The Yuan dynasty was the antepenultimate imperial dynasty of China, proclaimed on 18 December 1271 by Kublai Khan, which succeeded the Song dynasty and preceded the Ming dynasty. It also functioned as a continuation of the Mongol Empire, which had been founded by Genghis Khan in 1206, but which subsequently split into four autonomous states. The emperors of the Yuan dynasty thus comprise both Kublai's successors as rulers of China, and his predecessors up to his grandfather Genghis, who was retrospectively presented as the founder of the dynasty.
The rulers of the Yuan dynasty were nominally superior to those of the other three post-Mongol states, but each was de facto independent of the others and occupied with their own territories. Kublai founded the Yuan dynasty to appease his Han Chinese subjects and began to continue their imperial traditions, such as taking temple names and era names. He and his successors nevertheless retained the Mongol title of khan.
Although the reigns of Kublai and his successor Temür were generally peaceful, weaknesses in the Yuan administration became apparent and led to a gradual breakdown of political stability. By the mid-14th century, the Yuan state became impossible to govern, and in 1368 the last emperor, Toghon Temür, was forced to flee China. His descendants continued to rule a rump state in Inner Mongolia, known as the Northern Yuan, until 1634.
See also: History of the Yuan dynasty. Through years of campaigning, Genghis Khan (– 1227) unified the tribes of the Mongolian steppe and was crowned khan of the Mongol Empire, or, in 1206. The campaigns of the following decades saw Mongol armies invade and conquer China, Central Asia, Persia and much of the Middle East, and Russia. However, different branches of Genghis's line became dominant in differing areas. As a result, by 1265, the once-united empire had begun to split into four independent states: the Golden Horde in Russia, the Chagatai Khanate in Central Asia, the Ilkhanate in the Near East, and a regime in China, which was ruled by Genghis's grandson Kublai Khan and which was nominally superior to the rest.
To appease his Han Chinese-majority population, Kublai declared the foundation of a new imperial dynasty titled . Essentially a way to convey the in Chinese conventions, the Yuan was officially proclaimed on 18 December 1271. As the dynasty was seen as a continuation of the Mongol Empire, contemporary writers retroactively described Genghis as having founded the Yuan in 1206; the post-1271 emperors styled themselves as Mongol khans. They continued the tradition, dating from the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) of the ruling head of state being known as huangdi, or emperor. In Chinese historical texts, emperors of the Yuan dynasty, along with the Tang and Song dynasties, are referred to by their temple names; they also had posthumous names and normally multiple era names.
Kublai presided over the final conquest of the Song dynasty, which had preceded the Yuan. Although his reign was generally long and prosperous, weaknesses in the Yuan's economy, society, and administration became apparent after the death of his successor Temür in 1307, culminating in two decades of near-anarchy between 1320 and 1340. Although the emperor Toghon Temür then managed to set up a stable government, an economic crisis led to a breakdown of the social order, and the powerful warlord Zhu Yuanzhang, having forced Toghon Temür to flee, established the Ming dynasty in 1368. Members of the Yuan dynasty continued to rule a rump state in Inner Mongolia, known as the Northern Yuan, until 1634.
| Portrait | Khan name | Personal name | Reign | Succession | Life details | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Genghis Khan Chinese: 成吉思汗---- | Temüjin Chinese: 鐵木真 | 1206 – 25 August 1227 (years) | Son of Yesugei and Hö'elün | – 25 August 1227 (aged around 65)----Unified the Mongol tribes, founded the Mongol Empire in 1206, initiated the Mongol conquests. Died in uncertain circumstances. | ||
| None, known by his personal name---- | Tolui Chinese: 拖雷 | 1227 – 1229 (years) (regency) | Fourth son of Genghis | – September/October 1231 (aged around 40)----Commanded armies in Central Asia and in China, and was a candidate to succeed his father as khan. Died in controversial circumstances. | ||
| None, known by his personal name---- | Ögedei Khan Chinese: 窝阔台 | 13 September 1229 – 11 December 1241 | Third son of Genghis | 1186 – 11 December 1241 (aged)----Presided over the conquests of the Jin dynasty and Kievan Rus' and the invasion of Europe, refined the imperial administration, and built Karakorum as a capital city. Died from excessive drinking. | ||
| None, known by her personal name---- | Töregene Khatun Chinese: 脱列哥那 | 1242 – 1246 (years) (regency) | Wife of Ögedei | Late 1180s – late 1246----Her five-year regency on behalf of her son Güyük was noted for its political intrigues and her excessive taxation demands, but after it ended she quickly lost influence and died. | ||
| None, known by his personal name---- | Güyük Khan Chinese: 贵由 | 24 August 1246 – April 1248 | Son of Ögedei and Töregene | 1206 – April 1248 (aged)----Reversed his mother's economic policies and removed her associates from power; quarrelled with his cousin Batu and may have intended to campaign against him. Died of ill health. | ||
| None, known by her personal name | Oghul Qaimish Chinese: 斡兀立海迷失 | 1248 – 1251 (years) (regency) | Wife of Güyük | Early 1200s – summer 1252 (aged around 50)----An ineffective regent, she was outflanked by her political enemies who proclaimed Tolui's son Möngke as khan. After a coup attempt led by her sons failed, she was found complicit in their rebellion and executed. | ||
| None, known by his personal name---- | Möngke Khan Chinese: 蒙哥 | 1 July 1251 – 11 August 1259 | First son of Tolui | 10 January 1209 – 11 August 1259 (aged)----Purged those who had opposed his accession in the Toluid Revolution; sent his brother Hulegu to campaign in the Middle East, and himself led the invasion of the Song dynasty, during which he died of fever. | ||
| Setsen Khan Chinese: 薛禪汗 better known as Kublai Khan---- | Borjigin Kublai Chinese: 孛兒只斤忽必烈 | 18 December 1271 – 18 February 1294 | Second son of Tolui | 23 September 1215 – 18 February 1294 (aged)----Established the Yuan dynasty in 1271, completed the conquest of the Song dynasty, won the Toluid Civil War, and moved the capital to Khanbaliq. Died of natural causes. | ||
| Öljeytü Khan Chinese: 完澤篤汗---- | Borjigin Temür Chinese: 孛兒只斤鐵穆耳 | 10 May 1294 – 10 February 1307 | Grandson of Kublai | 15 October 1265 – 10 February 1307 (aged)----His reign was prosperous yet conservative, implementing policies intended to ensure stability, but he failed to resolve increasing ineffiency in the Yuan administration. Died of natural causes. | ||
| Külüg Khan Chinese: 曲律汗---- | Borjigin Haishan Chinese: 孛兒只斤海山 | 21 June 1307 – 27 January 1311 | Great-grandson of Kublai | 4 August 1281 – 27 January 1311 (aged)----Disregarded established systems, rapidly expanded the bureaucracy, and caused immense fiscal difficulties. Died of natural causes. | ||
| Buyantu Khan Chinese: 普顏篤汗---- | Borjigin Ayurbarwada Chinese: 孛兒只斤愛育黎拔力八達 | 7 April 1311 – 1 March 1320 | Brother of Külüg | 9 April 1285 – 1 March 1320 (aged)----Reversed most of his brother's policies, reintroduced the Confucian examination system, and codifed laws, but failed to restore fiscal order and was undermined by factional struggles. Died of natural causes. | ||
| Gegeen Khan Chinese: 格堅汗---- | Borjigin Shidibala Chinese: 孛兒只斤硕德八剌 | 19 April 1320 – 4 September 1323 | Son of Ayurbarwada | 22 February 1302 – 4 September 1323 (aged)----Attempted to reduce the power of the minister and instituted monetary reforms after the latter's death, but was killed in a coup by Temuder's supporters. | ||
| None, known either by his personal or era name | Borjigin Yesün Temür Chinese: 孛兒只斤也孫鐵木兒 | 4 October 1323 – 15 August 1328 | Great-Grandson of Kublai | 28 November 1293 – 15 August 1328 (aged)----Having acceded through assassination, his legitimacy was always suspect; he attempted reconciliation by purging those who had brought him to power. Died of natural causes. | ||
| None, known either by his personal or era name | Borjigin Ragibagh Chinese: 孛兒只斤阿速吉八 | October 1328 – 14 November 1328 | Son of Yesün | 1320 – 14 November 1328 (aged)----Child emperor; probably murdered amid the War of the Two Capitals. | ||
| Jayaatu Khan Chinese: 札牙篤汗---- | Borjigin Tugh Temür Chinese: 孛兒只斤圖帖睦爾 | 16 October 1328 – 26 February 1329 | Son of Külüg | 16 February 1304 – 2 September 1332 (aged)----Abdicated in favor of his brother Khutughtu Khan. | ||
| Khutughtu Khan Chinese: 忽都篤汗---- | Borjigin Kusala Chinese: 孛兒只斤和世剌 | 27 February 1329 – 30 August 1329 | Son of Külüg | 22 December 1300 – 30 August 1329 (aged)----Briefly ruled before being killed by El Temür. | ||
| Jayaatu Khan Chinese: 札牙篤汗 (second reign) | Borjigin Tugh Temür Chinese: 孛兒只斤圖帖睦爾 | 8 September 1329 – 2 September 1332 | Son of Külüg | 16 February 1304 – 2 September 1332 (aged)----A patron of the arts and scholarship, his reign was dominated by the ministers El Temür and Bayan of the Merkid. Died of natural causes. | ||
| None, known by his personal name---- | Borjigin Rinchinbal Chinese: 孛兒只斤懿璘質班 | 23 October 1332 – 14 December 1332 | Son of Khutughtu | 1 May 1326 – 14 December 1332 (aged)----Child emperor; died of sudden illness. | ||
| Ukhaghatu Khan Chinese: 烏哈噶圖汗---- | Borjigin Toghon Temür Chinese: 孛兒只斤妥懽帖睦爾 | 19 July 1333 – 10 September 1368 | Son of Khutughtu | 25 May 1320 – 23 May 1370 (aged)----Restored stable government, but an economic crisis led to a breakdown of the social order. In 1368, the powerful warlord Zhu Yuanzhang forced Toghon Temür to flee to Karakorum, and founded the Ming dynasty. Toghon Temür died of natural causes; his descendants continued to rule a rump state in Inner Mongolia. | ||
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