220] (NSM in Namibia) (Battle of the Cunene) (Mandume ya Ndemufayo)
  • Ongandjera (?–?/present) (NSM in Namibia)
  • Uukwaluudhi (pre 1850 AD–?/present) (NSM in Namibia) (List of Uukwaluudhi kings)
  • Uukwambi (NSM in Namibia)
  • Uukolonkadhi/Uukolonkathi (NSM in Namibia)
  • Ombadja (NSM in Namibia) (Mbadja people)
  • Evale^[221]
  • Ombalantu (I) ((D) in the short reign of Kampaku)^[222] (NSM in Namibia)
  • May not be Ovambo or kingdoms: Eunda/Ehanda, Ombwenge (short–lived invasion of Ondonga),^[223] (Oukwanka/Onkwanka, Okafima, Oukumbi/Onkumbi, Eshinga, Okavango),^[224]
• Barotse Kingdom (16th century–1889/present AD) (NSM in Zambia)
• Southern Ndebele Kingdoms:
  • Ndebele (16th century AD–?) split into:
    • Manala (NSM in South Africa)
    • Ndzundza (NSM in South Africa)
• Rozwi Empire ((R)^[a] and (A)^[b])^[225] (1660–1866 AD)
• Manica/Manyika Kingdom^[226] (pre 1695–19th century AD) (Manica Province) (conquered by Mutapa)
• Maramuca/Mocaranga/Botango Kingdom^[227] (17th century AD–?)
• Red Nation Chiefdom (1710–1905/present AD) (NSM in Namibia)
• Swaziland/Eswatini (1745 AD–present) (SM of Eswatini) (List of monarchs of Eswatini)
• Ndwandwe Kingdom (1780–1819 AD)
• Kavango kingdoms:
  • Okavango^[228]
  • Gciriku (1785 AD–?/present) (NSM in Namibia) (List of Gciriku kings)
  • Mbukushu (NSM of Namibia)
  • Shambyu (NSM of Namibia)
  • Mbunza (NSM of Namibia)
  • Kwangali (NSM of Namibia)
• Mthethwa Empire (18th century–1820 AD)
• Royal Bafokeng Nation (18th century AD–?/present) (NSM in South Africa)
• Marota/Pedi Kingdom (late 18th century–1882 AD, 1885 AD–present) (NSM in South Africa) (Pedi people) (Mampuru II)
• Lozi Kingdom (I)^[229] (18th/19th century AD)
• Balodebu Kingdom (1800 AD–?/present) (NSM in South Africa) (Rain Queen)
• Zulu Kingdom (D)^[230] (1816–1897/present AD) (NSM in South Africa)
• Lesotho (1822 AD–present) (SM of Lesotho) (List of monarchs of Lesotho)
• Gaza Empire (1824–1895 AD)
• Kingdom of Mthwakazi/Ndebele (1840–1895 AD) (Northern Ndebele people)
• Mafwe Chiefdom (pre 1851 AD–?/present) (NSM in Namibia)
• Thembu Kingdom (pre–1885 AD/present) (NSM in South Africa)
• Khowesin Chiefdom (19th century AD–1905/present) (NSM in Namibia) (Hendrik Witbooi (Namaqua chief))

Unplaced or undated kingdoms/sultanates

• Sultanate of Dara^[231] or Dara (woreda) (existed in 13th century) (likely never independent?)^[232] near Ethiopia.
• Sultanate of Sara/Sarha^[233] (existed in 13th century) (likely never independent?)^[234] near Ethiopia.
• Toubou Sultanate (seen multiple references to them from various time periods, but nothing concrete)
• Silcis sultanate

See also

• History of Africa
• List of kingdoms and royal dynasties
• List of former sovereign states
• List of Muslim states and dynasties
• List of current non–sovereign African monarchs
• List of Nigerian traditional states
• Monarchies in Africa
• Chiefdom
• Confederation

Bibliography

• 'History periods':
  • Book: General History of Africa: Volume 1 Methodology and African Historiography, chapters 1-10 . UNESCO Publishing . 1981.
  • Vansina . Jan . 1971 . Once upon a Time: Oral Traditions as History in Africa . Daedalus . 100 . 2 . 442–468 . MIT Press . 20024011 .
  • Book: Vansina, Jan . 1985 . Oral Tradition as History . The University of Wisconsin Press . 0299102106 .
• 'Comparison between kingdoms':
  • Vansina . Jan . October 1962 . A Comparison of African Kingdoms . Africa . 32 . 4 . 324–335 . 10.2307/1157437 . 1157437 . 143572050.
  • Book: Lapidus, Ira . A History of Islamic Societies . 2014 . 3rd . Cambridge University Press . 978-1-139-99150-6 .

Further reading

• General History of Africa volumes
• Cambridge History of Africa

Notes and References

1. Book: Florêncio, Fernando . No Reino da Toupeira: Autoridades Tradicionais do M'balundu e o Estado Angolano . 2017-08-04 . Centro de Estudos Internacionais . 978-989-8862-32-7 . ebook'IS . Lisboa . 79–175 . pt . In the Mole Kingdom: Traditional M'balundu Authorities and the Angolan State . 2022-08-21 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210728204048/https://books.openedition.org/cei/198 . 2021-07-28 . live.
2. Orock . Rogers Tabe Egbe . 2014 . Welcoming the ' Fon of Fons ': Anglophone Elites and the Politics of Hosting Cameroon's Head of State . live . Africa . en . 84 . 2 . 226–245 . 10.1017/S0001972013000776 . 0001-9720 . 144143841 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230525144359/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/africa/article/abs/welcoming-the-fon-of-fons-anglophone-elites-and-the-politics-of-hosting-cameroons-head-of-state/1E5EB165541B51C7D84B8ED46C33E39C . 2023-05-25 . 2023-06-21.
3. Web site: Butler . Stuart . The voodoo priests, kings and ghosts of Benin . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20240227045811/https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20110920-the-voodoo-priests-kings-and-ghosts-of-benin . 2024-02-27 . 2023-06-21 . www.bbc.com . en.
4. Web site: Nigeria . Guardian . 2019-10-18 . Oba Ewuare II: A quintessential monarch at 66 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20230621053506/https://guardian.ng/opinion/oba-ewuare-ii-a-quintessential-monarch-at-66/ . 2023-06-21 . 2023-06-21 . The Guardian Nigeria News - Nigeria and World News . en-US.
5. Web site: 2022-01-31 . Chad: protests over Ouaddai sultanate autonomy . 2023-06-21 . CounterVortex . en-US . 2023-06-19 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230619200841/https://countervortex.org/blog/chad-protests-over-ouaddai-sultanate-autonomy/ . live .
6. Web site: Tanzania chiefs and monarchs . The African Royal Families . 13 June 2023 . 20 March 2024 . 20 March 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240320134359/https://theafricanroyalfamilies.com/2023/06/13/tanzania-chiefs-and-monarchs/ . live .
7. Web site: Mfonobong Nsehe . The 5 Richest Kings In Africa - page 1 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20181125205452/https://www.forbes.com/sites/mfonobongnsehe/2014/06/03/the-5-richest-kings-in-africa/ . 25 November 2018 . 4 January 2016 . Forbes.
8. Web site: Mfonobong Nsehe . The 5 Richest Kings In Africa - page 2 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20220707180712/http://www.forbes.com/sites/mfonobongnsehe/2014/06/03/the-5-richest-kings-in-africa/2/ . 7 July 2022 . 4 January 2016 . Forbes.
9. Brownlee . J. . 2007 . Hereditary Succession in Modern Autocracies . World Politics . Cambridge University Press . 59 . 4 . 595–628 . 10.1353/wp.2008.0002 . 154483430 . 2024-03-01 . 2024-03-01 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240301233756/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/world-politics/article/abs/hereditary-succession-in-modern-autocracies/BBE26B84497FEF15B1D98D85B3C07AC4 . live .
10. Book: Mengara, Daniel . The Politics of Challenging Presidential Term Limits in Africa . Palgrave Macmillan . 2020 . 978-3-030-40809-1 . 65–104 . The Making of a Monarchical Republic: The Undoing of Presidential Term Limits in Gabon Under Omar Bongo . 10.1007/978-3-030-40810-7_3 . https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-40810-7_3 . 216244948 . 2024-03-01 . 2024-03-01 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240301233756/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-40810-7_3 . live .
11. Osei . Anja . 2018 . Like father, like son? Power and influence across two Gnassingbé presidencies in Togo . Democratization . 25 . 8 . 1460–1480 . 10.1080/13510347.2018.1483916 . 2024-03-01 . 2024-01-05 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240105202832/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13510347.2018.1483916 . live .
12. Book: Bezabeh, Samson . Djibouti: A political history . 2023 . Lynne Rienner . 2024-03-14 . 2023-10-14 . https://web.archive.org/web/20231014023144/https://www.rienner.com/uploads/648ce3dd20338.pdf . live .
13. Book: Mengara, Daniel . The Politics of Challenging Presidential Term Limits in Africa . Palgrave Macmillan . 2020 . 978-3-030-40809-1 . 65–104 . The Making of a Monarchical Republic: The Undoing of Presidential Term Limits in Gabon Under Omar Bongo . 10.1007/978-3-030-40810-7_3 . https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-40810-7_3 . 216244948 . 2024-03-01 . 2024-03-01 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240301233756/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-40810-7_3 . live .
14. Book: Belcher, Stephen . https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/abstract/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-363 . Oral Traditions as Sources . Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History . 2018 . Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History . 10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.363 . 978-0-19-027773-4 . 2024-03-20 . 2019-10-23 . https://web.archive.org/web/20191023044047/https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/africanhistory/abstract/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-363#acrefore-9780190277734-e-363-div1-4 . live .
15. Bashi . Vilna . Globalized anti-blackness: Transnationalising Western immigration law, policy, and practice . Ethnic and Racial Studies . 27 . 4 . 2004 . 584–606 . Routledge . 10.1080/01491987042000216726 . 2024-03-23 . 2024-03-23 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240323154222/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01491987042000216726 . live .
16. Modood . Tariq . Sealy . Thomas . Beyond Euro-Americancentric Forms of Racism and Anti-racism . The Political Quarterly . 93 . 3 . 433–441 . Wiley-Blackwell . 2022 . 10.1111/1467-923X.13138 . 1983/af486eb5-f71d-4802-a863-c6dd259f0f83 . 2024-03-23 . 2024-03-23 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240323154222/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1467-923X.13138 . live . free .
17. Book: Rizvi, S . Kingship In Asia and early America . Kingship in Islam: a Historical Analysis . 1981 . Colegio de Mexico . 2024-03-20 . 2024-03-20 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240320212728/https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/104620834/j.ctvcwp01n.7_1_-libre.pdf?1690702415=&response-content-disposition=inline%3B+filename%3DColegio_de_Mexico_Chapter_Title_Kingship.pdf&Expires=1710973212&Signature=H4F20Slf5yI38aOdl9tHjFMKDbdRbAZ7HVTe6sqavHCNhzWNPZUrYgeFwzmjo~inbM~~RQC~9pveXpoyT9~nrI-LRgO0wplwp6i7vUwOr~63x~PmRYnK4zXhVOWshnnMk~GfUgwrVkijKuVKac6nS5Kc64n0nfBwn4WLXlKY-SelsJ1dZjI71I1i5pqN-9hxV2FYBXv~xKntmSyFcSlfCrL9kxADX8FHzRcY~7fSBhKdJpTsjH8xMGfIYAaP4PZHZP8~CxgT-vdzt-EDZy6An8QCJ4h6DQNN8Zl3SjCqamotRGZ3vWhgXqLYAD7zbFGtaxAOEutDTTmTZKAxApF7xw__&Key-Pair-Id=APKAJLOHF5GGSLRBV4ZA . live .
18. Book: Wilkinson, Toby . A Companion to Ancient Egypt . The Early Dynastic Period . Wiley-Blackwell . 2010 . 978-1-4443-2006-0 . https://books.google.com/books?id=RK2pLin2sPAC&dq=old+kingdom+of+egypt&pg=PA63 . 2024-03-21 . 2024-03-21 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240321205001/https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=RK2pLin2sPAC&oi=fnd&pg=PA63&dq=old+kingdom+of+egypt&ots=-aPDfU2vzf&sig=Ynr6LdBAZPoT_KeNaV2zMmew1Rc#v=onepage&q=old%20kingdom%20of%20egypt&f=false . live .
19. Book: Baud, Michel . A Companion to Ancient Egypt . The Old Kingdom . Wiley-Blackwell . 2010 . 978-1-4443-2006-0 . https://books.google.com/books?id=RK2pLin2sPAC&dq=old+kingdom+of+egypt&pg=PA63 . 2024-03-21 . 2024-03-21 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240321205001/https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=RK2pLin2sPAC&oi=fnd&pg=PA63&dq=old+kingdom+of+egypt&ots=-aPDfU2vzf&sig=Ynr6LdBAZPoT_KeNaV2zMmew1Rc#v=onepage&q=old%20kingdom%20of%20egypt&f=false . live .
20. Book: Willems, Harco . A Companion to Ancient Egypt . The Middle Kingdom: The Twelfth Dynasty . Wiley-Blackwell . 2010 . 978-1-4443-2006-0 . https://books.google.com/books?id=RK2pLin2sPAC&dq=old+kingdom+of+egypt&pg=PA63 . 2024-03-21 . 2024-03-21 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240321205001/https://books.google.co.uk/books?hl=en&lr=&id=RK2pLin2sPAC&oi=fnd&pg=PA63&dq=old+kingdom+of+egypt&ots=-aPDfU2vzf&sig=Ynr6LdBAZPoT_KeNaV2zMmew1Rc#v=onepage&q=old%20kingdom%20of%20egypt&f=false . live .
21. Book: Jakobielski, Stefan . General History of Africa: Volume 3 . 1988 . UNESCO Publishing . 194 . Christian Nubia at the height of its civilisation . 2024-02-22 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240222134752/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/in/documentViewer.xhtml?v=2.1.196&id=p%3A%3Ausmarcdef_0000184282&file=%2Fin%2Frest%2FannotationSVC%2FDownloadWatermarkedAttachment%2Fattach_import_1e3041cd-1bda-4d54-8248-accceb040bce%3F_%3D184282engo.pdf&locale=en&multi=true&ark=%2Fark%3A%2F48223%2Fpf0000184282%2FPDF%2F184282engo.pdf#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A423%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22XYZ%22%7D%2Cnull%2Cnull%2C0%5D . 2024-02-22 . live.
22. Book: Mahjoubi . Ammar . General History of Africa: Volume 2 . Salama . Pierre . 1981 . UNESCO Publishing . 508 . The Roman and post-Roman period in North Africa . 2024-02-21 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230406060147/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184265 . 2023-04-06 . live.
23. Book: Steward., Evans. The age of Justinian : the circumstances of imperial power. 1996. Routledge. 0-415-02209-6. 797873981.
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76. Book: Kent, R. K. . General History of Africa: Volume V . UNESCO Publishing . Madagascar and the islands of the Indian Ocean . 2024-02-18 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240218211741/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/33424342.pdf#page=876 . 2024-02-18 . live.
77. Book: Kent, Raymond . General History of Africa: Volume 5 . UNESCO Publishing . 1992 . 426 . Madagascar and the islands of the Indian Ocean . 2024-03-03 . 2024-03-03 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240303130032/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/in/documentViewer.xhtml?v=2.1.196&id=p%3A%3Ausmarcdef_0000134396&file=%2Fin%2Frest%2FannotationSVC%2FDownloadWatermarkedAttachment%2Fattach_import_f751f656-39b6-4613-a403-0e71c4509ecd%3F_%3D134396engo.pdf&updateUrl=updateUrl7340&ark=%2Fark%3A%2F48223%2Fpf0000134396%2FPDF%2F134396engo.pdf.multi&fullScreen=true&locale=en#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A360%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22XYZ%22%7D%2Cnull%2Cnull%2C0%5D . live .
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88. Fosbrooke . H. . 1934 . Some Aspects of the Kimwani Fishing Culture, with Comparative Notes on Alien Methods . The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland . 64 . 1–22 . 10.2307/2843944 . 2843944 . 2024-03-05 . 2024-03-13 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240313230947/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2843944 . live .
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92. Vansina . Jan . 1962 . A Comparison of African Kingdoms . Africa: Journal of the International African Institute . Cambridge University Press . 33 . 4 . 332–333 . 10.2307/1157437 . 1157437 . 143572050 . 2024-03-09 . 2023-03-30 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230330153445/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1157437 . live .
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