List of giant squid specimens and sightings explained

This list of giant squid specimens and sightings is a comprehensive timeline of recorded human encounters with members of the genus Architeuthis, popularly known as giant squid. It includes animals that were caught by fishermen, found washed ashore, recovered (in whole or in part) from sperm whales and other predatory species, as well as those reliably sighted at sea. The list also covers specimens incorrectly assigned to the genus Architeuthis in original descriptions or later publications.

Background

History of discovery

Tales of giant squid have been common among mariners since ancient times, but the animals were long considered mythical and often associated with the kraken of Nordic legend.[1] The giant squid did not gain widespread scientific acceptance until specimens became available to zoologists in the second half of the 19th century, beginning with the formal naming of Architeuthis dux by Japetus Steenstrup in 1857, from fragmentary Bahamian material collected two years earlier (

  1. 14
on this list).[2] In the same work, Steenstrup also named a second species, Architeuthis monachus, based on a preserved beak, the only part saved from a carcass that washed ashore in Denmark in 1853 (
  1. 13
).[3] The giant squid came to public prominence in 1861 when the French corvette Alecton encountered a live animal (
  1. 18
) at the surface while navigating near Tenerife. A report of the incident filed by the ship's captain[4] was almost certainly seen by Jules Verne and adapted by him for the description of the monstrous squid in his 1870 novel, Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas.

The giant squid's existence was established beyond doubt only in the 1870s, with the appearance of an extraordinary number of complete specimens—both dead and alive—in Newfoundland waters (beginning with

  1. 21
).[5] These were meticulously documented in a series of papers by Yale zoologist Addison Emery Verrill.[6] Two of these Newfoundland specimens, both from 1873, were particularly significant as they were among the earliest to be photographed: first a single severed tentacle—hacked off a live animal as it "attacked" a fishing boat (
  1. 29
)[7] —and weeks later an intact animal in two parts (
  1. 30
). The head and limbs of this latter specimen were famously shown draped over the sponge bath of Moses Harvey, a local clergyman, essayist, and amateur naturalist.[8] Harvey secured and reported widely on both of these important specimens—as well as numerous others (most notably the Catalina specimen of 1877;
  1. 42
)—and it was largely through his efforts that giant squid became known to North American and British zoologists.[9] Recognition of Architeuthis as a real animal led to the reappraisal of earlier reports of gigantic tentacled sea creatures, with some of these subsequently being accepted as records of giant squid, the earliest stretching back to at least the 17th century.[10]

For a time in the late 19th century, almost every major specimen of which material was saved was described as a new species.[11] In all, some twenty species names were coined.[12] However, there is no widely agreed basis for distinguishing between the named species, and both morphological and genetic data point to the existence of a single, globally distributed species, which according to the principle of priority must be known by the earliest available name: Architeuthis dux.[13]

It is not known why giant squid become stranded on shore, but it may be because the distribution of deep, cold water where they live is temporarily altered. Marine biologist and Architeuthis specialist Frederick Aldrich proposed that there may be a periodicity to the strandings around Newfoundland, and based on historical data suggested an average interval between mass strandings of some 30 years. Aldrich used this value to correctly predict a relatively small stranding event between 1964 and 1966 (beginning with

  1. 169
).[14] The appearance of specimens around New Zealand has been linked to the El Niño–Southern Oscillation, with multiple strandings in the Cook Strait in 1879–1880 (beginning with
  1. 47
) and 1982–1984 coinciding with or immediately following extreme negative peaks of the Southern Oscillation Index.[15] Although strandings continue to occur sporadically throughout the world, few have been as frequent as those in Newfoundland in the late 19th century. A notable exception was a 15-month period between 2014 and 2015, during which an unprecedented 57 specimens were recorded from Japanese coastal waters of the Sea of Japan (beginning with
  1. 563
).[16]

Though the total number of recorded giant squid specimens now runs into the hundreds, the species remains notoriously elusive and little known. Attempts to capture a glimpse of a live giant squid—described as "the most elusive image in natural history"[17] —were mooted since at least the 1960s.[18] Efforts intensified significantly towards the end of the century, with the launch of several multi-million-dollar expeditions in the late 1990s, though these were all unsuccessful. The first years of the 21st century saw a number of breakthroughs in live giant squid imaging[19] that ultimately culminated in the first recordings of live animals (

  1. 548
and 549) in their natural deep-water habitat—from both a remote camera system and a manned submersible—in July 2012.[20] Despite these recent advances and the growing number of both specimens and recordings of live animals, the species continues to occupy a unique place in the public imagination.[21] As Roper et al. (2015:83) wrote: "Few events in the natural world stimulate more excitement and curiosity among scientists and laymen alike than the discovery of a specimen of Architeuthis."

Distribution patterns

The genus Architeuthis has a cosmopolitan[22] or bi-subtropical distribution,[23] and carcasses are known to wash ashore on every continent except Antarctica.[24] The greatest numbers of specimens have been recorded in: the North Atlantic around Newfoundland (historically), northern Spain (more recently[25]), Norway, the northern British Isles, and the archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira; the South Atlantic off South Africa and Namibia; the northwestern Pacific off Japan (especially more recently[26]); and the southwestern Pacific around New Zealand[27] and Australia.[28]

The vast majority of specimens are of oceanic origin, including marginal seas broadly open to adjacent ocean, especially the Tasman Sea and Sea of Japan, but also the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea,[29] among others. A handful are known from the far western Mediterranean Sea (

  1. 383
, 447, 498, and 550), but these records do not necessarily indicate that the Mediterranean falls within the natural range of the giant squid, as the specimens may have been transported there by inflowing Atlantic water. Similarly, giant squid are unlikely to naturally occur in the North Sea owing to its shallow depth (but see
  1. 107
and 113, the only known English strandings). They are generally absent from equatorial and high polar latitudes[30] (but see
  1. 215
and 249 from equatorial Atlantic waters, and specimens from northern Norway[31] or
  1. 102
from the edge of the Arctic Circle off western Greenland).

Total number of specimens

According to Guerra et al. (2006), 592 confirmed giant squid specimens were known as of the end of 2004. Of these, 306 came from the Atlantic Ocean, 264 from the Pacific Ocean, 20 from the Indian Ocean, and 2 from the Mediterranean Sea. The figures for specimens collected in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans further broke down as follows: 148 in the northeastern Atlantic, 126 in the northwestern Atlantic, 26 in the southeastern Atlantic, 6 in the southwestern Atlantic, 43 in the northeastern Pacific, 28 in the northwestern Pacific, 10 in the southeastern Pacific, and 183 in the southwestern Pacific.[32]

Guerra & González (2009) reported that the total number of recorded giant squid specimens stood at 624. Guerra et al. (2011) gave an updated figure of 677 specimens (see table below). Paxton (2016a) put the total at around 700 as of 2015, of which 460 had been measured in some way. This number has increased substantially in recent years, with 57 specimens recorded from the Sea of Japan over an extraordinary 15-month period in 2014–2015 (beginning with

  1. 563
).[26] The giant squid nevertheless remains a rarely encountered animal, especially considering its wide distribution and large size,[33] with Richard Ellis writing that "each giant squid that washes up or is taken from the stomach of a sperm whale is still an occasion for a teuthological celebration".[34]

Records of giant squid specimens sorted by region and method of capture (from Guerra et al., 2011)! Region !! Number of specimens !! % of total !! Found stranded or floating (%) !! From fishing (%) !! From predators (%) !! Method of capture unknown (%)
NE Atlantic 152 22.5 49 31 15 5
NW Atlantic 148 21.9 61 30 1 8
SE Atlantic 60* 8.9 10 60 17 13
SW Atlantic 6 0.9 50 16 1 33
NE Pacific 43 6.4 7 56 30 7
NW Pacific 30* 4.4 30 35 30 5
SE Pacific 10 1.5 90 10 0 0
SW Pacific 183 27.0 12 41 42 5
Indian Ocean 33** 4.8 6 94 0 0
W Mediterranean 3 0.4 100 0 0 0
Equatorial/tropical 9 1.3 11 44 45 0
All regions 677 100.0

Procurement, preservation, and display

Preserved giant squid specimens are much sought after for both study and display.[35] In the mid-1960s, marine biologist and giant squid expert Frederick Aldrich of the Memorial University of Newfoundland organised a "squid squad" with the intent of securing specimens for study. In the 1980s, Aldrich resorted to distributing eye-catching "Wanted" posters offering rewards for "finding and holding" specimens stranded on the Newfoundland coast, "the value being dependent on their condition".[36] Aldrich (1991:459) wrote that "[s]uch efforts were not futile, for in the intervening years I have secured either the specimens or information on 15 animals", though according to Hoff (2003:85) the rewards went unclaimed. Largely through Aldrich's efforts, the Marine Sciences Research Laboratory at Logy Bay, Newfoundland, assembled a substantial early collection of giant squid; as of 1971, it held 8 specimens, with the remains of 3 displayed together in a tank by the main entrance.[37]

Guerra et al. (2011:1990) estimated that around 30 giant squid were exhibited at museums and aquaria worldwide, while Guerra & Segonzac (2014:118–119) provided an updated list of 35 (21 in national museums and 14 in private institutions; see table below). The purpose-built Museo del Calamar Gigante in Luarca, Spain, had by far the largest collection on public display (4 females and 1 male[38]), but many of the museum's 14 or so total specimens were destroyed during a storm on 2 February 2014.[39] At least 13 specimens were exhibited in Japan as of February 2017, of which 10 had been acquired since 2013.[40]

A number of fragmentary giant squid remains were displayed as part of "In Search of Giant Squid", a Smithsonian travelling exhibition curated by Clyde Roper that visited a dozen US museums and other educational institutions between September 2004 and August 2009.[41] The exhibition opened its national tour at Yale University's Peabody Museum of Natural History, which has maintained a strong association with the giant squid from the time of the Newfoundland strandings in the 1870s. Preparations for the Peabody exhibition, overseen by site curator Eric Lazo-Wasem, uncovered giant squid material in the museum's collections that was not previously known to be extant, including original specimens from Addison Emery Verrill's time.[42]

In the late 19th century, the giant squid's popular appeal and desirability to museums—but scarcity of preserved specimens—spawned a long tradition of "life-sized" models that continues to the present day.[43] Verrill's description of the famous Catalina specimen of 1877 (

  1. 42
), which he personally examined in New York City the same year, served as the basis for the earliest models.[44] The second Portugal Cove specimen, from 1881 (
  1. 60
), was probably also used as a reference, as it was seen by Verrill shortly before he began modelling.[45] Following Verrill's design, his draughtsman James Henry Emerton built the very first giant squid model for the Peabody Museum of Natural History in 1883.[46] A second, near-identical model was soon delivered to the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University, and a third was made for the International Fisheries Exhibition, held in London in 1883.[47] The Verrill and Emerton models were followed by six similar examples, again based on the Catalina specimen, produced by Ward's Natural Science Establishment of Rochester, New York, of which two were sold internationally: to London's Natural History Museum and the Oceanographic Museum of Monaco.[48] The original Peabody Museum model was discarded around 1964 and replaced two years later by one based on both the Logy Bay specimen of 1873 (
  1. 30
) and on several Newfoundland specimens from the 1960s,[49] particularly the one found off Conche in October 1964 (
  1. 169
).[50]

Real giant squid specimens have traditionally been preserved in either solutions of alcohols (particularly ethanol and isopropyl alcohol) or in formalin. More recently, concerns about the fire and health risks posed by these substances have led to alternative preservative fluids being explored, such as propylene glycol (

  1. 254
), glycerol (
  1. 495
), and the hydrofluoroether Novec 7100.[51] Additionally, methods such as plastination have made it possible to display authentic giant squid specimens in a dry state. A giant squid was first plastinated in 2000 and this specimen, nicknamed "Wheke" (
  1. 429
), has been on display at the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle in Paris since 2008; two further specimens were plastinated in 2004,[52] as were various parts of a 2015 specimen from Japan (
  1. 609
). Several other individuals have been prepared for display by more conventional drying methods, such as hard curing (e.g.
  1. 598
, 603, and 617), though this necessarily results in greatly shrunken specimens. At least one giant squid has been entirely embedded in acrylic, a process that rendered its flesh translucent (
  1. 632
). Beginning in 2005, a specimen nicknamed "Cal" (
  1. 495
) was uniquely displayed at Melbourne Aquarium encased in a 3.5-tonne block of ice (reportedly the largest man-made ice block in the world); it was turned into a conventional wet specimen several years later. Additionally, a number of other specimens have been temporarily placed on public display in a frozen or chilled state (e.g.
  1. 564
, 585, 592, 603, 662, 669, 675, 677, 679, and 680).

Reported sizes

Giant squid size—long a subject of both popular debate and academic inquiry[53] —has often been misreported and exaggerated. Reports of specimens reaching or even exceeding 18m (59feet) in total length are widespread, but no animals approaching this size have been scientifically documented in recent times, despite the hundreds of specimens available for study. The 55abbr=onNaNabbr=on "Thimble Tickle specimen" (

  1. 45
) reported by Verrill (1880a:191) is often cited as the largest giant squid ever recorded, and the 55feet (or 57feet) specimen described by Kirk (1888) as Architeuthis longimanus (
  1. 62
)—a strangely proportioned animal that has been much commented on—is sometimes cited as the longest.[54] It is now thought likely that such lengths were achieved by great lengthening of the two long feeding tentacles, analogous to stretching elastic bands, or resulted from inadequate measurement methods such as pacing.[55]

Based on a 40-year data set of more than 50 giant squid (Architeuthis dux) specimens, Roper & Shea (2013:114) suggest an average total length (TL) at maturity of 11m (36feet) and a "rarely encountered maximum length" of 14–. Of the nearly 100 specimens examined by Clyde Roper, the largest was "46 feet (14 m) long".[56] O'Shea & Bolstad (2008) give a maximum total length of 13m (43feet) for females based on the examination of more than 130 specimens, measured post mortem and relaxed, as well as beaks recovered from sperm whales (which do not exceed the size of those found in the largest complete specimens). Steve O'Shea estimated the maximum total length for males at 10m (30feet).[57] Yukhov (2014:242) gives a maximum total length of 11.8m (38.7feet) for the species, based on records from the southern hemisphere; Remeslo (2011) gives 13.1m (43feet). McClain et al. (2015) regard a 12m (39feet) specimen from Asturias, Spain (

  1. 480
), as the "longest scientifically verified" and "largest recorded and well-preserved specimen in the contemporary, peer-reviewed literature". Charles G. M. Paxton performed a statistical analysis using literature records of giant squid specimens and concluded that "squid with a conservative TL of 20abbr=onNaNabbr=on would seem likely based on current data",[58] but the study has been heavily criticised by experts in the field.[59]

O'Shea & Bolstad (2008) give a maximum mantle length (ML) of 225cm (89inches) based on the examination of more than 130 specimens, as well as beaks recovered from sperm whales (which do not exceed the size of those found in the largest complete specimens), though there are recent scientific records of specimens that slightly exceed this size (such as

  1. 371
, a 240cm (90inches) ML female captured off Tasmania, Australia; see also
  1. 647
, with an estimated 2.15–3.06 m ML). Remeslo (2011) and Yukhov (2014:248) give a maximum mantle length of 260cm (100inches) for females from southern waters. Questionable records of up to 500cm (200inches) ML can be found in older literature.[60] Paxton (2016a) accepts a maximum recorded ML of 279cm (110inches), based on the Lyall Bay specimen (
  1. 47
) reported by Kirk (1880:312), but this record has been called into question as the gladius of this specimen (which should approximate the mantle length) was said to be only 190cm (80inches) long.[59]

Including the head and arms but excluding the tentacles (standard length), the species very rarely exceeds 5m (16feet) according to O'Shea & Bolstad (2008). Paxton (2016a) considers 9.45m (31feet) to be the greatest reliably measured SL, based on a specimen (

  1. 46
) reported by Verrill (1880a:192), and considers specimens of 10m (30feet) SL or more to be "very probable", but these conclusions have been criticised by giant squid experts.[59]

O'Shea (2003b) put the maximum weight of female giant squid at 275kg (606lb), based on the examination of some 105 specimens as well as beaks recovered from sperm whales (which do not exceed the size of those found in the largest complete specimens; some of the heaviest recent specimens include

  1. 491
and 524). Giant squid are sexually size dimorphic, with the maximum weight for males estimated at 150kg (330lb),[57] though heavier specimens have occasionally been reported (see
  1. 412
for a 190kg (420lb) specimen). Similarly, Remeslo (2011) and Yukhov (2014:248) give maximum masses of 250– and 150kg (330lb) for females and males, respectively, based on records from southern latitudes. Roper & Jereb (2010:121) give a maximum weight of up to 500kg (1,100lb), and "possibly greater". Discredited weights of as much as a tonne (1tonne) or more are not uncommon in older literature (see e.g.
  1. 22
, 114, and 117).[61]

The giant squid and the distantly related colossal squid (Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni) are recognised as having by far the largest eyes of any living animal, and comparable to the largest eyes known from the fossil record. Historical reports of "dinner plate–sized" eyes (e.g.

  1. 37
) are largely corroborated by modern measurements, with an accepted maximum diameter of at least 27cm (11inches) and a 9cm (04inches) pupil (based on
  1. 248
).[62]

Species identifications

The taxonomy of the giant squid genus Architeuthis has not been entirely resolved. Lumpers and splitters may propose as many as eight species or as few as one, with most authors recognising either one cosmopolitan species (A. dux) or three geographically disparate species: A. dux from the Atlantic, A. martensi from the North Pacific, and A. sanctipauli from the Southern Ocean.[63] Historically, some twenty species names (not counting new combinations) and eight genus names have been applied to architeuthids (see Type specimens).[12] No genetic or physical basis for distinguishing between the named species has been proposed,[64] though specimens from the North Pacific do not appear to reach the maximum dimensions seen in giant squid from other areas.[65] There may also be regional differences in the relative proportions of the tentacles and their sucker counts.[66] The mitogenomic analysis of Winkelmann et al. (2013) supports the existence of a single, globally distributed species (A. dux).[67] The same conclusion was reached by Förch (1998) on the basis of morphological data.

The literature on giant squid has been further muddied by the frequent misattribution of various squid specimens to the genus Architeuthis, often based solely on their large size. In the academic literature alone, such misidentifications encompass at least the oegopsid families Chiroteuthidae (misidentification

  1. [8]
—Asperoteuthis lui), Cranchiidae (
  1. [5]
and [6]—Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni), Ommastrephidae (
  1. [1]
—Sthenoteuthis pteropus and
  1. [2]
—Dosidicus gigas), Onychoteuthidae (
  1. [7]
, [11], and [13]—Onykia robusta), and Psychroteuthidae (
  1. [4]
—indeterminate species), with the familial identity of one record remaining unresolved (
  1. [3]
).[68] Many more misidentifications have been propagated in the popular press, involving—among others—Megalocranchia cf. fisheri (
  1. [12]
; Cranchiidae), Thysanoteuthis rhombus (
  1. [10]
; Thysanoteuthidae), and an egg mass of Nototodarus gouldi (
  1. [9]
; Ommastrephidae). This situation is further confused by the occasional usage of the common name 'giant squid' in reference to large squids of other genera.[69]

List of giant squid

Sourcing and progenitors

The present list generally follows "Records of Architeuthis Specimens from Published Reports", compiled by zoologist Michael J. Sweeney of the Smithsonian Institution and including records through 1999, with additional information taken from other sources (see Full citations). While Sweeney's list is sourced almost entirely from the scientific literature, many of the more recent specimens are supported by reports from the news media, including newspapers and magazines, radio and television broadcasts, and online sources.

Earlier efforts to compile a list of all known giant squid encounters throughout history include those of marine writer and artist Richard Ellis.[70] Ellis's first list, published as an appendix to his 1994 work Monsters of the Sea, was probably the first such compilation to appear in print and was described in the book's table of contents as "the most complete and accurate list of the historical sightings and strandings of Architeuthis ever attempted".[71] Ellis's much-expanded second list, an appendix to his 1998 book The Search for the Giant Squid, comprised 166 entries spanning four and a half centuries, from 1545 to 1996.[72] Records which appear in Ellis's 1998 list but are not found in Sweeney & Roper's 2001 list have a citation to Ellis (1998a)—in the page range 257–265—in the 'Additional references' column of the main table.

In addition to these global specimen lists, a number of regional compilations have been published, including Clarke & Robson (1929:156), Rees (1950:39–40) and Collins (1998) for the British Isles; Sivertsen (1955) for Norway; Aldrich (1991) for Newfoundland; Okiyama (1993) for the Sea of Japan; Förch (1998:105–110) for New Zealand; Guerra et al. (2006:258–259) for Asturias, Spain; [TMAG] (2007:18–21) for Tasmania, Australia; and Roper et al. (2015) for the western North Atlantic. Works exhaustively enumerating all recorded specimens from a particular mass appearance event include those of Verrill (1882c) for Newfoundland in 1870–1881 and Kubodera et al. (2016) for the Sea of Japan in 2014–2015. Though the number of authenticated giant squid records now runs into the hundreds, individual specimens still generate considerable scientific interest and continue to have scholarly papers unto themselves.[73]

Scope and inclusion criteria

The list includes records of giant squid (genus Architeuthis) either supported by a physical specimen (or parts thereof) or—in the absence of any saved material—where at least one of the following conditions is satisfied: the specimen was examined by an expert prior to disposal and thereby positively identified as a giant squid; a photograph or video recording of the specimen was taken, on the basis of which it was assigned to the genus Architeuthis by a recognised authority; or the record was accepted as being that of a giant squid by a contemporary expert or later authority for any other reason, such as the perceived credibility of the source or the verisimilitude of the account.

Purported sightings of giant squid lacking both physical and documentary evidence and expert appraisal are generally excluded, with the exception of those appearing in the lists of Ellis (1994a:379–384), Ellis (1998a:257–265), or Sweeney & Roper (2001) (see e.g. "attacks" of

  1. 32
and 106). In particular, "sea monster" sightings—many of which have been attributed to giant squid by various authors—fall short of this standard. Compositing and other forms of photo manipulation have been used to perpetrate hoaxes involving giant squid and these are occasionally circulated as records of actual news events, often accompanied by fictional background stories.[74] Such records are likewise excluded, as are speculative misidentifications with no scientific basis.[75]

The earliest surviving records of very large squid date to classical antiquity and the writings of Aristotle, Pliny the Elder,[76] and possibly Antipater of Sidon.[77] But in the absence of detailed descriptions or surviving remains, it is not possible to assign these to the giant squid genus Architeuthis with any confidence, and they are therefore not included in this list (in any case, giant squid records from the Mediterranean are exceedingly rare). Basque and Portuguese cod fishermen observed what were likely giant squid carcasses in the waters of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland as early as the 16th century,[78] but conclusive evidence is similarly lacking. The earliest specimens identifiable as true giant squid are generally accepted to be ones from the early modern period in the 17th and 18th centuries,[79] and possibly as far back as the 16th century (

  1. 1
).[80]

All developmental stages from hatchling to mature adult are included. In the literature there is a single anecdotal account of a giant squid "egg case",[81] but this is excluded due to a lack of substantiating evidence (see misidentification

  1. [9]
for possible egg mass later determined to be that of the arrow squid, Nototodarus gouldi). Indirect evidence of giant squid—such as sucker scars found on sperm whales—falls outside the scope of this list.

Specimens misassigned to the genus Architeuthis in print publications or news reports are included, but are clearly highlighted as misidentifications.

List of specimens

Records are listed chronologically in ascending order and numbered accordingly. This numbering is not meant to be definitive but rather to provide a convenient means of referring to individual records. Specimens incorrectly assigned to the genus Architeuthis are counted separately, their numbers enclosed in square brackets, and are highlighted in pink . Records that cover multiple whole specimens, or remains necessarily originating from multiple individuals (e.g. two lower beaks), have the 'Material cited' cell highlighted in grey . Animals that were photographed or filmed while alive (all from the 21st century) have the 'Nature of encounter' cell highlighted in yellow . Where a record falls into more than one of these categories, a combination of shadings is used. Where an image of a specimen is available, this is indicated by a camera symbol that links to the image.

The total number of giant squid records listed across this page and successive lists is , though the number of individual animals covered is greater (the additional number exceeding 250) as some records encompass multiple specimens (indicated in grey). Additionally, 13 records relate to specimens misidentified as giant squid (indicated in pink).

Date Location Nature of encounter Identification Material cited Material saved Sex Size and measurements Repository Main references Additional references Notes
1
 1546 Øresund, near Malmö, Denmark–Norway [since 1658 Malmö has been part of Sweden]
Found washed ashore; "caught live"[82] "sea monk"; Architeuthis monachus Steenstrup in Harting, 1860; Jenny Haniver made from a skate;[83] Squatina squatina (angelshark)[84] Entire? Undetermined ?WL: ≈3 m Hamer (1546:[1], fig.)Contemporaneously regarded as a "sea monk". Drawings of animal sent by Christian III of Denmark to Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (then in Spain) sometime between 1545 and 1550; specimen well known across Europe.[85] Mentioned in the writings of 16th century naturalists Pierre Belon, Guillaume Rondelet, and Conrad Gesner (in his encyclopedic Historia Animalium), though giant squid identity first proposed by Japetus Steenstrup in lecture on 26 November 1854. Paxton & Holland (2005:39) concluded that the specimen "was unlikely to have been a giant squid [...] The most likely alternative suspect would be the angelshark Squatina squatina". The similar sea bishop has also been interpreted as a giant squid carcass[86] or else a Jenny Haniver made from a skate.[87]
2 autumn 1639 Thingøre Sand, Nordresyssel (or Thingøresand, Hunevandsyssel), Iceland[88]
Found washed ashore Architeuthis sp. Entire One arm BL+HL: ≈6feet; AL: ≈3feet; TL: ≈16–; BC: ≈3– Thingøre monastery
"museum at Copenhagen" (ZMUC?)[89]
Jónsson ([{{circa}} 1645]:238)Packard (1873:87)Original Icelandic account is from the contemporaneous Annálar Björns á Skarðsá and has been translated into English. Crude drawing of animal mentioned by Eggert Ólafsson was lost with most of his books when his boat capsized off Iceland in 1768, leading to his death.[90] Identified by Japetus Steenstrup as decapod cephalopod in 1849.
3
 15 October 1673 Dingle-I-cosh, Kerry, Ireland
Found floating at surface, in process of washing ashore, alive Dinoteuthis proboscideus More, 1875; Architeuthis monachus;[91] Ommastrephes (Architeuthis) monachus[92] Entire TL: ≈11feet + 9feet; AL: ≈6–; "liver": 30lb Undetermined [NMI?<!--not in museum database-->]; holotype of Dinoteuthis proboscideus More, 1875 [Anon.] (1673)More (1875b:4571)Found by James Steward. Original material relating to this specimen consists of: a broadsheet printed in London with three letters (two from Thomas Hooke and one from Thomas Clear) together with a description and illustration;[93] a fourth letter in manuscript;[94] a broadsheet printed in Dublin to be distributed as a handbill;[95] and an eight-page booklet printed in London with a woodcut reproduction of the illustration in the broadsheet (both originating from a painting on canvas brought to London, as it was impossible to preserve the carcass).[96]
4 1680 Ulvangen Fjord, Alstadhoug parish, Norway
Not stated Entire? Steenstrup (1857:184/[18])
5 1770 Jutland, Denmark
Unknown
6 27 May 1785 Grand Banks, Newfoundland
Found floating at surface, dead Architeuthis sp. BL: 7feet Cartwright (1792:44)Found during George Cartwright's sixth and final voyage to Newfoundland and Labrador. Spotted at 10 am surrounded by birds. Head broke off during retrieval. Described as "a large squid [...] when gutted, the body filled a pork barrel, and the whole of it would have filled a tierce".
7 November or December 1790 Arnarnaesvik, Modruvalle, Iceland
Found washed ashore Entire None; used for cod bait "longest tentacula": >3fathom; "body right from the head": 3.5fathom; "so thick that a fullgrown man could hardly embrace it with his arms" Steenstrup (1849:952/[11])Called Kolkrabbe ('coal-crab') by local people. Identified by Japetus Steenstrup as decapod cephalopod in 1849.
8 1700s (reported 1795) Freshwater Bay, near mouth of St. John's harbour, Newfoundland
Unknown Architeuthis sp. Thomas ([1795]:183)
9 1700s Grand Banks, Newfoundland
Unknown Architeuthis sp.
10 1798 north coast of Denmark
Not stated "gigantic squid" Unknown "museum at Copenhagen" (ZMUC?)
11 9 January 1802 off Tasmania, Australia
Found at surface, alive ?Loligo ["''vraisemblablement du genre Calmar [Loligo, Lamarck]"] "size of a barrel" ["''grosseur d'un tonneau''"]; AL: 1.9–2.2 m; AD: 18–21 cm Quoy & Gaimard (1824:411)Péron (1807:216) wrote: "it rolled with noise in the midst of the waves, and its long arms, stretched out on their surface, stirred like so many enormous reptiles" (translated from the French).
12 between 1817 and 1820 Atlantic Ocean, near equator
Found floating at surface "énorme calmar" Partial remains; "tentacles" ("tentacules") missing WT: 100 "livres" [estimate]; WT: 200 "livres" [estimate; if complete] Packard (1873:88)Found at surface in calm weather. Quoy & Gaimard (1824:411) opined: "it is easy to imagine that one of these terrible molluscs could readily remove a man from a fairly large boat, but not a medium-tonnage vessel, still less tilting this vessel and endangering it, as some would like to believe" (translated from the French).
13
December 1853 Raabjerg beach, North Jutland, coast of Skagerack, Denmark
Found washed ashore Architeuthis monachus Entire Jaws only; radula discarded after poor preservation; jaws cut out; portion used for bait; remainder buried after 2 days ZMUC catalog no. CEP-133; holotype of Architeuthis monachus Steenstrup, 1857[97] Steenstrup (1855b:[14])Steenstrup (1857:[18])"Architeuthis monachus" Steenstrup = nomen nudum[98]
14
5 November 1855 western Atlantic Ocean, near Bahamas (31°N -76°W)
Not stated; presumably found floating at surface Architeuthis dux Steenstrup, 1857; Architeuthis titan[99] Various parts Gladius, mouthparts, part of arm, several suckers, and what may be hectocotylus[100] Male WL: 377 cm; AL: 1/2 whole length;[101] beak measurements; GL: 6feet[102] ZMUC catalog no. CEP-97 (or CEP-000097) and NHMD-77320 (multiple parts, each in its own glass vessel: gladius, mouthparts, part of arm, several suckers, and what may be hectocotylus); holotype of Architeuthis dux Steenstrup, 1857; ZMB Moll. 34798 (single sucker); piece of limb in Bergen Museum[103] Steenstrup (1857:[18])Packard (1873:87)Obtained by Capt. Vilhelm Hygom. Japetus Steenstrup donated single sucker to Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin, which was incorporated into collection in 1883 according to catalogue entry. Preserved in 70% ethanol.
15 December 1855 Aalbaekbugten, Denmark
Found washed ashore Architeuthis sp. Entire? Undetermined None
16
Unknown (reported 1860) Unknown
Not stated Architeuthis dux;[104] ?Ommastrephes hartingii;[105] Architeuthis hartingii (Verrill, 1875);[106] nomen nudum[107] Jaws, buccal mass, detached arm suckers Jaws, buccal mass, detached arm suckers ASD: 1.05inches Utrecht University Natural History Museum; holotype of Loligo hartingii Verrill, 1875. Harting specimen No. 1 Harting (1860:2, pl. 1)
17 1860 or 1861 between Hillswick and Scalloway, Shetland, Scotland
Found washed ashore Architeuthis monachus Steenstrup, 1857; Architeuthis dux Steenstrup, 1857[108] Undetermined TL: 16feet; AL: ≈8feet; BL: ≈7feet Jeffreys (1869:124)More (1875b:4571)
18
30 November ?1861 [=1860 Rees & Maul] about 20miles northeast of Teneriffe, Canary Islands
Found floating at surface Loligo bouyeri;[109] ?Ommastrephes bouyeri Entire, decomposed None BL: 15– None Bouyer (1861:1263)Frédol (1865:314, pl. 13)Observed only by officers of the French gunboat Alecton; sketch made. A report of the incident filed by the ship's lieutenant was almost certainly seen by Jules Verne and adapted by him for the description of the monstrous squid in Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea. Iconography discussed by Lagrange (2009).
19 1862 North Atlantic
Unknown
[1]
Unknown; 1870? Cape Sable, Nova Scotia, Canada
Found washed ashore Architeuthis megaptera Verrill, 1878 [=''[[Sthenoteuthis pteropus]] (Steenstrup, 1855)][110] Entire Entire BL: 14inches; BL+HL: 19inches; EL: 43inches; TL: 22–; AL: 6.5–; FW: 13.5inches; FL: 6inches; extensive additional measurements NSMC catalog no. 1870-Z-2; YPM catalog nos. IZ 017932 (sucker) & IZ 017713; holotype of Architeuthis megaptera Verrill, 1878;[111] Verrill specimen No. 21 ("Cape Sable specimen") Verrill (1878:207)Non-architeuthid. Collected by J.M. Jones.
20 September 1870 Waimarama, east coast of Wellington, New Zealand
Found washed ashore Entire Beak BL+HL: 10feet; BC: 6feet; AL: 5feet In Kirk's possession; Kirk specimen No. 1 Kirk (1880:310)Mr. Meinertzhagen sent beak, saved by third party (unidentified), to Kirk. Natives called specimen a "taniwha".
21 1870 (winter) Lamaline, Newfoundland
Found washed ashore Architeuthis monachus of Steenstrup Two specimens; entire? None?; used as fish bait[112] Two; EL: 40feet and EL: 47feet None?; Verrill specimen Nos. 8 & 9 ("Lamaline specimens") Murray (1874a:162)Data from Mr. Harvey letter citing Rev. M. Gabriel's statement to Harvey.
22
October 1871 Grand Banks, Newfoundland
Found floating at surface Architeuthis princeps Verrill, 1875 Entire; part used as bait Jaws obtained from Baird for examination by Verrill BL: ≈15feet; BD: 19inches; AL: ≈10feet [mutilated]; AD: 7inches; AC: 22inches; beak; BC: 4feet; WT: 2000lb Jaws at NMNH[113] (no longer extant?[114]); lower jaw is syntype of Architeuthis princeps Verrill, 1875b; Verrill specimen No. 1 ("Grand Banks specimen" [1st]) Packard (1873:91)Pfeffer (1912:20)Taken by Capt. Campbell, Schooner B.D. Haskins.
23 1871 Wellington, New Zealand
?EL: 16feet
24 1872 (autumn or winter) Coomb's Cove, Fortune Bay, Newfoundland
Found alive in shallow water, having been driven ashore in heavy sea Entire; "one long arm missing" (later changed to both present) BL: 10feet; BD: 3–; TL: 42feet; AL: ≈6feet; AD: 9inches; skin + flesh: 2.25inches thick; EL: 52feet Unknown; Verrill specimen No. 3 ("Coombs' Cove specimen") Verrill (1874a:159)Owen (1881:163)Specimen had a reddish colour. Verrill's data taken from newspaper accounts and 15/VI/1873 T.R. Bennett letter to Prof. Baird. Verrill (1880a:186) states his No. 6 is same specimen as No. 3; this cannot be correct, since capture date for No. 6 is clearly stated as December 1874 by Verrill (1875c:213).
25
December 1872 Bonavista Bay, Newfoundland
Found washed ashore ?Architeuthis dux;[115] ?Architeuthis harveyi Entire (damaged arms) Pair of jaws and two suckers TL: 32feet; AL: ≈10feet; BL: ≈14feet [estimate]; BC: 6feet Verrill (1874a:160)Pfeffer (1912:19)Material from Rev. A. Munn, through Prof. Baird to Verrill.
26
Unknown (reported 1873) North Atlantic Ocean
From sperm whale stomach Architeuthis princeps Verrill, 1875; Ommastrephes (Architeuthis) princeps Upper and lower jaws Beak measurements Presented by Capt. N.E. Atwood of Provincetown, Massachusetts to EI;[116] PASS; syntype of Architeuthis princeps Verrill, 1875b; Verrill specimen No. 10 ("Sperm-whale specimen") Packard (1873:91, fig. 10)First reported by Alpheus Spring Packard in February 1873. Verrill states Packard's illustration is inaccurate.
27
Unknown (reported 1873) Unknown; possibly east coast of South America[117]
? 		Not stated Architeuthis monachus;[118] Plectoteuthis grandis Owen, 1881; Architeuthis sp.? (grandis);[119] nomen nudum Sessile arm Arm BMNH; holotype of Plectoteuthis grandis Owen, 1881 Kent (1874a:179)"No history relating to it has been preserved", but first examined by Henry Lee in May 1873, having been in BMNH collections for "long" time. Bore 300 suckers.
28 1873 Yedo [Tokyo] fishmarket, Japan
Purchased Megateuthis martensii Hilgendorf, 1880; Nomen spurium[120] 'Entire', missing head, "abdominal sac", ends of tentacles and arms[121] Not specified ML: 186 cm; WL: 414 cm; HL: 41 cm; AL: 197 cm [longest]; ASD: 1.5 cm (with 37 cusps); EyD: 200 mm ZMB Moll. 34716 + 38980; holotype of Megateuthis martensii Hilgendorf, 1880 [34716a: eyeball, 200&nbsp;mm diameter, dry; 34716b: pieces of arm and [[Gladius (cephalopod)|gladius]], suckers; 34716c: larger piece of arm with suckers; 38980: four suckers from holotype arm piece] Hilgendorf (1880:67)Owen (1881:163)Second specimen from Tokyo fishmarket seen by Franz Martin Hilgendorf and used for description of gladius. Of other specimen, Hilgendorf saved "parts of an arm, the covering of the eye, and a fragment of the gladius" ("Theile eines Armes, die Hüllen des Auges, und ein Bruchstück des Schulpes").[122] Model of specimen placed in Exhibition of Fishery in Berlin.
29
26 October 1873 off Portugal Cove, Conception Bay, Newfoundland
Found floating at surface, alive Megaloteuthis harveyi Kent, 1874; Architeuthis monachus of Steenstrup;[123] ?Architeuthis harveyi[124] Entire One tentacle; one arm discarded (see Verrill, 1880a:220) TL: 19feet [incomplete; total estimated at {{convert|35|ft|m|abbr=on}} with ≈{{convert|10|ft|m|abbr=on}} left attached to body and {{convert|6|ft|m|abbr=on}} subsequently destroyed]; TC: 3.5inches [stalk; club {{convert|6|in|cm|abbr=on}}]; TSD: 1.25inches; additional measurements based on photograph; additional club measurement from Harvey letter;[125] BL: ≈10feet; EL: ≈60feet [estimate]; AL: 6feet; AD: 10inches; TSC: ≈180; beak as large "as a six-gallon keg"; "tail" 10feet across[126] YPM?; holotype of Megaloteuthis harveyi Kent, 1874; Verrill specimen No. 2 ("Conception Bay specimen") Harvey (1873a)Struck by Theophilus Picot from boat whereupon it "attacked" the boat; veracity of account has been questioned. Severed tentacle purchased by Moses Harvey for NF$10 (equivalent to US$ in) and preserved in alcohol;[127] exhibited at Alexander Murray's geological museum in St. John's (a forerunner of the Newfoundland Museum, itself now part of The Rooms),[128] where it remained as of 1883.[129] Famed naturalist Louis Agassiz showed great interest in the specimen, writing: "It is truly important for the history of cephalopods"; his final scientific letters (he died on 14 December 1873) concerned the possibility of examining its remains.[130] Served as a reference for the earliest known "life-sized" giant squid cutout, from the 1870s. Considered by Paxton (2016a:83) as the "longest visually estimated" total length of any giant squid specimen. Encounter dramatised in episode of 1998 documentary series The X Creatures;[131] fictionalised in The Adventures of Billy Topsail (1906) by Norman Duncan[132] and The Kraken (1995) by Don C. Reed.[133] A similar event is portrayed in The Shipping News (1993) by E. Annie Proulx.[134]
30
25 November? 1873 Logy Bay (≈3 miles from St. John's), Newfoundland
In herring net ?Architeuthis monachus of Steenstrup; Ommastrephes (Architeuthis) monachus; Architeuthis harveyi (Kent, 1874) Entire (badly mutilated, head severed, eyes missing, etc.) Miscellaneous parts obtained from Rev. M. Harvey (gladius and ?) (see Verrill, 1880a:220; Buckland, 1875:214) BL: ≈7feet; BC: 5–; HC: 9feet [at junction with arms]; caudal fin: 22inches broad; TL: 24feet; TC: 2.5inches; TSD: 1.25inches; AL: 6feet [all 8]; AC: 10inches, 9inches, 8inches, 7inches [all basal measurements]; ASC: ≈100; CSC: ≈160; EyD: 4inches [estimate based on remains of "eyelid"]; club description; extensive description of reconstructed parts YPM catalog nos. IZ 009634 (beak and limbs), IZ 017924 (radula), IZ 017925, IZ 017926 & IZ 034968. Verrill specimen No. 5 ("Logie Bay specimen") Harvey (1873d:2)Verrill's data from letter to Dr. Dawson from Moses Harvey. Harvey purchased specimen for NF$10 (equivalent to US$ in). Photographs made of a) entire body, somewhat mutilated anteriorly; b) head and 10 limbs. Poorly preserved; first in brine, then in alcohol. Capture date given as December several times, then as November several times, and as 25 November by Aldrich (1991:457). Served as a reference for the earliest known "life-sized" giant squid cutout, from the 1870s. Verrill's description served as the basis for the "life-sized" model that now hangs at the Peabody Museum of Natural History (YPM IZ 104471), built in 1966,[135] though it was also based on several Newfoundland specimens from the 1960s.[136] Specimen and famous photograph of it draped over Harvey's shower curtain rod were subject of Preparing the Ghost (2014), a work of creative nonfiction by Matthew Gavin Frank.[137]
31 1874 Buøy, Foldenfjord, Norway
Found washed ashore Architeuthis dux Entire None WL: ≈4 m
32 10 May 1874 off Trincomalee, Sri Lanka (8.8333°N 89°W)
Reportedly seen sinking ship Unknown Welfare & Fairley (1980:74)Schooner Pearl (150 tons) with crew of six, including captain James Floyd, supposedly sunk by giant squid. Incident reportedly seen from passenger steamer Strathowen, bound from Colombo to Madras, which rescued five of the crew. Veracity of account has been questioned,[138] though taken seriously by Frederick Aldrich.[139] Fictionalised in Don C. Reed's 1995 novel The Kraken.[140]
33
2 November 1874 on beach, St. Paul Island, Indian Ocean (-38.7167°N 109°W)
Found washed ashore Architeuthis mouchezi Vélain (1875:1002) [''nomen nudum'']; Mouchezis sancti-pauli Vélain (1877:81); Ommastrephes mouchezi Entire; found in advanced state of decay Tentacle(s?) and buccal mass EL: 7.15 m MNHN catalog nos. 3-2-658 & 3-2-659 (tentacular clubs);[141] holotype of Mouchezis sancti-pauli Vélain, 1877 Vélain (1875:1002)Gervais (1875:88)Recorded by geologist Charles Vélain during French astronomical mission to Île Saint-Paul to observe the transit of Venus. Specimen was photographed.
34
December 1874 Grand Bank, Fortune Bay, Newfoundland
Found washed ashore Architeuthis princeps Entire, except for tail (cut up for dog food) Jaws, one tentacular sucker EL: 42–; HL+BL: 12–; ?TL: 30feet; TL: 26feet; TC: 16inches; BL: 10feet; jaws YPM catalog nos. IZ 010272 (beak) & IZ 034836. Verrill specimen No. 6 and Verrill specimen No. 13 ("Fortune Bay specimen") Verrill (1875a:35)Data from 10/XII/1873 letter from Mr. Harvey to unknown individual citing measurements taken by G. Simms; Pfeffer (1912:21). Measurements are given differently in different papers. Verrill (1880a:186) and Verrill (1882c:10) states his No. 6 is same specimen as No. 3; this cannot be correct, as capture date for No. 6 is clearly stated as December 1874 by Verrill (1875c:213).[142] Verrill (1880a:188, pl. 17) repeats record as his No. 13.
35 winter of 1874–1875 near Harbor Grace, Newfoundland
Found washed ashore Destroyed None taken None; Verrill specimen No. 12 ("Harbor Grace specimen") Verrill (1875b:79)"destroyed before its value became known, and no measurements are given"
36 Unknown (reported 1875) west St. Modent (on Labrador side), Strait of Belle Isle, Newfoundland
Found alive Architeuthis princeps or Architeuthis monachus of Steenstrup Entire None; cut up, salted, and barrelled for dog meat ?TL: 37feet; BL+HL: 15feet; EL: 52feet; SD: ≈2inches None; Verrill specimen No. 7 ("Labrador specimen") Verrill (1875a:36)Data from unidentified third party cited in Halifax newspaper article.
37
25 April 1875 (or 26 April[143]) north-west of Boffin Island, Connemara, Ireland
Found immobile at surface; attacked and chased by fishermen; arms successively hacked off and eventually killed Architeuthis monachus; Architeuthis dux Steenstrup, 1857[144] Entire Beak and buccal mass, one arm ("much mutilated and decayed", missing horny rings), portions of both tentacles ("shrunk and distorted", missing horny rings on large central club suckers); head, eyes and second arm initially saved, but soon lost/destroyed TL: 30feet [fresh]; TL: 14/17 ft (14feet/17feet m) [pickled]; CL: 2feet [shrunken]; CSD: nearly 1inches; SSD: NaNinches; AL: 8feet [fresh]; AC: 15inches [fresh]; beak: ≈NaNinches × NaNinches; "trunk": "fully as long as the canoe"; EyD: ≈15inches; WT: ≈6st [head only]; additional sucker measurements NMI catalog no. 1995.16 (beak in spirit) O'Connor (1875:4502)On public display. Caught by three-man longline fishing crew of currach ("curragh") for use as bait for coarse fish. Found motionless at surface surrounded by gulls, becoming active upon being attacked by fishermen, swimming away "at a tremendous rate" and releasing ink. Progressively disabled with a knife (fishermen having no gaff or spare rope) as chased for 2 hours over 5miles, before head eventually severed; heavy mantle allowed to sink. Specimen secured and preserved by Sergeant Thomas O'Connor of the Royal Irish Constabulary and forwarded by him to the museum of the Royal Dublin Society, Dublin (now the National Museum of Ireland – Natural History).
38 October 1875 Grand Banks [of [[Newfoundland Colony|Newfoundland]]], Atlantic Ocean (chiefly 44°–44°30'N 49°30'–49°50'W)
Found floating at surface; "mostly entirely dead" but small minority "not quite dead, but entirely disabled" Architeuthis Multiple; mutilated by birds and fishes to varying degrees, especially limbs; No. 25 missing parts of arms; No. 26 with intact arms and tentacles None; cut up for cod bait No. 25: Filled ≈75USgal tub; WT: nearly 1000lb [estimate, complete]; No. 26: TL: 36feet; Howard specimens: BL+HL?: mostly 10– [excluding "arms"]; BD: ≈18inches [average]; AL: usually 3– [incomplete]; AD: "about as large as a man's thigh" [at base]; Tragabigzanda specimens: BL+HL?: 8– [excluding "arms"] None; included Verrill specimen No. 25 and Verrill specimen No. 26 Verrill (1881a:251)An unusual number (≈25–30) of mostly dead giant squid found by Gloucester, Massachusetts fishermen, with similar number estimated to have been obtained by vessels from other areas. Data from Capt. J.W. Collins of the United States Fish Commission, who at the time of the incident commanded schooner Howard, which collected five specimens. Other involved vessels included schooner Sarah P. Ayer (Capt. Oakley), which took 1–2 specimens; E. R. Nickerson (Capt. McDonald), which harpooned one (No. 26) with intact arms that was "not entirely dead"; and schooner Tragabigzanda (Capt. Mallory), which took three in one afternoon. Some fishermen stated that such "big squids" were also common at the Flemish Cap during the same season. Verrill conjectured that this mass mortality might have been due to an outbreak of disease or parasites, and/or related to their reproductive cycle.
39 1876 Clifford Bay, Cape Campbell, New Zealand
Found washed ashore Entire Jaws[145] BL: 7feet [estimate]; EL: ≈20feet [estimate] Colonial Museum [NMNZ] Robson (1887:156)Pfeffer (1912:32)
40 20 November 1876 Hammer Cove, southwest arm of Green Bay, Notre Dame Bay, Newfoundland
Found washed ashore Partial specimen; devoured by foxes and seabirds Piece of pen 16inches long WH: 18inches; FW: 18inches In Harvey's possession; Verrill specimen No. 15 ("Hammer Cove specimen") Verrill (1880a:190)
41 1877? Norway
Not stated Map location only
42
24 September 1877 Catalina, Trinity Bay, Newfoundland
Found washed ashore, alive Architeuthis princeps; Ommastrephes (Architeuthis) princeps Entire; "nearly perfect specimen" Loose suckers (see Verrill, 1880a:220) HL+BL: 9.5feet; BC: 7feet; TL: 30feet; AL: 11feet [longest, ventral]; AC: 17inches [ventral]; beak; FW: 2feet YPM catalog nos. IZ 017927, IZ 017928, IZ 017929 & IZ 017930. Verrill specimen No. 14 ("Catalina specimen") Harvey (1877)Owen (1881:163)Measured fresh by M. Harvey; examined preserved (poorly) by Verrill at New York Aquarium. Later "prepared" for exhibition by taxidermist. Served as the basis for the earliest "life-sized" giant squid models, including the original three made by Verrill and J. H. Emerton and six subsequent ones by Ward's. Described by Frederick Aldrich as "largest giant squid to be encountered in Newfoundland".[146]
43 October 1877 Trinity Bay, Newfoundland
Not stated "big squid" None None taken None; Verrill specimen No. 17 ("Trinity Bay specimen") Verrill (1880a:191)Specimen cut up and used for manure.
44
21 November 1877 Smith's Sound, Lance Cove, Trinity Bay, Newfoundland
Found washed ashore, alive ?Architeuthis princeps Entire None; carried off by tide BL(+HL?): 11feet; TL: 33feet; AL: 13feet [estimate] None; Verrill specimen No. 16 ("Lance Cove specimen") Verrill (1880a:190)Found still alive, having "ploughed up a trench or furrow about 30feet long and of considerable depth by the stream of water that it ejected with great force from its siphon. When the tide receded it died."

(https://web.archive.org/web/20211216015926/https://pbs.twimg.com/media/E0vKXlQXIAAwLi2?format=jpg ) 		1878 (accessioned) Catlins, New Zealand
Not stated Architeuthis sp. Entire? Beak BL: 7feet; ML: 1.6 m [estimate]; EL: ≈10 m [estimate] Otago Museum catalog no. IV119151 Lau (2021)On public display. Collected by Capt. Charles Hayward (Catlins River harbourmaster, 1872–1887). Acquired in 1878 by Capt. Frederick Wollaston Hutton, first curator of Otago Museum, according to museum records; rediscovered and publicised in 2021.[147] Placed on display in Animal Attic gallery.[148] Mantle and total length estimated by teuthologist Kat Bolstad based on beak measurements.[149]
45
2 November 1878 Thimble Tickle, near Little Bay Copper Mine, Notre Dame Bay, Newfoundland
Found aground offshore, alive; secured to tree with grapnel and rope; died as tide receded ?Architeuthis princeps Entire None; cut up for dog food BL+HL: 20feet; TL: 35feet None; Verrill specimen No. 18 ("Thimble Tickle specimen") Verrill (1880a:191)Discovered by fisherman Stephen Sherring and two others. Often cited as the largest recorded giant squid specimen, and long treated as such by Guinness. Considered by Paxton (2016a:83) as candidate for "longest measured" total length of any giant squid specimen (together with
  1. 62
, and less reliably
  1. 209
). Giant Squid Interpretation Centre and "life-sized", 55-foot sculpture built near site of capture;[150] sculpture appeared on Canadian postage stamp issued in 2011[151] and has associated annual festival.[152]
46 2 December 1878 Three Arms, South Arm of Notre Dame Bay, Newfoundland
Found washed ashore ?Architeuthis princeps Entire, mutilated and with arms missing (only one arm "perfect") None; cut up for dog food BL+HL: 15feet; BC: 12feet; AL: 16feet; AD: "thicker than a man's thigh" None; Verrill specimen No. 19 ("Three Arms specimen") Verrill (1880a:192)Found dead by fisherman William Budgell after heavy gale. Considered by Paxton (2016a:83) as the "longest measured" standard length of any giant squid specimen.
47
23 May 1879 Lyall Bay, Cook Strait, New Zealand
Found washed ashore Steenstrupia stockii Kirk, 1882 [=''Architeuthis'' sp.?<ref>[[#Verrill1882d|Verrill, 1882d:477]]] Entire, but somewhat mutilated; missing ends of tentacles Pen, beak, tongue, some suckers ML: 9feet; BC: 7feet; HL: 1feet; BL+HL: 11feet; HC: 4feet; AL: 4feet; AC: 11inches; ASC: 36; TL: 6feet [incomplete]; FL: 24inches; FW: 13inches (single); GL: 6feet; GW: 11inches; other measurements NMNZ catalog nos. M.125403 & M.125405;[153] holotype of Steenstrupia stockii Kirk, 1882. Kirk specimen No. 3 Kirk (1880:310)Verrill (1882d:477)Measurements taken by T.W. Kirk. Has been called the "largest specimen recorded in the scientific literature" based on erroneous total length of "approximately 20 m",[154] itself based on claim by Roper & Boss (1982:104) relating to unspecified specimen "stranded on a beach in New Zealand in 1880 ". Considered by Paxton (2016a:83) as the longest reliably measured mantle length of any giant squid specimen (less reliably that of
  1. 104
), but measurement considered dubious by experts due to wide discrepancy with reported gladius length.
48 1879 off Nova Scotia, Canada (42.8167°N -119°W)
?Architeuthis megaptera Verrill, 1878; ?Architeuthis harveyi (Kent, 1874) Terminal part of tentacular arm Portion of arm 18inches long NMNH catalog no. 576962. Verrill specimen No. 20 ("Banquereau specimen" [after Banquereau Bank, a [[Ocean bank|bank]] off Nova Scotia]) Verrill (1880a:193)Lancetfish taken by Capt. J.W. Collins of schooner Marion on halibut trawl-line.
49
September 1879 Olafsfjord, Iceland
Architeuthis Left tentacle TL: 7680+ mm; CL: 1010 mm; CSC: 268; TSC: 290; additional indices and counts ZMUC [specimen NA-7 of [[#Roeleveld2002|Roeleveld (2002)]]] Tentacle morphology examined by Roeleveld (2002).
50 October 1879 near Brigus, Conception Bay, Newfoundland
Found washed ashore Two arms with other mutilated parts Undetermined AL: 8feet None?; Verrill specimen No. 22 ("Brigus specimen") Verrill (1880a:194)Found after storm. Information provided by Moses Harvey.
51 1 November 1879 James's Cove, Bonavista Bay, Newfoundland
Found at surface, alive Entire None; cut up by fishermen EL: 38feet; BL: 9feet; BC: ≈6feet; TL: 29feet None; Verrill specimen No. 23 ("James's Cove specimen") Verrill (1880a:194)Found alive and driven ashore.
52 Unknown (reported 1880) near Boulder Bank, Nelson, New Zealand
Not stated; hook and line? Not indicated Undetermined 8feet long None?; Kirk specimen No. 4 Kirk (1880:310)Newspaper article Caught by fishing party. No other data.
53 Unknown (reported 1880) near Flat Point, east coast, New Zealand
Not stated Not indicated Undetermined None None?; Kirk specimen No. 5 Kirk (1880:310)Description sent to Mr. Beetham, M.H.R., by Mr. Moore Found by Mr. Moore. No other data.
54
April 1880 Grand Banks, Newfoundland
Found dead at surface Architeuthis harveyi (Kent, 1874) Head, tentacles, and arms only Head, tentacles, and arms TL: 66inches; ASC: 330; extensive measurements and counts YPM catalog no. 12600y. Verrill specimen No. 24 ("Grand Banks specimen" [2nd]) Verrill (1881b:259, pl. 26 figs. 1–4, pl. 38 figs. 3–7)Pfeffer (1912:19)Found dead by Capt. O.A. Whitten of schooner Wm.H. Oakes. Arm and sucker regeneration documented by Verrill (1881b:260); one of two published records of limb regeneration in architeuthids (as identified by Imperadore & Fiorito, 2018), the other being a case of tentacle regeneration in
  1. 169
(see also
  1. 549
).
55
6 June 1880 Island Bay, Cook Strait, New Zealand
Found washed ashore Architeuthis verrilli Kirk, 1882 Entire Not specified ML: 7feet; BC: 9feet; TL: 25feet; AL(I, II, IV): 9feet; AC(I, II, IV): 15inches; AL(III): 10feet; AC(III): 21inches; ASC(III): 71; HC: 4feet; HL: 19inches; FL: 30inches; FW: 28inches; EyD: 5inches by 4inches NMNZ; holotype of Architeuthis verrilli Kirk, 1882; specimen no longer extant[155] Verrill (1882d:477)Measurements taken by Kirk, except TL by James McColl. Beak and portions of gladius ("skeleton") taken by Italian fishermen and not recovered.
56 1880 Kvænangen fjord, Norway
Found washed ashore Architeuthis dux Steenstrup, 1857 Entire None None
57 1880 Tønsvik, Tromsøysundet, Norway
Found washed ashore Architeuthis dux Steenstrup, 1857 Entire None None
58 October 1880 Kilkee, County Clare, Ireland
Found washed ashore "octopus"; Architeuthis sp. O'Brien (1880:585)Rees (1950:40)Originally cited as an octopus.
59 first week of November 1881 on beach, Hennesey's Cove, Long Island, Placentia Bay, Newfoundland
Found washed ashore Architeuthis princeps? Entire; "much mutilated by crows and other birds" Not stated "very large"; BL+HL: 26feet [estimate] Verrill specimen No. 28 M. Harvey letter 19 December 1881 to Verrill Found by Albert Butcher and George Wareham, "who cut a portion from the head", at uninhabited locality; Verrill considered their estimate of the specimen's length "probably too large". Moses Harvey learned of the specimen from C. D. Chambers, magistrate of Harbour Buffet, Placentia Bay. Only mentioned in Verrill (1882c:221); overlooked by Ellis (1994a:379–384), Ellis (1998a:257–265), and Sweeney & Roper (2001).
60
10 November 1881 Portugal Cove, near St. John's, Newfoundland
Found floating dead near shore Architeuthis harveyi (Kent, 1874) Entire Entire (somewhat mutilated and poorly preserved) a) BL: 5.5feet; HL: 1.25feet; EL: 28feet; BC: 4.5feet b) ML: 4.16feet; BC: 4feet; FL: 1.75feet; FW: 8inches [single]; TL: 15feet; CL: 2feet; AL: 4.66feet [ventral, minus tip]; TC: 8.5inches [at base]; additional measurements E.M. Worth Museum (101 Bowery, NY, NY). Verrill specimen No. 27 [Anon.] (1881:821, fig.)Obtained by Mr. Morris, photographed by E. Lyons (St. John's), shipped on ice by steamer Catima to New York, purchased and preserved by E.M. Worth. Measurements by a) Inspector Murphy (chief Board of Public Works) when iced; b) Verrill of fixed specimen. An 1881 specimen from Portugal Cove with a "body" reportedly 11feet long, mentioned in The Evening Telegram of St. John's (21 December 1933) and cited by Frost (1934:103), presumably refers to the same animal. May have served as a reference for Verrill and J. H. Emerton's original three "life-sized" giant squid models (and six subsequent ones by Ward's), as Verrill saw the specimen shortly before he began modelling.
61 30 June 1886 Cape Campbell, New Zealand
Found washed ashore Architeuthis kirkii Robson, 1887 Entire ML: 8feet; HL: 1feet; AL: 6feet; TL: 18feet; EL: 28feet; BC: ≈8feet [estimate] NMNZ catalog nos. M.125404 & ?M.125406; holotype of Architeuthis kirkii Robson, 1887. Kirk specimen No. 2 Kirk (1879:310)Found by Mr. C.H.[W.] Robson; beak given to Mr. A. Hamilton.
1886 Cupids and Hearts Content (one specimen from each), Newfoundland
Found washed ashore "giant squid" Two specimens; entire? None?; cut up for bait None given Moses Harvey only learned of specimens after their destruction. Information sourced from clippings found in one of Harvey's scrapbooks preserved at Newfoundland Public Archives (PG/A/17).
62
"early" October 1887 Lyall Bay, New Zealand
Found washed ashore Architeuthis longimanus Kirk, 1888 Entire Beak and buccal-mass Female EL: 55feet; ML: 71inches; BC: 63inches; extensive additional measurements and description Dominion Museum [NMNZ];[156] holotype of Architeuthis longimanus Kirk, 1888. Specimen not found Kirk (1888:35, pls. 7–9)Suter (1913:1049)Strangely proportioned animal that has been much commented on; sometimes cited as the longest giant squid specimen ever recorded.[157] Considered by Paxton (2016a:83) as candidate for "longest measured" total length of any giant squid specimen (together with
  1. 45
, and less reliably
  1. 209
). Found by Mr. Smith, local fisherman. Measurements taken by T.W. Kirk. Date found listed incorrectly in Dell (1952:98).[158]
63 27 August 1888 between Pico and St. George, Azores Islands (38.5658°N -30.6583°W) at 1266 m depth
By benthic trawl Architeuthis? sp.?[159] Large beak Undetermined None
64 September 1889 Løkberg farm, Mo i Rana, Norway
Found washed ashore Entire None BL: ≈5 ells (3.1 m); TL: 10–12 ells (6.3–7.5 m) Bergen Museum notified of find by Lorentz Pettersen of Sjona, Helgeland. Failure to secure remains prompted museum to issue notice in June 1890 issue of Naturen seeking specimens in future (which would be first for a Norwegian museum) and offering to cover all associated transportation and packing costs in addition to regular compensation.[160]
1890 Island Cove, Newfoundland
Found washed ashore "giant squid" Entire? None?; cut up for bait? None given Moses Harvey only learned of specimen after its destruction. Information sourced from clippings found in one of Harvey's scrapbooks preserved at Newfoundland Public Archives (PG/A/17).
65 Unknown (reported 1892) Sao Miguel Island, Azores Islands
Found washed ashore Architeuthis princeps Entire? Beak measurements Museum in Lisbon[161] Pfeffer (1912:27)
66 1892 Greenland
Not stated Architeuthis monachus
[2] Unknown (reported November 1894) Talcahuano, Chile
Ommastrephes gigas;[162] Architeuthis;[163] Dosidicus gigas[164] Entire Entire, internal parts missing, preserved in alcohol; "exceptionally good condition" (Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas, 2004:55) Female (adult)ML: 865 mm; MW: 230 mm; EL: 1740 mm; HL: 160 mm; HW: 190 mm; FL: 440 mm; FW: 600 mm; TL: 720 mm; CL: 225 mm; AL(I): 460 mm; AL(II): 450 mm; AL(III): 500 mm; AL(IV): 440 mm; LSD: 20 mm [tentacle]; LSD: 15 mm [arm II]; LSD: 14 mm [arm II<!--arm III??-->]; EyD: 80 mm; Lens: 35 mm ZMB Moll. 49.804 Martens (1894)Möbius (1898a:373)Non-architeuthid. On public display. First noted by Carl Eduard von Martens in November 1894. Exhibited at Museum für Naturkunde in Berlin from 1897 to World War II, and again from 1945–50, when it was housed in main entrance hall in large glass cylinder on marble pedestal. From December 1975, displayed as part of "Meeresungeheuer" exhibit at German Maritime Museum in Stralsund, on loan from ZMB. Return to museum noted in February 1992, when it was placed in new purpose-built container and displayed in Malacological Collection. Incorrectly identified by Kilias (1967:491) as Architeuthis in figure legend, with total length given as ≈2 m (illustration removed in later edition[165]). Specimen cast in 1997–98 for creation of 8.5-m-long plastic "giant squid" model, exhibited since 1998 at Übersee-Museum Bremen with sperm whale skull. Re-identified as Dosidicus gigas in June 1998 by Mario Alejandro Salcedo-Vargas. Internal parts apparently removed when specimen originally dissected by Martens or prepared for exhibition (1894–97).
67
4 February 1895 Bay of Tateyama [Tokyo Bay], Province of Awa, Japan
In net Architeuthis japonica Pfeffer, 1912 Entire Undetermined Female ML: 720 mm; MW: 235 mm; GL: 640 mm; FL: 280 mm; FW: 200 mm; TL: 2910 mm; extensive additional measurements and description Undetermined; ?Zoological Institute, Science College, Tokyo; holotype of Architeuthis japonica Pfeffer, 1912 Mitsukuri & Ikeda (1895:39, pl. 10)Caught in net after 2–3-day storm.
68
18 July 1895 near Angra, Azores Islands (38°34'45"N, 29°37'W)
Caught at surface (from sperm whale vomit) using shrimp net Dubioteuthis physeteris Joubin, 1900 [=''Architeuthis physeteris'' (Joubin, 1900)<ref name=":34">[[#Voss1956|Voss, 1956:136]]] Mantle only Male ML: 460 mm; BD: 115 mm; FL: 220 mm; FW: 110 mm; GL: 390 mm MOM [station 588]; holotype of Dubioteuthis physeteris Joubin, 1900[166] Joubin (1900:102, pl. 15 figs. 8–10)Hardy (1956:288)
[3]
18 July 1895 near Angra, Azores Islands (38°34'45"N, 29°37'W)
Caught at surface (from sperm whale vomit) with shrimp net Architeuthis sp.?; non-architeuthid Undetermined None Pfeffer (1912:27)Non-architeuthid.
69
10 April 1896 Kirkseteroren, Hevnefjorden, Norway
Found washed ashore Architeuthis dux Steenstrup, 1857 Entire Entire Female BL: 2.5 m; AL: 2.5 m; TL: 7.25 m VSM Storm (1897:99)Brinkmann (1916:178)Model completed in 1954 based on this specimen and
  1. 70
; restored in 2010.[167]
70
27 September 1896 [or 28 September<ref>[[#Roeleveld2002|Roeleveld, 2002:727]]] Kirkseteroren, Hevnefjorden, Norway
Found washed ashore Architeuthis dux Steenstrup, 1857 Entire Entire, posterior part missing Male TL: 1030+ mm; CL: 900 mm; CSC: 294; TSC: >298; LRL: 17.9 mm; URL: 16.2 mm; additional beak measurements, indices, and counts VSM; VSM 110a [specimen NA-18 of [[#Roeleveld2000|Roeleveld (2000)]] and Roeleveld (2002)] Storm (1897:99, fig. 20)Brinkmann (1916:178, fig. 2)Beak morphometrics studied by Roeleveld (2000). Tentacle morphology examined by Roeleveld (2002). Model completed in 1954 based on this specimen and
  1. 69
; restored in 2010.
71 Unknown (reported 1898) Iceland
Not stated Architeuthis monachus Not specified Undetermined None

Type specimens

The following table lists the nominal species-level taxa associated with the genus Architeuthis, together with their corresponding type specimens, type localities, and type repositories.[168] Binomial names are listed alphabetically by specific epithet and presented in their original combinations.

Binomial name and author citation Systematic status Type locality Type specimen and type repository
Architeuthid?[169] Canary Islands? (
  1. 18
) Unresolved
Undetermined (
  1. 107
) BMNH Holotype 1933.1.30.5 + 1926.3.31.24 (radula and beak)[170]
Nomen tantum
Valid species[171] 31°N -76°W (Atlantic Ocean) (
  1. 14
) ZMUC Holotype
Architeuthis sp.[172] Not indicated (
  1. 27
) BMNH Holotype[173] [not traced by [[#Lipinskietal2000|Lipiński ''et al.'' (2000)]]]
Nomen nudum
Valid species; Architeuthis hartingii[174] Not indicated (
  1. 16
) University of Utrecht as Architeuthis dux, identification by Harting
Architeuthis sp. (
  1. 29
) YPM Type 12600y[175]
Undetermined (
  1. 67
) Undetermined; Holotype [=[[#MitsukuriIkeda1895|Mitsukuri & Ikeda (1895:39–50, pl. 10)]]]
Architeuthis stockii (Kirk, 1882)[176] (
  1. 61
) NMNZ Holotype M.125404 + ?M.125406
Architeuthis stockii (Kirk, 1882) (
  1. 62
) NMNZ Holotype; specimen not located
Valid species; Architeuthis martensii (
  1. 28
) ZMB Moll. 34716 + 38980
Non-architeuthid; Sthenoteuthis pteropus (Steenstrup, 1855) (
  1. [1]
) NSMC 1870–Z-2
Nomen tantum
Architeuthis dux Steenstrup, 1857 Raabjerg Strand
Northwest coast of Jutland, Denmark[177]
(
  1. 13
) ZMUC Holotype
Nomen nudum
see Mouchezis sancti-pauli
Undetermined (
  1. 110
) Unresolved
Valid species; Architeuthis physeteris Azores (38°34'45"N 29°37'W); from sperm whale stomach (
  1. 68
) MOM Holotype [station 588]
Nomen nudum
Undetermined a) Grand Banks, Newfoundland; b) North Atlantic (sperm whale stomach) (
  1. 22
and 26) NMNH? [not found in collections to date]; Syntypes (a) Verrill specimen No. 1, lower beak; b) Verrill specimen No. 10, upper and lower beak)
Architeuthis sp. (
  1. 3
) Unresolved
Valid species; Architeuthis sanctipauli (
  1. 33
) MNHN Holotype 3-2-658 and 3-2-659 (tentacular clubs only)[178]
Valid species; Architeuthis stockii [Architeuthid per [[#Pfeffer1912|Pfeffer (1912:2)]]] (
  1. 47
) NMNZ Holotype M.125405 + M.125403
Architeuthis titan Steenstrup in Verrill, 1875b:84 [''in'' [[#Verrill1881b|Verrill (1881b:238, footnote)]]] Nomen nudum
(
  1. 55
) NMNZ Holotype; [see [[#Forch1998|Förch (1998:89)]]]

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in the List of giant squid table.

Oceanic sectors

Oceanic sectors used in the main table follow Sweeney & Roper (2001): the Atlantic Ocean is divided into sectors at the equator and 30°W, the Pacific Ocean is divided at the equator and 180°, and the Indian Ocean is defined as the range 20°E to 115°E (the Arctic and Southern Oceans are not distinguished). An additional category has been created to accommodate the handful of specimens recorded from the Mediterranean Sea.

Measurements

Abbreviations used for measurements and counts follow Sweeney & Roper (2001) and are based on standardised acronyms in teuthology, primarily those defined by Roper & Voss (1983), with the exception of several found in older references. Following Sweeney & Roper (2001), the somewhat non-standard EL ("entire" length) and WL ("whole" length) are used in place of the more common TL (usually total length; here tentacle length) and SL (usually standard length; here spermatophore length), respectively.

Repositories

Institutional acronyms follow Sweeney & Roper (2001) and are primarily those defined by Leviton et al. (1985), Leviton & Gibbs (1988), and Sabaj (2016). Where the acronym is unknown, the full repository name is listed.

Specimen images

The following images relate to pre–20th century giant squid specimens and sightings. The number below each image corresponds to that given in the List of giant squid table and is linked to the relevant record therein. The date on which the specimen was first documented is also given (the little-endian day/month/year date format is used throughout).

Notes

References

Full citations

W

Author unknown

Notes and References

  1. [#Rees1949|Rees, 1949]
  2. [#Steenstrup1857|Steenstrup, 1857:183]
  3. [#Steenstrup1857|Steenstrup, 1857:184]
  4. [#Bouyer1861|Bouyer, 1861]
  5. [#Lee1875|Lee, 1875:111]
  6. [#Coe1929|Coe, 1929:36]
  7. [#Murray1874b|Murray, 1874b:121]
  8. [#Aldrich1987|Aldrich, 1987:109]
  9. [#HattonHarvey1883|Hatton & Harvey, 1883:238–243]
  10. [#Ellis1994a|Ellis, 1994a:379]
  11. [#Nesis2001|Nesis, 2001]
  12. [#SweeneyYoung2003|Sweeney & Young, 2003]
  13. [#Aldrich1991|Aldrich, 1991:474]
  14. [#Downer1965|Downer, 1965:8]
  15. [#Stevens1988|Stevens, 1988:158–160]
  16. [#Kuboderaetal2016|Kubodera ''et al.'', 2016]
  17. [#Ellis1998a|Ellis, 1998a:211]
  18. [#Oreskes2003|Oreskes, 2003:716]
  19. [#Baird2002|Baird, 2002]
  20. [#NHK2013a|[NHK], 2013a]
  21. [#Hann2006|Hann, 2006]
  22. [#Okutani2015|Okutani, 2015]
  23. [#Nesis2003|Nesis, 2003]
  24. [#NMNH2004|[NMNH], 2004]
  25. [#Guerraetal2006|Guerra ''et al.'', 2006]
  26. [#Kuboderaetal2016|Kubodera ''et al.'', 2016]
  27. [#OShea1997|O'Shea, 1997]
  28. [#RoperShea2013|Roper & Shea, 2013:111]
  29. [#Roperetal2015|Roper ''et al.'', 2015]
  30. [#RoperJereb2010|Roper & Jereb, 2010:121]
  31. see map in Sivertsen, 1955:11
  32. [#Guerraetal2006|Guerra ''et al.'', 2006]
  33. [#Turner1963|Turner, 1963:23]
  34. [#Ellis1994a|Ellis, 1994a:133]
  35. [#Miller1983|Miller, 1983]
  36. [#Anon1988|[Anon.], 1988:4]
  37. [#Anon1971|[Anon.], 1971]
  38. [#GuerraSegonzac2014|Guerra & Segonzac, 2014:118]
  39. [#Anon2014a|[Anon.], 2014a]
  40. [#Shimadaetal2017|Shimada ''et al.'', 2017:9]
  41. [#NMNH2004|[NMNH], 2004]
  42. [#Anon2004b|[Anon.], 2004b]
  43. [#Emerton1883|Emerton, 1883]
  44. [#Ellis1997a|Ellis, 1997a:31, 48]
  45. [#Ellis1997a|Ellis, 1997a:34, 46]
  46. [#Ellis1997a|Ellis, 1997a:35]
  47. [#Emerton1883|Emerton, 1883]
  48. [#Ellis1997a|Ellis, 1997a:44–46]
  49. [#Anon1966|[Anon.], 1966]
  50. [#Anon1969|[Anon.], 1969]
  51. [#Drahl2008|Drahl, 2008]
  52. [#Anon2010|[Anon.], 2010]
  53. [#Wood1982|Wood, 1982:188–193]
  54. [#Wood1982|Wood, 1982:189, 191]
  55. [#OSheaBolstad2008|O'Shea & Bolstad, 2008]
  56. [#CerulloRoper2012|Cerullo & Roper, 2012:22]
  57. [#OShea2003b|O'Shea, 2003b]
  58. [#Paxton2016a|Paxton, 2016a]
  59. [#Greshko2016|Greshko, 2016]
  60. [#RoperJereb2010|Roper & Jereb, 2010:121]
  61. [#OSheaBolstad2008|O'Shea & Bolstad, 2008]
  62. [#Nilssonetal2012|Nilsson ''et al.'', 2012:683]
  63. [#Ellis1998a|Ellis, 1998a:73]
  64. [#GlaubrechtSalcedoVargas2004|Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas, 2004:62]
  65. [#RoperJereb2010|Roper & Jereb, 2010:123]
  66. see Roeleveld, 2002
  67. [#UCPH2013|[UCPH], 2013]
  68. see Ellis, 1998a; Salcedo-Vargas, 1999; Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas, 2004
  69. [#Robson1933|Robson, 1933:681]
  70. [#Ellis1994a|Ellis, 1994a:379–384]
  71. [#Ellis1994a|Ellis, 1994a:ix]
  72. [#Anon1999|[Anon.], 1999:109]
  73. e.g. Leite et al., 2016; Funaki, 2017; Romanov et al., 2017; Shimada et al., 2017; Guerra et al., 2018
  74. [#Lee2014|Lee, 2014]
  75. e.g. Evon, 2016a, 2017; Howard, 2017
  76. [#Gerhardt1966|Gerhardt, 1966:171]
  77. [#Anon2000|[Anon.], 2000]
  78. [#Roperetal2015|Roper ''et al.'', 2015:78]
  79. [#Ellis1994a|Ellis, 1994a:379]
  80. [#Ellis1998a|Ellis, 1998a:5, 257]
  81. [#Gudger1953|Gudger, 1953:199]
  82. [#Muus1959|Muus, 1959:170]
  83. [#Carrington1957|Carrington, 1957:63]
  84. [#PaxtonHolland2005|Paxton & Holland, 2005:39]
  85. [#RoeleveldNd|Roeleveld, {{abbr|N.d.|No date}}]
  86. [#BarberRiches1971|Barber & Riches, 1971:26]
  87. [#Carrington1957|Carrington, 1957:63]
  88. [#Steenstrup1849|Steenstrup, 1849:950–951/[9]]
  89. [#Packard1873|Packard, 1873:87]
  90. [#Steenstrup1849|Steenstrup, 1849:952/[10–11]]
  91. [#Verrill1875c|Verrill, 1875c:214]
  92. [#Tryon1879b|Tryon, 1879b:185]
  93. [#Hookeetalc1674|Hooke ''et al.'', {{circa}} 1674]
  94. see More, 1875a
  95. [#Anonc1673|[Anon.], 1673]
  96. see Sueur-Hermel, 2017
  97. [#KristensenKnudsen1983|Kristensen & Knudsen, 1983:222]
  98. [#Robson1933|Robson, 1933:690]
  99. from unpublished manuscript by Steenstrup cited in Verrill, 1875b:84
  100. [#NHMD2019|[NHMD], 2019]
  101. Steenstrup
  102. [#Verrill1875b|Verrill, 1875b:84]
  103. [#TambsLyche1946|Tambs-Lyche, 1946:288]
  104. [#Harting1860|Harting, 1860]
  105. [#Tryon1879b|Tryon, 1879b:184]
  106. [#Verrill1880a|Verrill, 1880a]
  107. [#Dell1970|Dell, 1970:27]
  108. [#Stephen1962|Stephen, 1962:154]
  109. [#CrosseFischer1862|Crosse & Fischer, 1862:138]
  110. [#Dunning1998|Dunning, 1998:428]
  111. [#MacAlaster1977|MacAlaster, 1977:14]
  112. [#Earle1977|Earle, 1977:53]
  113. [#Verrill1874a|Verrill, 1874a:158]
  114. [#SweeneyRoper2001|Sweeney & Roper, 2001:[9]]
  115. [#Verrill1874a|Verrill, 1874a]
  116. [#Verrill1875b|Verrill, 1875b]
  117. [John Edward Gray|J.E. Gray]
  118. [#Kent1874a|Kent, 1874a:178]
  119. [#Verrill1881b|Verrill, 1881b:401]
  120. [#Pfeffer1912|Pfeffer, 1912:31]
  121. [#Owen1881|Owen, 1881:163]
  122. [#GlaubrechtSalcedoVargas2000|Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas, 2000:276]
  123. [#Verrill1875a|Verrill, 1875a:34]
  124. [#Verrill1880a|Verrill, 1880a:181]
  125. [#Verrill1875b|Verrill, 1875b:79]
  126. [#Buckland1875|Buckland, 1875:212–214]
  127. [#Buckland1875|Buckland, 1875:213]
  128. [#Maunder1991|Maunder, 1991]
  129. [#HattonHarvey1883|Hatton & Harvey, 1883:239]
  130. [#Agassiz1874|Agassiz, 1874]
  131. [#Packham1998|Packham, 1998]
  132. [#Duncan1906|Duncan, 1906:34]
  133. [#Reed1995|Reed, 1995]
  134. [#Ellis1998a|Ellis, 1998a:186]
  135. [#Anon1966|[Anon.], 1966]
  136. [#Anon2004a|[Anon.], 2004a]
  137. [#Frank2014|Frank, 2014]
  138. [#Ellis1998a|Ellis, 1998a:201]
  139. [#Aldrich1978|Aldrich, 1978]
  140. [#Reed1995|Reed, 1995]
  141. [#Luetal1995|Lu ''et al.'', 1995]
  142. [#SweeneyRoper2001|Sweeney & Roper, 2001:[12]]
  143. [#OConnor1875|O'Connor, 1875]
  144. [#NunnHolmes2008|Nunn & Holmes, 2008]
  145. [#Pfeffer1912|Pfeffer, 1912:32]
  146. [#Aldrich1979|Aldrich, 1979:67]
  147. [#Lau2021|Lau, 2021]
  148. [#Copedo2022|Copedo, 2022]
  149. [#OM2021|[OM], 2021]
  150. [#Hickey2009|Hickey, 2009]
  151. [#Hickey2010|Hickey, 2010]
  152. [#McConvey2015a|McConvey, 2015a]
  153. [#Marshall1996|Marshall, 1996:45]
  154. [#Stevens1980|Stevens, 1980:213]
  155. [#Marshall1996|Marshall, 1996:46]
  156. see Dell, 1970:28
  157. [#Ellis1998a|Ellis, 1998a:7]
  158. [#SweeneyRoper2001|Sweeney & Roper, 2001:[87]]
  159. [#Joubin1895|Joubin, 1895:34]
  160. [#Anon1890|[Anon.], 1890:190]
  161. [#Pfeffer1912|Pfeffer, 1912:27]
  162. [#Martens1894|Martens, 1894]
  163. [#Kilias1967|Kilias, 1967:491]
  164. [#GlaubrechtSalcedoVargas2004|Glaubrecht & Salcedo-Vargas, 2004]
  165. [#Kilias1993|Kilias, 1993]
  166. [#Belloc1950|Belloc, 1950:6]
  167. [#Eivindsen2011|Eivindsen, 2011]
  168. after Voss, 1998:104; Sweeney & Roper, 2001:[5]; Sweeney & Young, 2003; Roper et al., 2015:82; Sweeney, 2017
  169. [#Gervais1875|Gervais, 1875:93]
  170. [#Lipinskietal2000|Lipiński ''et al.'', 2000:106]
  171. [#Nesis1987|Nesis, 1987:218]
  172. [#Pfeffer1912|Pfeffer, 1912:2]
  173. [#Owen1881|Owen, 1881:156]
  174. [#Verrill1880a|Verrill, 1880a:240]
  175. per unpublished notes by S.S. Berry at NMNH, cited by Sweeney, 2017:[194]
  176. [#Forch1998|Förch, 1998:89]
  177. [#KristensenKnudsen1983|Kristensen & Knudsen, 1983:223]
  178. [#Luetal1995|Lu ''et al.'', 1995:324]

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