List of first human settlements explained

This is a list of dates associated with the prehistoric peopling of the world (first known presence of Homo sapiens).

The list is divided into four categories, Middle Paleolithic (before 50,000 years ago),Upper Paleolithic (50,000 to 12,500 years ago), Holocene (12,500 to 500 years ago) and Modern (Age of Sail and modern exploration).List entries are identified by region (in the case of genetic evidence spatial resolution is limited) or region, country or island, with the date of the first known or hypothesised modern human presence (or "settlement", although Paleolithic humans were not sedentary).

Human "settlement" does not necessarily have to be continuous; settled areas in some cases become depopulated due to environmental conditions, such as glacial periods or the Toba volcanic eruption.[1] Early Homo sapiens migrated out of Africa from as early as 270,000 years ago, although these early migrations may have died out and permanent Homo sapiens presence outside of Africa may not have been established until about 70–50,000 years ago.

Middle Paleolithic

See also: Early expansions of hominins out of Africa.

Before Homo sapiens, Homo erectus had already spread throughout Africa and non-Arctic Eurasia by about one million years ago. The oldest known evidence for anatomically modern humans are fossils found at Jebel Irhoud, Morocco, dated about 360,000 years old.

RegionCountryDate (kya)PlaceNotesRef(s)
Moroccoalign=right Jebel IrhoudAnatomically modern human remains of eight individuals dated 300,000 years old, making them the oldest known remains categorized as "modern" .[2]
Asia, West AsiaTurkeyalign=right Neanderthal admixtureGenetic evidence for early Homo sapiens admixture to Neanderthals in West Asia, discovered in 2017.[3]
Indiaalign=right South IndiaQuartzite tools excavated at Attirampakkam were dated back to 250,000-385,000 years old. [4]
Ethiopiaalign=right Omo Kibish FormationThe Omo remains of modern humans found in 1967 near the Ethiopian Kibish Mountains, dated stratigraphically to 195 ± 5 ka, may be related to Ledi-Geraru. [5]
Asia, West AsiaIsraelalign=right Misliya Cave, Mount CarmelFossil maxilla is apparently older than remains found at Skhyul and Qafzeh. Layers dating from between 250,000 and 140,000 years ago in the same cave contained tools of the Levallois type which could put the date of the first migration even earlier if the tools can be associated with the modern human jawbone finds.[6] [7] [8]
Africa, Southern AfricaSouth Africaalign=right Klasies River Caves, population geneticsRemains found in the Klasies River Caves in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa show signs of human hunting dated c. 125 ka. There is some debate as to whether these remains represent anatomically modern humans.Evidence from population genetics suggests separation before 110 ka,[9] most likely between 130 and 200 ka.[10] [11] [12]
Sudanalign=right SingaAnatomically modern human discovered 1924 with rare temporal bone pathology[13] [14]
Asia, West Asia, ArabiaUnited Arab Emiratesalign=right 125Jebel FayaStone tools made by anatomically modern humans (discovered 2011).[15]
Asia, West Asia, ArabiaOmanalign=right AybutTools found in the Dhofar Governorate correspond with African objects from the so-called 'Nubian Complex', dating from 75 to 125,000 years ago. According to archaeologist Jeffrey I. Rose, human settlements spread east from Africa across the Arabian Peninsula. [16]
Africa, Central AfricaDemocratic Republic of the Congoalign=right Katanda, Upper Semliki RiverSemliki harpoon heads carved from bone.[17]
Asia, Southeast AsiaIndiaalign=right Central IndiaArchaeological excavation carried out in the trenches at Dhaba in the upper Son river valley found stone tools and other evidences of human occupation in this area 80,000 years back. [18]
Asia, East AsiaChina, PRCalign=right Fuyan CaveTeeth were found under rock over which 80,000 years old stalagmites had grown. [19]
Africa, North AfricaLibyaalign=right Haua FteahFragments of 2 mandibles discovered in 1953[20]
Asia, South AsiaSri Lankaalign=right population geneticsGenetic evidence suggests first settlement 70–66 kya. Available fossil evidence from Sri Lanka has been dated to 34 kya.[21] [22]
Asia, Southeast AsiaSumatra, Indonesiaalign=right Lida Ajer caveTeeth found in Sumatra in the 19th century[23]
Asia, Southeast AsiaLuzon, Philippinesalign=right Callao CaveMijares and Piper (2010) found bones in a cave near Peñablanca, Cagayan, originally thought to be modern human. However, these were subsequently dated ca. 134 kya, belonging to a different species, Homo luzonensis.[24]
Africa, North AfricaEgyptalign=right Taramasa HillSkeleton of 8- to 10-year-old child discovered in 1994[25]
AustraliaArnhem Land, Australiaalign=right MadjedbebeThe oldest human skeletal remains are the 40ky old Lake Mungo remains in New South Wales, but human ornaments discovered at Devil's Lair in Western Australia have been dated to 48 kya and artifacts at Madjedbebe in Northern Territory are dated to at least 50 kya, and to (95% CI) in one 2017 study.[26] [27] [28] [29]

Upper Paleolithic

RegionCountry / islandDate (kya)PlaceNotesRef(s)
South AmericaNortheast Region, Brazilalign=right Pedra FuradaHypothetical Pleistocene peopling of the Americas: charcoal from the oldest layers yielded dates of 41,000–56,000 BP.[30]
Asia, East AsiaHonshu, Japanalign=right Lake NojiriGenetic research indicates arrival of humans in Japan by 37,000 BP. Archeological remains at the Tategahana Paleolithic Site at Lake Nojiri have been dated as early as 47,000 BP.[31]
Asia, Southeast Asia, IndochinaLaosalign=right Tam Pa Ling CaveIn 2009 an ancient skull was recovered from a cave in the Annamite Mountains in northern Laos which is at least 46,000 years old, making it the oldest modern human fossil found to date in Southeast Asia[32]
Europealign=right The earliest known remains of Cro-Magnon-like humans are radiocarbon dated to 43,000–46,000 BP, found in Bulgaria, Italy, and Great Britain.[33] [34]
EuropeBulgariaalign=right Bacho Kiro caveA tooth and six bone fragments are the earliest modern human remains yet found in Europe.[35]
EuropeItalyalign=right Grotta del Cavallo, ApuliaTwo baby teeth discovered in Apulia in 1964.[36]
EuropeGreat Britain, United Kingdomalign=right Kents CavernHuman jaw fragment found in Torquay, Devon in 1927[37]
EuropeGermanyalign=right Three Paleolithic flutes belonging to the early Aurignacian, which is associated with the assumed earliest presence of Homo sapiens in Europe (Cro-Magnon). It is the oldest example of prehistoric music.[38]
Europe, Balticalign=right A hammer made from reindeer horn similar to those used by the Bromme culture was found in 2016. The discovery pushed back the earliest evidence of human presence in Lithuania by 30,000 years, i.e. to before the last glacial period. [39]
Asia, Southeast AsiaEast Timoralign=right Jerimalai caveFish bones [40]
AustraliaTasmaniaalign=right Jordan River LeveeOptically stimulated luminescence results from the site suggest a date ca. 41,000 BP. Rising sea level left Tasmania isolated after 8000 BP.[41]
Asia, Southeast AsiaBorneo, Malaysiaalign=right Niah CaveA human skull in Sarawak, Borneo (Archaeologists have claimed a much earlier date for stone tools found in the Mansuli valley, near Lahad Datu in Sabah, but precise dating analysis has not yet been published.)[42] [43]
Asia, Southeast AsiaNew Guineaalign=right Indonesian Side of New GuineaArchaeological evidence shows that 40,000 years ago, some of the first farmers came to New Guinea from the South-East Asian Peninsula.
EuropeRomaniaalign=right Peștera cu Oase[44] [45]
Asia, East AsiaHong Kong, PRCalign=right Wong Tei TungOptically stimulated luminescence results from the site suggest a date ca. 39,000 BP.[46]
EuropeRussiaalign=right Mamontovaya KuryaEarliest evidence of human (not necessarily anatomically modern humans) presence at Arctic latitudes.[47]
Asia, Central Asia, Tibetan PlateauTibet, PRCalign=right Salween RiverFormerly dated to 15 kya, the date modern human presence in Tibet has been pushed back to at least 38 kya based on genetic evidence. Archaeological evidence from the bank of the Salween River in the southeastern Tibetan Plateau was dated between 32 and 39 kya. [48] [49] [50]
Asia, South AsiaSri Lankaalign=right Fa Hien CaveThe earliest remains of anatomically modern man, based on radiocarbon dating of charcoal, have been found in the Fa Hien Cave in western Sri Lanka.[51]
North AmericaCanadaalign=right Bluefish CavesHypothetical Pleistocene peopling of the Americas: Human-worked mammoth bone flakes found at Bluefish Caves, Yukon.[52] [53]
Asia, East AsiaOkinawaalign=right Yamashita-cho cave, Naha cityBone artifacts and an ash seam dated to 32,000±1000 BP.[54]
EuropeFrancealign=right Chauvet CaveThe cave paintings in the Chauvet Cave in southern France have been called the earliest known cave art, though the dating is uncertain.[55]
EuropeCzech Republicalign=right Mladeč cavesOldest human bones that clearly represent a human settlement in Europe.[56]
EuropePolandalign=right Obłazowa CaveA boomerang made from mammoth tusk
Asia, Southeast AsiaBuka Island, New Guineaalign=right Kilu CaveFlaked stone, bone, and shell artifacts[57]
Asia, East AsiaTaiwan, Republic of Chinaalign=right In 1972, fragmentary fossils of anatomically modern humans were found at Chouqu and Gangzilin, in Zuojhen District, Tainan, in fossil beds exposed by erosion of the Cailiao River. Though some of the fragments are believed to be more recent, three cranial fragments and a molar tooth have been dated as between 20,000 and 30,000 years old. The find has been dubbed "Zuozhen Man". No associated artifacts have been found at the site.[58] [59]
EuropePortugalalign=right Abrigo do Lagar VelhoPossible Neanderthal/Cro-Magnon hybrid, the Lapedo child[60]
North AmericaUnited Statesalign=right Lake OteroHuman footprints in White Sands National Park in New Mexico. Stone, bone, and wood artifacts and animal and plant remains dating to 16,000 BP in Meadowcroft Rockshelter, Washington County, Pennsylvania. (Earlier claims have been made, but not corroborated, for 50,000 BP at sites such as Topper, South Carolina.)[61] [62] [63]
EuropeSicilyalign=right San Teodoro caveHuman cranium dated by gamma-ray spectrometry[64]
South AmericaChilealign=right Monte VerdeCarbon dating of remains from this site represent the oldest known settlement in South America.[65] [66]
South AmericaPerualign=right PikimachayStone and bone artifacts found in a cave of the Ayacucho complex[67]
North AmericaSanta Rosa Islandalign=right Arlington Springs siteArlington Springs Man discovered in 1959. The four northern Channel Islands of California were once conjoined into one island, Santa Rosae

Holocene

RegionCountry / islandDatePlaceNotesRef(s)
Europe, British IslesIreland, Republic of Irelandalign=right Gwendoline CaveThe patella of a bear, which was subject to butchering close to the time of death has been radiocarbon dated to 10,500 BCE[68]
MediterraneanCyprusalign=right AetokremnosBurned bones of megafauna[69]
Americas, South AmericaColombiaalign=right El AbraStone, bone and charcoal artifacts
Americas, North AmericaTriquet Islandalign=right British ColumbiaA hearth excavated at the site was determined by radiocarbon dating to be between 13,613 and 14,086 years old[70] [71]
Europe, ScandinaviaNorwayalign=right AukraThe oldest remnants of the so-called Fosna culture were found in Aukra in Møre og Romsdal.[72]
Americas, South AmericaArgentinaalign=right Piedra MuseoSpear heads and human fossils[73]
Europe, BalticEstoniaalign=right PulliThe Pulli settlement on the bank of the Pärnu River briefly pre-dates that at Kunda, which gave its name to the Kunda culture.[74]
Atlantic / Central AfricaBioko, Equatorial Guineaalign=right Early Bantu migration[75]
Asia, Southeast Asia, IndochinaCambodiaalign=right Laang SpeanLaang Spean cave in the Stung Sangker River valley, Battambang Province[76]
Arctic, New Siberian IslandsZhokhov Islandalign=right Hunting tools and animal remains in the High Arctic; later abandoned and still uninhabited[77] [78]
PacificTuvalualign=right Caves of NanumangaEvidence of fire in a submerged cave last accessible 8000 BP. Polynesian settlement around 3000 BP in Tuvalu[79]
MediterraneanMaltaalign=right Għar DalamSettlers from Sicily brought agriculture and impressed ware pottery.[80]
Americas, CaribbeanTrinidadalign=right Banwari TraceStone and bone artifacts mark the oldest archaeological site in the Caribbean.[81]
Americas, CaribbeanPuerto Ricoalign=right Angostura siteCarbon dating of burial site[82]
Arctic, North AmericaGreenlandalign=right SaqqaqSaqqaq culture was the first of several waves of settlement from northern Canada and from Scandinavia.[83]
Arctic, North AmericaBaffin Island, Canadaalign=right Pond InletIn 1969, Pre-Dorset remains were discovered, with seal bones radiocarbon dated to 2035 BCE[84]
Asia, Central AsiaXinjiang, PRCalign=right Tarim BasinTarim mummies[85]
PacificMariana Islandsalign=right Unai Bapot, SaipanPottery similar to that from nowadays Philippines has been discovered. This was the longest human ocean voyage at the time.[86] [87]
Arctic, SiberiaWrangel Islandalign=right Chertov OvragSea-mammal hunting tools; later abandoned, with intermittent settlements 1914–present[88]
PacificTongaalign=right Pea village on TongatapuRadiocarbon dating of a shell found at the site dates the occupation at 3180±100 BP.[89]
PacificFijialign=right Bourewa, NadrogaRadiocarbon dating of a shell midden at Bourewa on Viti Levu Island shows earliest inhabitation at 1220–970 BCE.[90]
Atlantic / North AfricaCanary Islandsalign=right Genetic studies show relation to Moroccan Berbers, but precise date uncertain.[91]
PacificVanuatualign=right Teouma etc.Lapita pottery found at Teouma cemetery on Efate and on several other islands. [92]
PacificSamoaalign=right MulifanuaLapita site found at Mulifanua Ferry Berth Site by New Zealand scientists in the 1970s.[93]
PacificHawaiialign=right Ka LaeEarly settlement from the Marquesas Islands[94]
PacificLine Islandsalign=right When Polynesian traders travelling to and from Hawaii[95]
Indian Ocean / East AfricaMadagascaralign=right The population of Madagascar seems to have derived in equal measures from Borneo and East Africa.[96]
Atlantic / Northern EuropeFaroe Islandsalign=right Agricultural remains from three locations were analysed and dated to as early as the sixth century CE[97]
Indian Ocean / East AfricaComorosalign=right Austronesian settlers arrived no later than the 6th century, based on archaeological evidence on Nzwani; settlement beginning as early as the 1st century has been postulated.[98]
Americas, CaribbeanBahamasalign=right Three Dog Site (SS21), San Salvador IslandExcavated midden includes quartz and Ostionoid ceramic artifacts, wood and seed remains, etc., dated to 800–900.[99]
PacificHuahine, Society Islands (French Polynesia)align=right Fa'ahiaBird bones dated to 1140±90 BP[100]
Atlantic / Northern EuropeIcelandalign=right ReykjavíkIngólfr Arnarson, the first known Norse settler who came from mainland Norway, built his homestead in Reykjavík this year, though Norse or Hiberno-Scottish monks might have arrived up to two hundred years earlier.[101]
PacificEaster Islandalign=right AnakenaSettled by voyagers from the Marquesas Islands, possibly as early as CE 300.[102]
PacificNew Zealandalign=right Wairau BarIt is generally accepted that the islands were permanently settled by Eastern Polynesians (the ancestors of the Māori) who arrived about 1250–1300.[103] [104]
PacificNorfolk Islandalign=right Emily BaySettled by Polynesians, later abandoned. Resettled by British 1788.[105] [106]
PacificAuckland Islandsalign=right Sandy Bay, Enderby IslandSettled by Polynesians, later abandoned. Resettled from the Chatham Islands in 1842, later abandoned.
PacificKermadec Islandsalign=right Settled by Polynesians by the 14th century (possibly previously, around the 10th century), later abandoned. Resettled by Europeans in 1810, later abandoned.[107]
Atlantic / North AfricaMadeiraalign=right Settlers from Portugal.[108]
AtlanticAzoresalign=right Santa Maria IslandSettlers from Portugal led by Gonçalo Velho Cabral.[109]
Atlantic / West AfricaCape Verdealign=right Cidade VelhaSettlers from Portugal founded the city as "Ribeira Grande."[110]
Atlantic / Central AfricaSão Tomé and Príncipealign=right São ToméPortuguese settlement in 1485 failed but was followed in 1493 by a successful settlement led by Álvaro Caminha.[111]

Modern

Sea / regionIslandDatePlaceNotesRef(s)
Pacific OceanChatham Islands1500Moriori settlers from New Zealand. This was the last wave of Polynesian migrations.[112]
South AtlanticSaint Helenaalign=right 1516Settled by Fernão Lopes (soldier). Later populated by escaped slaves from Mozambique and Java, then by English in 1659.[113]
South Atlantic / Central Africa Annobónalign=right 1543Alvaro da Cunha requested Portuguese royal charter in 1543 and by 1559 had settled Africans slaves there.[114]
North AtlanticBermudaalign=right 1609Settled by English survivors of the Sea Venture shipwreck, led by George Somers.
Arctic, Northern EuropeSvalbardalign=right 1619SmeerenburgSettled by Dutch and Danish whalers 1619–1657. Longyearbyen founded 1906 and continuously inhabited except for World War II.[115]
Indian OceanMauritiusalign=right 1638Vieux Grand PortFirst settled by Dutch under Cornelius Gooyer.[116]
Indian OceanRéunionalign=right 1642Settled 1642 by a dozen deported French mutineers from Madagascar, who were returned to France several years later. In 1665 the French East India Company started a permanent settlement.
Indian OceanRodriguesalign=right 1691Settled 1691 by a small group of French Huguenots led by François Leguat; abandoned 1693. The French settled slaves there in the 18th century.[117]
East PacificClipperton Islandalign=right 1725A short settlement in 1725. Intermittent settlement during the 19th and 20th centuries.[118]
East PacificJuan Fernández Islandsalign=right 1750San Juan BautistaSettled by the Spanish to prevent its use by foreign powers and pirates. Destroyed in 1751 by a tsunami but soon rebuilt.[119]
South AtlanticFalkland Islandsalign=right 1764Puerto SoledadSettled by French (as "Port Saint Louis") during the expedition of Louis Antoine de Bougainville.[120]
Indian OceanSeychellesalign=right 1770Ste. Anne IslandAlthough visited earlier by Maldivians, Malays and Arabs, the first known settlement was a spice plantation established by the French, first on Ste. Anne Island, then moved to Mahé. It is the sovereign state with the shortest history of human settlement (followed by Mauritius).[121]
East PacificFloreana Islandalign=right 1805Black BeachFirst settled 1805–1809 by Patrick Watkins. Later attempts in 1837, 1893, 1925, and 1929.[122]
South AtlanticTristan da Cunhaalign=right 1810First settled by Jonathan Lambert and two other men. Continuously inhabited since then except 1961–1963 evacuation due to volcano.[123]
South AtlanticAscension Islandalign=right 1815Settled as a British military garrison. Some prior shipwrecked sailors in 18th century.
Pacific Ocean, Bering SeaCommander Islandsalign=right 1825Russians brought Aleuts from Atka Island and Attu Island to settle Bering Island and Medny Island..[124] [125]
Indian OceanCocos (Keeling) IslandsSettled c. 1826 by Alexander Hare and in 1827 by John Clunies-Ross.[126]
Pacific OceanBonin Islandsalign=right 1830Port Lloyd, Chichi-jimaSome evidence of early settlement from the Marianas, but the islands were abandoned except for occasional shipwrecks until a group of Europeans, Polynesians, and Micronesians settled Chichi-jima in 1830.[127]
Pacific Ocean, Tasman SeaLord Howe Islandalign=right 1834Blinky BeachWhaling supply station.
Indian OceanÎle Saint-Paulalign=right 1843Although now uninhabited, there have been attempts at settlement. In June 1843, a French garrison was established under the command of Polish-born Captain Adam Mierolawski, but it was soon abandoned. In 1928, a spiny lobster cannery was established, with the last three settlers rescued in 1934.[128] [129]
Arctic, Northern EuropeNovaya Zemlyaalign=right 1870Malye KarmakulyEarlier overwinterings dating back to 16th century[130] [131] [132]
Indian OceanÎle Amsterdamalign=right 1871Camp HeurtinFollowing various shipwrecks and visits by sealers and scientists in the 18th and 19th century, a short-lived settlement was made in 1871 by Heurtin, a French resident of Réunion Island. A French scientific base has been maintained since 1949.[133]
Pacific OceanMinami-Tori-shimaalign=right 1886Despite visits dating back to the 17th century, the first permanent settlement was in 1886.[134]
Indian OceanChristmas Islandalign=right 1888Flying Fish CoveFirst European settlement established by George Clunies-Ross and John Murray with phosphate mining begun around 10 years later.[135]
Pacific OceanCampbell Islandalign=right 1896Sheep farming was undertaken from 1896 until the lease, along with the sheep and a small herd of cattle, was abandoned in 1931 because of the Great Depression.[136]
Pacific Ocean, Philippine SeaDaitō Islandsalign=right 1900Minamidaitōjima obtained the approval to develop two of islands from Empire of Japan
AntarcticSouth Orkney Islandsalign=right 1903Orcadas BaseVisited by sealers and whalers in the 19th century. Scientific base founded by Scottish National Antarctic Expedition and sold to Argentina in 1904.
South AtlanticSouth Georgiaalign=right 1904GrytvikenVisited by sealers in the 19th century. Carl Anton Larsen founded a permanent whaling station in 1904.-South China SeaPratas Islandalign=right 1907guano collecting station by Japanese businessman[137] -->
Arctic, Northern EuropeJan Mayenalign=right 1921EggøyaVisited by whalers in the 17th century, with some overwinter sojourns in 1633, 1882, and 1907. Weather station at Eggøya established 1921, followed by other weather and military stations. The current station, Olonkinbyen, has been continuously inhabited since 1958.[138]
Indian OceanKerguelen Islandsalign=right 1927Port-CouvreuxAfter occasional sojourns and shipwrecks in the 19th century, three families settled in a sheep-farming colony but were evacuated in 1934. Scientific station at Port-aux-Français has been continuously inhabited since 1950.
Arctic, New Siberian IslandsKotelny Islandalign=right 1933Soviet Naval Base.[139]
AntarcticSouth Shetland Islandsalign=right 1947Captain Arturo Prat BaseVisited by sealers and explorers in the 19th century. Chilean naval base staffed continuously 1947–2004.
Indian OceanPrince Edward Islandsalign=right 1947Transvaal CoveVisited by sealers and shipwrecks in the 19th century. South Africa occupied the islands in 1947 and established a meteorological station.[140]
Antarcticaalign=right 1948Base General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme, Antarctic PeninsulaFirst permanent base in continental Antarctica, operated by the Chilean Army.
Pacific OceanMacquarie Islandalign=right 1948Macquarie Island StationOccasional sojourns and shipwrecks in the 19th century, continuously inhabited since 1948.
East PacificRevillagigedo Islandsalign=right 1957Socorro IslandMexican naval base established. Shorter stays in 19th and early 20th centuries[141]
Indian OceanCrozet Islandsalign=right 1963Alfred FaureOccasional shipwrecks and visiting sealers and whalers in the 19th century, continuously inhabited since 1963.
Arctic, SiberiaSevernaya Zemlyaalign=right 1974Cape BaranovA meteorological station was operated from 1974 to 1988. "Prima" Polar Station opened at some point in the 1980s.[142] [143]
North Atlantic / British IslesRockallalign=right 1985Former SAS member Tom McClean lived on the island from 26 May to 4 July 1985 to affirm the UK's claim to the islet. Other short stays have been made, including one by Greenpeace and a 60-day fundraising effort for Help for Heroes[144]

See also

External links

Notes and References

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  2. David Richter. etal. The age of the hominin fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco, and the origins of the Middle Stone Age. Nature. 8 June 2017. 546. 7657. 293–296. 10.1038/nature22335. 28593967. 2017Natur.546..293R. 205255853.
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    a related citation is: News: Zimmer . Carl . Carl Zimmer . In Neanderthal DNA, Signs of a Mysterious Human Migration . 4 July 2017 . . 4 July 2017 .
  4. Web site: These Tools Upend Our View of Stone-Age Humans in Asia . https://web.archive.org/web/20210228012722/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/india-stone-tools-human-evolution-archaeology-science . dead . 28 February 2021 . . 31 January 2018 .
  5. Mcdougall . Ian . Brown . FH . Fleagle . JG . 2005 . Stratigraphic placement and age of modern humans from Kibish, Ethiopia . Nature . 433 . 7027. 733–736 . 10.1038/nature03258 . 15716951 . 2005Natur.433..733M . 1454595 .
  6. News: Scientists discover oldest known modern human fossil outside of Africa: Analysis of fossil suggests Homo sapiens left Africa at least 50,000 years earlier than previously thought. ScienceDaily. 27 January 2018. en.
  7. News: Modern humans left Africa much earlier. Ghosh. Pallab. 2018. BBC News. 27 January 2018. en-GB.
  8. Israel . Hershkovitz . etal. The earliest modern humans outside Africa . Science Magazine . 456–459 . 359 . 6374 . 10.1126/science.aap8369 . 29371468. 2018 . 2018Sci...359..456H . free . 10072/372670 . free .
  9. Rito . T . Richards . MB . Fernandes . V . Alshamali . F . Cerny . V . Pereira . L . etal . 2013 . The First Modern Human Dispersals across Africa . PLOS ONE . 8 . 11. e80031 . 10.1371/journal.pone.0080031 . 24236171 . 3827445 . 2013PLoSO...880031R . free .
  10. point estimate 168.5 ka (136.3–201.1 ka 95% CI) according to Heinz, Tanja. etal. Updating the African human mitochondrial DNA tree: Relevance to forensic and population genetics. Forensic Science International: Genetics. 2017. 27. 156–159. 10.1016/j.fsigen.2016.12.016. 28086175. (table 2).150 ka suggested in:10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.05.001 . Correcting for Purifying Selection: An Improved Human Mitochondrial Molecular Clock . 2009 . Soares . Pedro . Ermini . Luca . Thomson . Noel . Mormina . Maru . Rito . Teresa . Röhl . Arne . Salas . Antonio . Oppenheimer . Stephen . MacAulay . Vincent . The American Journal of Human Genetics . 84 . 6 . 740–59 . 19500773 . 2694979 . .Age estimates (ka, 95% CI in angular brackets):ML whole-mtDNA age estimate: 128.2 [95% CI: 107.9–148.9],ρ whole-mtDNA age estimate: 121.3 [99.2;143.7],ρ synonymous age estimate (ka): 131.0 [97.8;164.2]:24236171 . 10.1371/journal.pone.0080031 . 3827445 . 8 . The first modern human dispersals across Africa . 2013 . PLOS ONE . e80031 . Rito . T . Richards . MB . Fernandes . V . Alshamali . F . Cerny . V . Pereira . L . Soares . P . 11 . 2013PLoSO...880031R. free .
  11. Web site: Klasies River Caves – Middle Paleolithic South Africa. Hirst. K. Kris. About.com. 26 July 2010. 2 March 2007. https://web.archive.org/web/20070302183716/http://archaeology.about.com/cs/humanorigins/a/klasiesriver.htm. dead.
  12. 10.1006/jhev.1996.0058. Morphological affinities of the proximal ulna from Klasies River main site: archaic or modern?. 1996. Journal of Human Evolution. 31. 213. 3. Churchill. SE. Pearson. OM. Grine. FE. Trinkaus. Erik. Holliday. TW. 1996JHumE..31..213C . Erik Trinkaus.
  13. Rare Temporal Bone Pathology of the Singa Calvaria From Sudan. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 107. 41–50. 1998. Spoor. Fred. Stringer. Chris. Zonneveld. Frans. 1 . 10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199809)107:1<41::AID-AJPA4>3.0.CO;2-G . 9740300 .
  14. Web site: Late Middle (200-130 Kyr) and early Upper Pleistocene (130-60 Kyr) African human fossils. 6 May 2023.
  15. Armitage . S. . Jasim . S. . Marks . A. . Parker . A. . Usik . V. . Uerpmann . H. . 2011 . The Southern Route "Out of Africa": Evidence for an Early Expansion of Modern Humans into Arabia . Science . 331 . 6016. 453–456 . 10.1126/science.1199113 . 21273486 . 2011Sci...331..453A . 20296624 .
  16. News: 125,000 years ago first human settlement began in Sultanate . 7 April 2010 . . 24 July 2010 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20110724202644/http://www.main.omanobserver.om/node/5478 . 24 July 2011 .
  17. A middle stone age worked bone industry from Katanda, Upper Semliki Valley, Zaire . 28 April 1995 . Yellen . JE . AS . Brooks . E . Cornelissen . MJ . Mehlman . K . Stewart . Science . 268 . 553–556 . 5210 . 10.1126/science.7725100 . 7725100 . 1995Sci...268..553Y .
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