List of diagnoses characterized as pseudoscience explained

There are many proposed diseases and diagnoses that are rejected by mainstream medical consensus and are associated with pseudoscience.

Definition

Pseudoscientific diseases are not defined using objective criteria. Such diseases cannot achieve, and perhaps do not seek, medical recognition. Pseudoscience rejects empirical methodology.^[1]

Other conditions may be rejected or contested by orthodox medicine, but are not necessarily associated with pseudoscience. Diagnostic criteria for some of these conditions may be vague, over-inclusive, or otherwise ill-defined. Although the evidence for the disease may be contested or lacking, the justification for these diagnoses is nevertheless empirical and therefore amenable to scientific investigation, at least in theory.

In some cases, patients are exhibiting genuine signs and symptoms but the explanation or diagnosis for their distress is disputed or inaccurate.

Examples of conditions that are not necessarily pseudoscientific include:

• Conditions determined to be somatic in nature, including mass psychogenic illnesses.
• Medicalized conditions that are not pathogenic in nature, such as aging, childbirth, pregnancy, sexual addiction, baldness, jet lag, and halitosis.^[2]
• Conditions that are not widely recognized, about which there is an ongoing debate within the scientific and medical literature.
• Functional disorders are a set of conditions that cannot be explained by structural or biochemical abnormalities.^[3] These raise challenges around diagnosis and treatment, with debate around whether they are psychogenic. They often present with non-specific symptoms that are consistent with multiple causes.

Medical

• Adrenal fatigue or hypoadrenia is a diagnosis described as a state in which the adrenal glands are exhausted and unable to produce adequate quantities of hormones, primarily the glucocorticoid cortisol, due to chronic stress or infections.^[4] Adrenal fatigue should not be confused with a number of actual forms of adrenal dysfunction such as adrenal insufficiency or Addison's disease. The term "adrenal fatigue", which was invented in 1998 by James Wilson, a chiropractor,^[5] may be applied to a collection of mostly nonspecific symptoms.^[4] There is no scientific evidence supporting the concept of adrenal fatigue and it is not recognized as a diagnosis by any scientific or medical community.^{[4] [6]} A systematic review found no evidence for the term adrenal fatigue, confirming the consensus among endocrinological societies that it is a myth.^[7]
• Autistic enterocolitis is a nonexistent medical condition proposed in 1998 by now-discredited British gastroenterologist Andrew Wakefield, who suggested a link between a number of common clinical symptoms and signs which he contended were distinctive to autism.^[8] The existence of such an enterocolitis has been dismissed by experts as having "not been established".^[9] Wakefield's fraudulent report, which was retracted in 2010, suppressed negative findings and used inadequate controls.^{[10] [11]} Multiple attempts to replicate his results have been unsuccessful.^[12] Reviews in the medical literature have found no link between autism and bowel disease.^{[13] [14] [15]}
• Candida hypersensitivity is the spuriously claimed chronic yeast infections responsible for many common disorders and non-specific symptoms, such as fatigue, weight gain, constipation, dizziness, muscle and joint pain, and asthma.^{[16] [17]} The notion has been strongly disabused by the American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology.^[18]
• Chronic Lyme disease is a generally rejected diagnosis that encompasses "a broad array of illnesses or symptom complexes for which there is no reproducible or convincing scientific evidence of any relationship to Borrelia burgdorferi infection."^[19] This is different from Lyme disease, which is a known medical condition. Despite numerous studies, there is no clinical evidence that "chronic" Lyme disease is caused by a persistent infection.^[20] It is distinct from post-treatment Lyme disease syndrome, a set of lingering symptoms which may persist after successful treatment of infection with Lyme spirochetes. The symptoms of "chronic Lyme" are generic and non-specific "symptoms of life".^[21]
• Electromagnetic hypersensitivity is a reported sensitivity to electric and magnetic fields or electromagnetic radiation of various frequencies at exposure levels well below established safety standards. Symptoms are inconsistent, but can include headache, fatigue, difficulty sleeping, as well as similar non-specific indications.^[22] Provocation studies find that the discomfort of sufferers is unrelated to hidden sources of radiation,^[23] and "no scientific basis currently exists for a connection between EHS and exposure to [electromagnetic fields]."^{[24] [25]}
• Excited delirium, originally identified by pathologist Charles Wetli to account for the deaths of nineteen Black prostitutes due to "sexual excitement" while under the influence of cocaine; the women later turned out to be victims of a serial killer.^[26] The condition is primarily found in people under police restraint, especially after being tasered,^[27] and, while it is not in the ICD-10 or DSM-5, it is promoted by a number of doctors, many of whom are on the payroll of Axon, the manufacturer of the Taser.
• Leaky gut syndrome is an alleged condition caused by the passage of harmful substances outward through the gut wall. Alternative medicine proponents claim it is the cause of many conditions including multiple sclerosis and autism, a claim which has been called pseudoscientific.^[28] According to the UK National Health Service, the theory is vague and unproven.^[29] Some skeptics and scientists say that the marketing of treatments for leaky gut syndrome is either misguided or an instance of deliberate health fraud.
• Morgellons is a self-diagnosed, unexplained skin condition in which individuals have sores that they believe contain some kind of fibers.^{[30] [31] [32]} Morgellons is poorly characterized but the general medical consensus is that it is a form of delusional parasitosis.^[33] An attempt to link Morgellons to the cause of Lyme disease has been attacked by Steven Salzberg as "dangerous pseudoscience".^[34]
• Multiple chemical sensitivity^{[35] [36]} is an unrecognized controversial diagnosis characterized by chronic symptoms attributed to exposure to low levels of commonly used chemicals.^{[37] [38]} Symptoms are typically vague and non-specific. They may include fatigue, headaches, nausea, and dizziness.
• Rope worms^[39]
• Shoenfeld's syndrome, a hypothesised autoimmune disorder proposed by Israeli immunologist Yehuda Shoenfeld. There is a lack of reproducible evidence for this syndrome, refuting its existence.^{[40] [41]} In addition, supporting data from animal models are flawed.^[42]
• Traditional Chinese medicine diagnoses, such as imbalances in yin and yang and blockages in the flow of qi^[43]
• "Vaccine overload", a non-medical term for the notion that giving many vaccines at once may overwhelm or weaken a child's immature immune system and lead to adverse effects,^{[44] [45]} is strongly contradicted by scientific evidence.^[46]
• Vertebral subluxation is a chiropractic diagnosis that involves a site of impaired flow of innate or a spinal lesion that is postulated to cause neuromusculoskeletal or visceral dysfunction. Scientific consensus does not support the existence of chiropractic's vertebral subluxation.^{[47] [48]}
• Wilson's syndrome (not to be confused with Wilson's disease) is an alternative medicine concept, not recognized as a legitimate diagnosis in evidence-based medicine.^[49] Its supporters describe Wilson's syndrome as a mix of common and non-specific symptoms which they attribute to low body temperature and impaired conversion of thyroxine (T4) to triiodothyronine (T3), despite normal thyroid function tests. The American Thyroid Association (ATA) says Wilson's syndrome is at odds with established knowledge of thyroid function, has vague diagnostic criteria, and lacks supporting scientific evidence. The ATA further raised concern that the proposed treatments were potentially harmful.^[50]
• Wind turbine syndrome is a proposed connection between adverse health effects and proximity to wind turbines.^[51] Proponents have claimed that these effects include death, cancer, and congenital abnormality. The distribution of recorded events, however, correlates with media coverage of wind farm syndrome itself, and not with the presence or absence of wind farms.^{[52] [53]} Reviews of the scientific literature have consistently found no reason to believe that wind turbines are harmful to health.^[54]

Psychological

• Autogynephilia is a proposed paraphilic disorder in which a man has erotic interest in the idea of himself in the form of a woman. Autogynephilia is not recognized by any major medical organization and has been criticised as a form of medical transphobia.^[55]
• Drapetomania was a supposed mental illness that, in 1851, American physician Samuel A. Cartwright hypothesized as the cause of enslaved Africans fleeing captivity.^[56] This hypothesis centered around the belief that slavery was such an improvement upon the lives of slaves that only those suffering from some form of mental illness would wish to escape.^[57] As treatment Cartwright recommended "whipping the devil out of them" both as a punishment and as a preventative measure.^[58]
• Female hysteria was once a common medical diagnosis for women, which was described as exhibiting a wide array of symptoms, including anxiety, shortness of breath, fainting, nervousness, sexual desire, insomnia, fluid retention, heaviness in the abdomen, irritability, loss of appetite for food or sex, (paradoxically) sexually forward behaviour, and a "tendency to cause trouble for others". It is no longer recognized by medical authorities as a medical disorder.^[59]
• Parental alienation syndrome, also routinely referred to as parental alienation is a proposed mental health disorder in which a child expresses hostility or aversion to a parent as an effect of the manipulation of another parent. Given an absence of research-based support for its existence, parental alienation syndrome is not recognized as a mental health disorder by the American Psychiatric Association, American Psychological Association, American Medical Association or World Health Organization.^{[60] [61] [62] [63] [64]} Despite the fact it is frequently referenced as a defense strategy in family courts where parents, disproportionately fathers, are accused of domestic violence or coercive control, it does not meet the scientific standards demanded by legal tests such as the Frye test and Daubert standard for admissibility in the United States legal system.^{[60] [65]}
• Rapid-onset gender dysphoria is a proposed condition in which someone develops gender dysphoria due to social contagion. The term originates from a 2018 study which surveyed parents of transgender people from anti-transgender internet forums.^{[66] [67]}  While the American Psychological Association and the American Psychiatric Association cosigned a statement with 120 other medical organizations calling for rapid-onset gender dysphoria to not be used in clinical settings,^[68] the term is still used by anti-trans groups.^[69]
• Reward deficiency syndrome^{[70] [71]} (RDS) is a term that has been applied to a wide variety of addictive, obsessive and compulsive behaviors including substance and process addictions, and personality and spectrum disorders.^{[72] [73]} There is no consistent evidence to validate any such syndrome.^[74] "Reward deficiency syndrome" is not a medically recognized disorder.^[75] The diagnostic validity of RDS has not been recognized by the American Psychiatric Association in its diagnostic manual, the DSM.
• Sluggish schizophrenia is a proposed form of slow-onset schizophrenia that political dissenters were institutionalised for in communist countries. It was diagnosed in people with no hallucinations or delusions under the assumption that they would appear later.^[76]
• Stendhal syndrome is a proposed condition in which someone experiences rapid heartbeat, fainting, confusion, and even hallucinations when exposed to works of beauty.^[77]
• Stockholm syndrome is a proposed condition in which a hostage develops an emotional bond with their kidnapper while in captivity.^[78] Stockholm syndrome is a contested diagnosis mostly due to the difficulty in researching it.^[79]

See also

• • List of questionable diagnostic tests
• List of fictional diseases
• Culture-bound syndrome
• Medically unexplained physical symptoms
• Quackery

External links

• Quackwatch: Index to "Fad" Diagnoses
• Science-Based Medicine: Fake diseases, false compassion

Notes and References

1. Web site: Coker . Rory . Distinguishing Science from Pseudoscience . utexas.edu . 26 July 2018.
2. Smith . R. . In search of "non-disease" . BMJ . 324 . 7342 . 2002 . 883–885 . 0959-8138 . 10.1136/bmj.324.7342.883 . 11950739 . 1122831.
3. Berger . M Y . Gieteling . M J . Benninga . M A . Chronic abdominal pain in children . BMJ . 334 . 7601 . 2007 . 997–1002 . 0959-8138 . 10.1136/bmj.39189.465718.BE . 17494020 . 1867894.
4. Shah R, Greenberger PA . 2012 . Unproved and controversial methods and theories in allergy-immunology . Allergy Asthma Proc. . 33 Suppl 1 . 3 . S100–2 . 10.2500/aap.2012.33.3562 . 22794702. Quote: "There is no scientific basis for the existence of this disorder and no conclusive method for diagnosis."
5. Web site: Fatigued by a Fake Disease . . October 28, 2010 . March 12, 2015 . Gavura, Scott.
6. Web site: Adrenal Fatigue: Is It Real? . WebMD . Metcalf, Eric . 2014-03-19.
7. Cadegiani . Flavio A. . Kater . Claudio E. . Adrenal fatigue does not exist: a systematic review . BMC Endocrine Disorders . 24 August 2016 . 16 . 1 . 48 . 10.1186/s12902-016-0128-4 . 1472-6823 . 27557747 . 4997656 . free.
8. News: Lancet journal retracts Andrew Wakefield MMR scare paper . Rose . David . 2010-02-03 . Times Online . https://web.archive.org/web/20110410083057/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/health/article7012267.ece . 2011-04-10 . live.
9. 2010 . 125 . S1–18 . Evaluation, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Gastrointestinal Disorders in Individuals With ASDs: A Consensus Report . Buie T, Campbell DB, Fuchs GJ . . 10.1542/peds.2009-1878C . 20048083 . etal . 10.1.1.692.4329 . 318955.
10. How the case against the MMR vaccine was fixed . Deer B . BMJ . 2011 . 342 . c5347 . 10.1136/bmj.c5347 . 21209059 . free.
11. 2011 . 10.1136/bmj.c7452 . c7452 . 342 . Wakefield's article linking MMR vaccine and autism was fraudulent . Godlee F, Smith J, Marcovitch H . . 21209060 . 43640126.
12. MacDonald TT, Domizio P . Autistic enterocolitis; is it a histopathological entity? . Histopathology . 50 . 3 . 371–9 . 2007 . 10.1111/j.1365-2559.2007.02606.x . 17257133 . 22342418.
13. Jefferson T, Price D, Demicheli V, Bianco E . Unintended events following immunization with MMR: a systematic review . Vaccine . 2003 . 3954–60 . 21 . 25–26 . 12922131 . 10.1016/S0264-410X(03)00271-8.
14. Gerber JS, Offit PA . Vaccines and Autism: A Tale of Shifting Hypotheses . Clin Infect Dis . 48 . 4 . 456–61 . 2009 . 19128068 . 2908388 . 10.1086/596476.
    • 2009-01-30 . Vaccines and Autism: Many Hypotheses, But No Correlation . Infectious Diseases Society of America . https://web.archive.org/web/20110225143641/http://www.idsociety.org/Content.aspx?id=13336 . 2011-02-25.
15. Di Pietrantonj . Carlo . Rivetti . Alessandro . Marchione . Pasquale . Debalini . Maria Grazia . Demicheli . Vittorio . Vaccines for measles, mumps, rubella, and varicella in children . The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews . 22 November 2021 . 2021 . 11 . CD004407 . 10.1002/14651858.CD004407.pub5 . free . 34806766 . 8607336 . 1469-493X.
16. Web site: Candida and Fake Illnesses . Science-Based Medicine . 25 September 2013 . 4 July 2018 . Steven . Novella . Steven Novella.
17. Web site: Stephen Barrett, M.D. . Dubious "Yeast Allergies" . October 8, 2005 . live . https://web.archive.org/web/20080513203124/http://www.quackwatch.org/01QuackeryRelatedTopics/candida.html . May 13, 2008.
18. Anderson . J . Chai . H . Claman . H . Ellis . E . Fink . J . Kaplan . A . Lieberman . P . Pierson . W . Salvaggio . J. Sheffer. A . Candidiasis hypersensitivity syndromeApproved by the executive committee of the American academy of allergy and immunology . Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology . 78 . 2 . 1986 . 271–273 . 0091-6749 . 10.1016/S0091-6749(86)80073-2 . 3734279 . free.
19. A Critical Appraisal of "Chronic Lyme Disease" . . 357 . 14 . 1422–30 . October 2007 . 17914043 . 10.1056/NEJMra072023 . Feder . HM . Johnson . BJB . O'Connell . S . 3 . Shapiro . ED . Steere . AC . Wormser . GP . Ad Hoc International Lyme Disease Group . Agger . WA . Artsob . H.
20. Baker . P. J. . Chronic Lyme disease: in defense of the scientific enterprise . The FASEB Journal . 14 July 2010 . 24 . 11 . 4175–4177 . 10.1096/fj.10-167247 . free . 20631327 . 36141950.
21. Web site: Does Everybody Have Chronic Lyme Disease? Does Anyone? . Hall . Harriet . Harriet Hall . . 3 September 2013.
22. Röösli . Martin . Moser . Mirjana . Baldinini . Yvonne . Meier . Martin . Braun-Fahrländer . Charlotte . Symptoms of ill health ascribed to electromagnetic field exposure – a questionnaire survey . International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health . 207 . 2 . 2004 . 141–150 . 1438-4639 . 10.1078/1438-4639-00269 . 15031956. 2004IJHEH.207..141R .
23. Rubin . G James . Jayati . Das Munshi . Simon . Wessely . Electromagnetic Hypersensitivity: A Systematic Review of Provocation Studies . . 67 . 224–32 . 2005 . 10.1097/01.psy.0000155664.13300.64 . 15784787 . 2 . 10.1.1.543.1328 . 13826364.
24. Web site: Electrosensitives: the new cash cow of the woo industry . 17 November 2007 . Goldacre . Ben . Ben Goldacre . BadScience/The Guardian.
25. Web site: Electromagnetic fields and public health . 17 November 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20071116024800/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs296/en/index.html . 16 November 2007.
26. Web site: Garcia-Roberts . Gus . 2010-07-15 . Is excited delirium killing coked-up, stun-gunned Miamians? . 2021-04-18 . Miami New Times.
27. News: Shock Tactics: Taser inserts itself in probes involving its stun guns . en . 2021-05-08.
28. Book: Kalichman, Seth C. . Denying AIDS: Conspiracy Theories, Pseudoscience, and Human Tragedy . 16 January 2009 . Springer . 978-0-387-79476-1 . 167.
29. Web site: Leaky gut syndrome . 9 April 2013 . . 24 October 2013.
30. Vulink . NC . Delusional Infestation: State of the Art. . Acta Dermato-Venereologica . August 23, 2016 . 96 . 217 . 58–63 . 10.2340/00015555-2412 . 27282746 . free.
31. Halvorson . CR . An approach to the evaluation of delusional infestation. . Cutis . October 2012 . 90 . 4 . E1–4 . 24005827.
32. Shmidt . E . Levitt . J . Dermatologic infestations. . International Journal of Dermatology . February 2012 . 51 . 2 . 131–41 . 22250620 . 10.1111/j.1365-4632.2011.05191.x . 38920288.
33. 10.1371/journal.pone.0029908 . 22295070 . 3266263 . Clinical, Epidemiologic, Histopathologic and Molecular Features of an Unexplained Dermopathy . PLOS ONE . 7 . 1 . e29908 . 2012 . Pearson . Michele L. . Selby . Joseph V. . Katz . Kenneth A. . Cantrell . Virginia . Braden . Christopher R. . Parise . Monica E. . Paddock . Christopher D. . Lewin-Smith . Michael R. . Kalasinsky . Victor F. . Goldstein . Felicia C. . Hightower . Allen W. . Papier . Arthur . Lewis . Brian . Motipara . Sarita . Eberhard . Mark L. . Unexplained Dermopathy Study . Team . 2012PLoSO...729908P . free.
34. News: Under their skin: the Morgellons mystery . . Melissa . Fyfe . 31 July 2015 . 4 July 2018.
35. Web site: Scott . Gavura . 2014-11-06 . Naturopathy vs. Science: Fake Diseases . 2024-05-26 . . en-US.
36. Genuis . Stephen J. . May 2013 . Chemical Sensitivity: Pathophysiology or Pathopsychology? . Clinical Therapeutics . Review . 35 . 5 . 572–577 . 10.1016/j.clinthera.2013.04.003 . 0149-2918 . 23642291.
37. Web site: Gavura . Scott . 3 July 2014 . Multiple Chemical Sensitivity: Separating facts from fiction . 14 December 2019 . . SBM-Gavura.
38. 10.1615/CritRevNeurobiol.v13.i3.30 . 10803638 . Multiple Chemical Sensitivity: Potential Role for Neural Sensitization . Critical Reviews in Neurobiology . 13 . 3 . 283–316 . 1999 . Sorg . Barbara A..
39. Web site: Rope Worms: C'est la Merde . 27 May 2014 . Science-Based Medicine . en-US . 9 January 2019 . Harriet Hall . Harriet Hall.
40. Hawkes . David . Benhamu . Joanne . Sidwell . Tom . Miles . Rhianna . Dunlop . Rachael A. . May 2015 . Revisiting adverse reactions to vaccines: A critical appraisal of Autoimmune Syndrome Induced by Adjuvants (ASIA) . Journal of Autoimmunity . 59 . 77–84 . 10.1016/j.jaut.2015.02.005 . 1095-9157 . 25794485.
41. Ameratunga . Rohan . Gillis . David . Gold . Michael . Linneberg . Allan . Elwood . J. Mark . November 2017 . Evidence Refuting the Existence of autoimmune/Autoinflammatory Syndrome Induced by Adjuvants (ASIA) . The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. In Practice . 5 . 6 . 1551–1555.e1 . 10.1016/j.jaip.2017.06.033 . 2213-2201 . 28888842.
42. Ameratunga . Rohan . Langguth . Daman . Hawkes . David . May 2018 . Perspective: Scientific and ethical concerns pertaining to animal models of autoimmune/autoinflammatory syndrome induced by adjuvants (ASIA) . Autoimmunity Reviews . 17 . 5 . 435–439 . 10.1016/j.autrev.2017.11.033 . 1873-0183 . 29526635.
43. Full of Holes: the curious case of acupuncture . Scientific American . July 2005 . Michael . Shermer . Michael Shermer . 293 . 2 . 30 . 10.1038/scientificamerican0805-30 . 2005SciAm.293b..30S . 16053133.
44. Hilton S, Petticrew M, Hunt K . 'Combined vaccines are like a sudden onslaught to the body's immune system': parental concerns about vaccine 'overload' and 'immune-vulnerability' . Vaccine . 24 . 20 . 4321–7 . 2006 . 16581162 . 10.1016/j.vaccine.2006.03.003.
45. News: Hurst L . Vaccine phobia runs deep . Toronto Star . 2009-10-30 . 2009-11-04.
46. Gerber JS, Offit PA . Vaccines and Autism: A Tale of Shifting Hypotheses . Clin Infect Dis . 48 . 4 . 456–461 . 2009 . 19128068 . 2908388 . 10.1086/596476.
    • 2009-01-30 . Vaccines and Autism: Many Hypotheses, But No Correlation . Infectious Diseases Society of America . https://web.archive.org/web/20110225143641/http://www.idsociety.org/Content.aspx?id=13336 . 2011-02-25.
47. Web site: Chiropractic Vertebral Subluxations: Science vs. Pseudoscience . Science-Based Medicine . 1 October 2010 . 4 July 2018 . Sam . Homola.
48. Homola . Samuel . Real orthopaedic subluxations versus imaginary chiropractic subluxations . Focus on Alternative and Complementary Therapies . 15 . 4 . 2010 . 284–287 . 1465-3753 . 10.1111/j.2042-7166.2010.01053.x.
49. Web site: . Todd . Nippoldt . Is Wilson's syndrome a legitimate ailment? . November 21, 2009 . April 9, 2010 .
50. Web site: Public Health Statement: "Wilson's Syndrome" . 24 May 2005 . American Thyroid Association.
51. The Link between Health Complaints and Wind Turbines: Support for the Nocebo Expectations Hypothesis . Crighton, F. . etal . Frontiers in Public Health . November 2014 . 2 . 220 . 220 . 4227478 . 25426482 . 10.3389/fpubh.2014.00220 . free.
52. Web site: Interview with Simon Chapman . . 20 October 2012.
53. News: Windfarm sickness spreads by word of mouth, Australian study finds . Alison . Rourke . 15 March 2013 . The Guardian.
54. Web site: Professor Simon Chapman . Summary of main conclusions reached in 25 reviews of the research literature on wind farms and health . Sydney University School of Public Health . 10 April 2015 . 4 July 2018.
55. Book: Handbook of psychology and sexual orientation . 2013 . Oxford University Press . Charlotte Patterson . Anthony R. D'Augelli . 978-0-19-976521-8 . New York . 779472218.
56. Book: White, Kevin . An introduction to the sociology of health and illness . 2002 . Sage Publications . 978-1-84787-713-0 . London . 294909186.
57. Brett . David . 1994 . Deirdre McLoughlin, Ulster Museum, Belfast, November-January 1994 . Circa . 67 . 54–55 . 10.2307/25557908 . 25557908 . 0263-9475.
58. Book: Health, disease, and illness: concepts in medicine . 2004 . Georgetown University Press . Arthur L. Caplan . James J. McCartney . Dominic A. Sisti . 1-58901-014-0 . Washington, D.C. . 53020380.
59. Book: Maines, Rachel . The technology of orgasm: "hysteria," the vibrator, and women's sexual satisfaction . 1998 . Johns Hopkins University Press . 0-8018-5941-7 . Baltimore, Md . 39060595.
60. Hoult . JA . 2006 . The Evidentiary Admissibility of Parental Alienation Syndrome: Science, Law, and Policy . Children's Legal Rights Journal . 26 . 1 . 910267.
61. Book: Dallam, SJ . 1999 . St. Charles E . Crook L . Expose: The failure of family courts to protect children from abuse in custody disputes . Our Children Our Children Charitable Foundation . The Parental Alienation Syndrome: Is It Scientific? . http://www.leadershipcouncil.org/1/res/dallam/3.html.
62. Book: Caplan, PJ . Bias in psychiatric diagnosis . Caplan PJ . Cosgrove L . . 2004 . 62 . What is it that's being called Parental Alienation Syndrome . 9780765700018.
63. Book: Comeford, L . Encyclopedia of Gender and Society . O'Brien J . . 2009 . 1 . 285 . Fatherhood Movements . 9781412909167.
64. Web site: APA Statement on Parental Alienation Syndrome . . 1996 . Washington, DC . 2009-03-31.
65. Book: Myers, John E. B. . Myers on evidence in child, domestic, and elder abuse cases . . Gaithersburg, Md . 2005 . 415 . 0-7355-5668-7.
66. Ashley . Florence . July 2020 . A critical commentary on 'rapid-onset gender dysphoria' . The Sociological Review . en . 68 . 4 . 779–799 . 10.1177/0038026120934693 . 221097476 . 0038-0261.
67. Littman . Lisa . 2018 . Parent reports of adolescents and young adults perceived to show signs of a rapid onset of gender dysphoria . PLOS ONE . 13 . 8 . e0202330 . 10.1371/journal.pone.0202330 . 1932-6203 . 6095578 . 30114286 . 2018PLoSO..1302330L . free.
68. Web site: ROGD Statement . 2022-11-06 . Coalition for the Advancement & Application of Psychological Science . en-US.
69. Web site: American College of Pediatricians . 2022-11-06 . Southern Poverty Law Center . en.
70. Web site: Neuroskeptic . 10 June 2015 . The Strange World of "Reward Deficiency Syndrome" (Part 1) . 25 June 2018 . Discover.
71. Web site: Barrett . Stephen . Hall . Harriet . 24 November 2008 . Dubious Genetic Testing . 26 July 2018 . Quackwatch.
72. Web site: When the Thrill is Gone: Reward Deficiency Syndrome .
73. Blum . Kenneth G. . Cull . John R. . Braverman . Eric E. . Comings . David . 1996 . Reward Deficiency Syndrome . American Scientist . 84 . 2 . 132 . 1996AmSci..84..132B.
74. Leyton . Marco . 1 September 2014 . What's deficient in reward deficiency? . Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience . Joule Inc. . 39 . 5 . 291–293 . 10.1503/jpn.140204 . 1180-4882 . 4160357 . 25162147.
75. Web site: Barrett . Stephen . Hall . Harriet . 24 November 2008 . Dubious Genetic Testing . 24 June 2018 . Quackwatch.
76. News: Reich . Walter . 1983-01-30 . THE WORLD OF SOVIET PSYCHIATRY . en-US . The New York Times . 2022-11-06 . 0362-4331.
77. Web site: Scientists investigate Stendhal Syndrome – fainting caused by great art . 2022-11-06 . www.telegraph.co.uk . 28 July 2010.
78. Book: King, David . Six days in August: the story of Stockholm syndrome . 2020 . 978-0-393-63508-9 . New York . W.W. Norton. 1120098936.
79. Web site: The Relationship Between Stockholm Syndrome and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Battered Women - Inquiries Journal . 2022-11-06 . www.inquiriesjournal.com.